Class notes of Semiconductor

Devices

Class -12

Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics]

Asst. Lecturer at SMC, Bharatpur – 10, Chitwan

287 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 Chapter – 22 Semiconductor devices
Semiconductor: (Conductivity = Conductor + Insulator)

Types of semiconductors
I. P-Type semiconductor (Pure semiconductor + Trivalent impurity = P-

Type)

o When Trivalent (3e-) impurities are added or dropped to pure

(intrinsic) semiconductor, P-Type semiconductor is formed.

o In this semiconductor the number of holes is much more than free

electrons. So, holes are the majority charge carriers and Electrons are

minority charge. Trivalent impurities are Gallium, Indium etc.

II. N-Type semiconductor (Pure semiconductor + Pentavalent impurity =

N-Type)

o When pentavalent (5e-) impurities are added or dropped to pure

(intrinsic) semiconductor, N-Type semiconductor is formed.

o In this semiconductor the number of free electrons is much more than

holes. So, Electrons (-ve) are the majority charge carriers and holes

(+ve) are minority. Pentavalent impurities are Antimony, Arsenic etc.

Pentavalent atoms

The atoms which have 5- valance electrons are called pentavalent atoms.

For example: - antimony (Sb – 51), Arsenic (As – 33), nitrogen (N – 7),

phosphorus (P- 15) etc. pentavalent impurity donates free electrons for the

conduction to the semiconductor crystal. So, it is called donor.

Trivalent atoms
The atoms which have 3- valance electrons are called trivalent atoms. For

example: - Indium (In -49), Boron (B -5), Gallium (Ga – 31), Aluminum

(Al -13) etc. Trivalent impurity donates holes for the conduction in the

semiconductor and these holes accept electrons. So, it is called acceptor.

288 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
PN – Junction
When a P-type (1/2) and N-type impurities (1/2) are doped then a single

piece of semiconductor material is formed. The boundary interface

region between P-type and N type is grown within the single

semiconductor. This boundary line of P- type and N-type region is called

PN-junction.

During the formation of PN-junction there appears two phenomena. They

are: -

1. Depletion layer:
The narrow layer formed by recombination of free electrons and mobile

holes at the junction of PN-junction diode is called depletion layer.

o Further, it is formed due to the diffusion of charge carriers such as

holes from P to N region and electrons from N to P region.

o This layer acts as a forbidden gap in semiconductor.

o The thickness of depletion layer is about 10-6 m. The thickness of the

layer depends on the doping level.

1
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 ∝
𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
For heavy doping depletion layer is thin and vice-versa.

289 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 2. Barrier potential / Junction potential
The p.d created across the depletion layer due to immobile charge

carriers is called barrier potential.

o P acquire ‘-ve’ potential by losing holes whereas N acquire ‘+ve’

potential by losing electrons.

o Now if any hole wants to jump from P-side to N-side and electrons

wants to jump from N-side to P-side there required a definite

potential known as potential barrier.

o The value of barrier potential is different according to nature of

matter i.e., p.d of Si = 0.7V, Ge = 0.3V.

o The value of barrier potential depends on the doping level and

temperature. The barrier potential decreases as increase in

doping level and temperature.

PN Junction Diode
When PN- Junction is connected by two electrodes then PN-Junction diode

is formed.

In PN-junction, P-type part is positive electrode (anode) and N-type part

is negative electrode (cathode).

Uses of PN- junction diode

o It is used to conducts current only in one direction.

o It is used as a rectifier device to convert a.c signal to pulsating d.c.

It means the process of the converting AC current into Pulsating

(Mixture of AC & DC Current) DC current.

o Used as a switch in logic circuit in computers.

290 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Biasing of PN – Junction

The process of supplying external potential across P-N junction diode for its

operation using DC source is called biasing of P-N junction. Depending upon

connections of P-N junction diode with the terminals of external DC source,

they are of two types:

1. Forward Biasing:
A PN-junction diode said to be forward biasing if its P- side is connected

to the positive terminal and N- side is connected with negative terminal

of DC source.

During forward biasing the positive

terminals of the battery repels the

holes in P – reagion and negative

terminal of the battery repels the

electron in N – region towards

junction hence:

o The width of deplection layer decreases.

o The barrier potential decreases (𝑉 − 𝑉𝐵 ).
o Diode offers very low resistance. Called forward resistance ‘𝑅𝐹 ’.
o Diode act as a closed switch (as conductor).
o High current flows(order of mA) through the diode due to majority
charge carriers.

