Applications of ferrous and

non-ferrous alloys

Module IV

1
FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys—those in which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type.

William Callister
2
STEELS
• Steels are iron–carbon alloys with varying concentrations of
other alloying elements.
• There are thousands of steel alloys with different compositions
and heat treatments.
• Mechanical properties are influenced by the carbon content,
typically less than 1.0 wt%.
• Common steels are classified into low-, medium-, and
high-carbon types based on carbon concentration.
• Subclasses within each group exist, differentiated by the
concentration of other alloying elements.
• Plain carbon steels have residual impurities and a small amount
of manganese.
• Alloy steels intentionally contain additional alloying elements in
specific concentrations.
3
LOW-CARBON STEELS
Plain-low carbon steels
• Most widely produced steels fall within the low-carbon classification.
• Low-carbon steels typically have less than about 0.25 wt% carbon.
• They are unresponsive to heat treatments for martensite formation, relying on
cold work for strengthening.
• Microstructures of low-carbon steels consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
• These alloys are relatively soft and weak but exhibit outstanding ductility and
toughness.
• They are machinable, weldable, and the least expensive to produce among all
steels.
• Common applications include automobile body components, structural shapes
(I-beams, channel, and angle iron), and sheets used in pipelines, buildings,
bridges, and tin cans.
• They typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa tensile strengths between 415 4
and 550 MPa, and a ductility of 25%EL.
LOW-CARBON STEELS …
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels.

• Another category of low-carbon alloys is the high-strength, low-alloy

(HSLA) steels.
• HSLA steels contain alloying elements like copper, vanadium, nickel, and
molybdenum.
• Alloy concentrations can be as high as 10 wt%, resulting in higher
strengths compared to plain low-carbon steels.
• Most HSLA steels can be strengthened through heat treatment, achieving
tensile strengths exceeding 480 MPa (70,000 psi).
• These alloys are ductile, formable, and machinable.

5
LOW-CARBON STEELS -COMPOSITION

6
LOW-CARBON STEELS -STRENGTH

7
MEDIUM-CARBON STEELS
• Medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations ranging from about 0.25
to 0.60 wt%.
• Heat treatment involves austenitizing, quenching, and tempering to enhance
mechanical properties.
• Microstructures of tempered martensite are typical in the tempered condition.
• Plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities, limiting successful heat
treatment to thin sections with rapid quenching rates.
• Chromium, nickel, and molybdenum additions improve heat-treatability,
resulting in various strength–ductility combinations.
• Heat-treated medium-carbon alloys are stronger than low-carbon steels but
may sacrifice ductility and toughness.
• Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, machine
parts, and high-strength structural components requiring a balance of high
strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
8
MEDIUM-CARBON
STEELS
COMPOSITION

9
AISI/SAE/ASTM SPECIFICATION OF STEELS
• Alloyed medium-carbon steels and their compositions are detailed in the table
on the previous slide.
• Designation schemes for these steels involve the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), and the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
• The AISI/SAE designation is a four-digit number: the first two digits indicate
alloy content, and the last two denote carbon concentration.
• Plain carbon steels have initial digits 1 and 0, while alloy steels use other
two-digit combinations (e.g., 13, 41, 43).
• The third and fourth digits represent the weight per cent carbon multiplied by
100.
• For instance, a 1060 steel is a plain carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C.
10
HIGH-CARBON STEELS…
• High-carbon steels typically have carbon contents ranging between 0.60 and 1.4
wt%.
• They are the hardest, strongest, and least ductile among carbon steels.
• High-carbon steels are commonly used in a hardened and tempered condition,
offering exceptional wear resistance and a sharp cutting edge.
• Tool and die steels, falling into the high-carbon category, often contain chromium,
vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
• Alloying elements combine with carbon to form hard and wear-resistant carbide
compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, WC).
• The following table lists some tool steel compositions and their applications.
• Tool steels find use in cutting tools, dies for forming and shaping materials,
knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.
11
HIGH-CARBON STEELS