2. Reverse biasing:
A diode said to be Reverse biasing if its P-

side is connected to the negative

terminal and N- side is connected with

positive terminal of DC source.

During reverse biasing the negative

291 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 terminals of the battery attracts the holes in P – reagion and positive

terminal of the battery attracts the electron in N – region away from the

junction hence;

o The width of deplection layer increases.

o The barrier potential increases (𝑉 + 𝑉𝐵 ).
o Diode offers very high resistance.
o Diode act as a open switch
o Very low current flows through the diode due to minority charge
carriers.

Characteristics of diode (IV-Characteristics)

A graph which shows the variation of current (I) flowing through a PN

junction diode with voltage (V) applied across it is called IV –

characteristics.

It is also called voltage current characteristics. It is of two types, they are:

I) Forward biasing Characteristics.

II) Reverse biasing Characteristics.

I. Forward biasing Characteristics

It is the graph which shows the variation of forward current with forward

bias voltage. Practically no current will flow until the barrier potential is

overcome.

o Fig. shows circuit diagram for obtaining forward characteristics of

a diode. Voltage across the diode ‘VF’

(forward diode) is increased slowly in

equal steps of corresponding forward

current ‘IF’ through the diode are

noted from ammeter (in mA range) to draw the V-I characteristics.

292 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 o In graph when forward voltage (VF) is

increased from Zero, the current

increases very slowly and non-linearly up

to certain value called Knee voltage (VK)

which is equal to barrier voltage (VB).

o If forward voltage ‘VF’ is increased beyond knee voltage ‘VK’ current

increases rapidly and linearly even for small increase in forward

voltage ‘VF’.

II. Reverse biasing Characteristics

It is the graph which shows the variation of reverse current with reverse

bias voltage.

o Fig shows circuit diagram for obtaining

reverse characteristics of a diode. Voltage

across the diode (VR) is increased slowly in

equal steps and corresponding

renversement (IR) through the circuit is measured from ammeter (in

μA range) to draw V-I characteristics.

o In the graph when reverse voltage ‘VR’ is

increased from Zero, the reverse current ‘IR’

rises slowly up-to certain value of barrier

voltage ‘VR’ called breakdown voltage ‘VB’

and this small reversed current is

negligible, called leakage voltage or reverse saturation current.

293 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 o If reversed voltage is increased slightly beyond reverse breakdown

voltage ‘VRBV’. Then large number of current flows through diode then

diode gets damaged.

Rectification (Function: - AC- into Pulsating DC)

A device which is used to convert AC current into DC (pulsating) is called

rectifier and the process of conversion is called rectification.

o When P-N junction is forward bias it offers low resistance hence current

will flow through it.

o In reverse biasing has a high resistance and no current will flow.

This property of P-N junction used for rectifier. There are two rectifiers,

1. Half wave rectifier

2. Full wave rectifier

1. Half wave rectifier

A rectifier that converts only half cycle of AC input into DC output is

called Half Wave Rectifier. It consists of

a transformer, a diode and a load

resistance RL. The input AC voltage ‘Vin’

is taken from secondary coil of

transformer ang output is taken from

‘RL’ as shown in figure.

Working

➢ During the positive half cycle of a.c input point ‘A’ become positive

terminal and ‘B’ become negative terminal so, junction diode acts as

forward biasing. Hence output voltage is produce across load resistance.

294 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 ➢ During negative half cycle of a.c input point A become negative and B

become positive. So, the junction diode acts as reverse biasing and it also

acts as switch off. Hence, no output voltage is produced across the load

resistance.

➢ This process is repeated for other half cycle. The input and output voltage

are shown as in fig. below. Which is pulsating DC.

2. Full wave rectifier: -

The device which is used to convert full cycle of AC current into DC known

as full wave rectifier it is of two types: -

a) Central trapped rectifier

b) Bridge Rectifier

a) Central trapped rectifier: -

The circuit diagram of full wave rectifier is shown in figure below in

which the AC is applied across the primary coil of transformer and

secondary coil is connected to the diodes D1 and D2 the load resistor RL is

centrally trapped from the middle of secondary coil.

295 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Working: -

During positive half cycle ‘M’ is positive and ‘N’ is negative so diode,

D1 = forward (Conduct Current) &

D2 = Reverse (Doesn’t conduct current)

Hence, current flow in load resistance through D1

During negative half cycle ‘M’ is negative and ‘N’ is positive then diode

D2 = forward (Conduct Current) &

D1 = Reverse (Doesn’t conduct current)

Hence, current flow in load resistance through D2

The wave form of input and output voltage is shown in the graph.

b) Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is a rectifier which convert full cycle of AC in to DC. It

consists of four diodes D1, D2, D3, & D4 in form of Wheatstone bridge. The AC

input is applied across the primary coil of transformer and the end of

secondary coil are connected to the two opposite ends A and C of

Wheatstone bridge. Network and load resistance RL is connected across

two remaining ends B and D is shown in figure below.

Working
During positive half cycle ‘M’ is positive and ‘N’ is negative so diodes

D1 & D3 = forward (Conduct Current)

296 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 D2 & D4= Reverse (Doesn’t conduct current)

Hence, current flow in load resistance through M, A, D1, B, RL, D, D3, C, N

During negative half cycle ‘M’ is negative and ‘N’ is positive then diodes

D2 & D4= forward (Conduct Current)

D1 & D3 = Reverse (Doesn’t conduct current)

Hence, The Current flow through N, C, D4, B, RL, D, D2, A, M

In this way in both cycle unidirectional current flow through load

resistance so bridge rectifier acts as a full wave rectifier.

The wave function of input and output voltage in case of bridge rectifier

is shown in figure above.

Logic Gates:
➢ The logic gate is the electronic circuit which gives the logic decisions. It is

used in digital electronics. (IC-Chip) – gives Analog to digital output

signal. Only two states are in digital signal

1. 0-state, it gives low value or no voltage.

2. 1 – state, it gives high value or high voltage.

➢ There are three basic logic gates, OR, AND & NOT gates furthermore NAND

& NOR gates are compound gates. Each logic gate is characterized either

by an input/output table known as the truth table or by a certain

equation known as the Boolean equation. Table shows the input/output

possibilities of a given logic gate.

Boolean Equation: -

➢ Simple logic can be expressed through certain mathematical operations

based on binary algebra and the equations are known as Boolean

equations.

❖ Simple representation

a. AND Gate

➢ It gives high output when all of the inputs are high.

297 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 ➢ The AND gate is a device that has two or more inputs and one output.
➢ In Boolean Algebra, Y=A.B, implies that Y equals A and B.

A B Y=A.B

0 0
0
1 0
0
0 0
1
1 1
1

b. OR Gate: -

It gives high output when any one of input is high.

A B Y=A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

c. NOT Gate: -

It gives output which is not of input.

i.e., High (1) input gives low (0) output and low (0) input gives high (1)

output.

A Y=𝑨
̅

0 1

1 0

d. NAND Gate: -

Combination of AND gate + NOT gate = NAND gate.

298 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 If any one of the inputs is low, then output is high. If both input is high,

then output is low.

A B A.B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

e. NOR Gate: -

Combination of OR gate + NOT gate = NOR gate.

If both input is low, then output is high otherwise output is low.

A B A+B Y=𝑨
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+𝑩

0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0

❖ NAND gate as universal gate.

i. NAND gate as NOT gate

ii. NAND gate as AND gate

299 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 iii. NAND gate as OR gate

iv. NAND gate as NOR gate

❖ NOR gate as a universal gate.

i. NOT gate from NOR gate

ii. OR gate from NOR gate

iii. AND gate from NOR gate

300 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
 iv. NAND gate from NOR gate.

THE END

MCQs + Numerical
Question 1.
Bonds in a semiconductor:
(a) trivalent (b) covalent (c) bivalent (d)
monovalent

Answer: (b) covalent

Question 2.
Number of electrons in the valence shell of a semiconductor is:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

Answer: (d) 4
Question 3.
Semiconductors of both p-type and n-type are produced by:
(a) ionic solids (b) covalent solids (c) metallic solids (d) molecular
solids

Answer: (b) covalent solids

Question 4.
With fall of temperature, the forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) sometimes increases and sometimes decreases (d) remains
unchanged

Answer: (d) remains unchanged

301 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Question 5.
In a p-type semiconductor, current conduction is by:
(a) atoms (b) holes (c) electrons (d) protons

Answer: (b) holes

Question 6.
The relation between number of free electrons (n) in a semiconductor and
temperature (T) is given by:
(a) n ∝ T (b) n ∝ T² (c) n ∝ T1/2 (d) n ∝ T3/2

Answer: (d) n ∝ T3/2

Question 7. In reverse biasing:
(a) large number of current flows (b) no current flows
(c) potential barrier across junction increases (d) depletion layer
resistance increases

Answer: (c) potential barrier across junction increases

Question 8.
Main function of a transistor is to:
(a) rectify (b) simplify (c) amplify (d) all the above

Answer: (c) amplify

Question 9.
To obtain p-type silicon semiconductor, we need to dope pure silicon with:
(a) aluminum (b) phosphorus (c) oxygen (d)germanium

Answer: (a) aluminum

Question 10.
On applying reverse bias to a junction diode, it:
(a) lowers the potential barrier (b) raise the potential barrier
(c) increases the majority carrier current (d) increases the minority
carrier current

Answer: (b) raise the potential barrier

302 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Question 11.
For germanium crystal, the forbidden energy gap in joules
(a) 1.216 × 10-19 (b) 1.76 × 10-19
(c) 1.6 × 10-19 (d) zero

Answer: (a) 1.216 × 10-19

Question 12.
To obtain electrons as majority charge carriers in a semiconductor the
impurity mixed is:
(a) monovalent (b) divalent (c) trivalent (d)
pentavalent

Answer: (b) divalent

Question 13.
In the middle of the depletion layer of a reverse biased p-n junction, the:
(a) electric field is zero (b) potential is maximum
(c) electric field is maximum (d) potential zero.

Answer: (d) potential zero.

Question 14.
In a common base amplifier the phase difference between the input signal
voltage and output voltage is:
(a) π/2 (b) 0 (c) π/4 (d) π

Answer: (b) 0
Question 15.
Energy bands in solids are a consequence of:
(a) Ohm’s Law (b) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(c) Bohr’s theory (d) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Answer: (b) Pauli’s exclusion principle

Question 16.
In semi-conductor which are responsible for conduction:
(a) only electron (b) electron and hole both
(c) only hole (d) None of these

Answer: (b) electron and hole both

303 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Question 17.
In binary system III represents:
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 100

Answer: (b) 3
Question 18.
On heating, resistance of semiconductors:
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) remains same (d) first increases then
decreases

Answer: (a) decreases

Question 19.
p-n junction diode can be used as:
(a) amplifier (b) oscillator (c) detector (d) modulator

Answer: (c) detector

Question 20.
In intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature, the number of electrons and
holes are:
(a) equal (b) unequal (c) infinite (d) zero

Answer: (a) equal

Question 22.
In full wave rectifier, input a.c current has a frequency v. The output frequency
of current is:
(a) V/2 (b) V (c) 2V (d) None

Answer: (c) 2V
Question 23.
Winch of the following gate is not a universal gate?
(a) OR (b) NOT (c) AND (d) NAND Answer: (d) NAND

Question 24.
Zener diode is used for:
(a) producing oscillations in an oscillator (b) amplification
(c) stabilization (d) rectification

304 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]
Answer: (c) stabilization
Question 25.
In semi-conductor, at room temperature:
(a) the valence bond is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled
(b) the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially
filled
(c) the valence band is completely filled
(d) the conduction band is completely empty

Answer: (a) the valence bond is partially empty and the conduction band is
partially filled
Question 26.
Crystal diode is:
(a) amplifying device (b) fluctuating device (c) non-linear device
(d) linear device

Answer: (c) non-linear device

Question 27.
The part of a transistor which is heavily doped to produce a large number of
majority carriers is:
(a) base (b) emitter (c) collector (d) None of these Answer: (b)
emitter

Question 28.
A p-type semiconductor is:
(a) negatively charged (b) positively charged (c) uncharged
(d) None of these
Answer: (c) uncharged
Question 29.
The material most commonly used to manufacture electronic solid-state
devices is:
(a) copper (b) silicon (c) germanium (d) aluminum Answer: (b)
silicon

‘The end’

305 | Lecture Note by: Ganesh Paudel [M.Sc. Physics], Email – [email protected]