12
HIGH-CARBON STEELS: TOOL STEELS

13
 STAINLESS STEELS
• Stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion, particularly in diverse environments like the ambient
atmosphere. Chromium is the main alloying element, requiring a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr.
Nickel and molybdenum additions can enhance corrosion resistance.
• Stainless steels are categorized into three classes based on the predominant microstructure phase:
martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic. Table (next slide) provides details on various stainless steels.
• Martensitic stainless steels can be heat-treated to have martensite as the primary microconstituent.
Alloying elements in significant concentrations alter the iron–iron carbide phase diagram.
• Austenitic stainless steels extend the austenite phase field to room temperature and are not
heat-treatable. Austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion-resistant due to high chromium and
nickel contents.
• Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the 𝛼-ferrite (BCC) phase and are also not heat-treatable.
• Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; austenitic stainless steels are not.
• Some stainless steels are used at elevated temperatures and in severe environments, resisting
oxidation and maintaining mechanical integrity. Applications include gas turbines, high-temperature
steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power–generating units.
• Specific austenitic steels, like 316L, are used in biomedical applications for temporary orthopaedic
devices.
14
• The following Table also includes ultra-high-strength stainless steel (17-4PH) with exceptional
FERRITIC AND
AUSTENITIC
STAINLESS STEELS

15
MARTENSITIC AND PRECIPITATION HARDENABLE
STAINLESS STEELS

16
 DUPLEX
1.STEELS…
Introduction to Duplex Steels:
I. Definition: Duplex steels are a type of stainless steel with a two-phase microstructure consisting
of both austenitic (face-centred cubic) and ferritic (body-centred cubic) phases.
II. Composition: Typically composed of 22-26% chromium, 4.5-6.5% nickel, 3-4% molybdenum,
and 0.1-0.3% nitrogen.
2. Microstructure:
I. Dual Phases: Austenitic and ferritic phases coexist, providing a combination of properties from
both structures.
II. Benefits: Enhanced strength, corrosion resistance, and toughness compared to single-phase
stainless steels.
3. Key Properties:
I. Corrosion Resistance:
i. Resistant to general and localized corrosion.
ii. Suitable for aggressive environments like marine and chemical processing.
II. Mechanical Properties:
i. Higher strength than austenitic and ferritic stainless steels.
ii. Good toughness and ductility.
III. Weldability:
i. Generally good weldability, but attention to heat input is important.
ii. Precipitation of harmful phases may occur if not properly controlled.
17
DUPLEX STEELS
4. Application:
I. Oil and Gas Industry:
i. Used in offshore platforms for corrosion resistance and strength.
ii. Pipelines and components exposed to aggressive environments.
II. Chemical Processing:
i. Chemical reactors and vessels handling corrosive substances.
ii. Pumps, valves, and fittings.
III. Desalination Plants:
i. Corrosion-resistant material for seawater applications.
ii. Used in heat exchangers and piping systems.
5. Challenges and Considerations:
I. Phase Instability:
i. Care is required during fabrication and welding to avoid detrimental phase
transformations.
II. Cost Considerations:
i. Generally more expensive than conventional stainless steel.
ii. Economic viability depends on the specific application.

18
 CAST
1. Generic Definition:
IRONS…
• Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%.
• Most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and other alloying elements.
2. Melting and Casting:
• Alloys within the composition range of 3.0-4.5 wt% C become completely liquid at
temperatures between 1150°C and 1300°C.
• Lower melting temperatures than steels make cast irons easily melted and suitable for
casting.
3. Brittleness and Fabrication:
• Some cast irons are very brittle.
• Casting is the most convenient fabrication technique due to the brittleness of certain
cast-iron types.
4. Cementite Decomposition:
• Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound.
• Under certain conditions, it can decompose to form 𝛼-ferrite and graphite.

5. Equilibrium Diagram:
• The true equilibrium diagram for iron and carbon is represented in the figure next slide.
• Extends to 100 wt% C, with graphite as the carbon-rich phase, unlike cementite at 6.7 19
wt% C.
CAST IRONS…

20
CAST IRONS…
6. Graphite Formation:
• Regulated by composition and cooling rate.
• Presence of silicon in concentrations greater than about 1
wt% promotes graphite formation.
• Slower cooling rates during solidification favour the
formation of graphite.
7. Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior:
• For most cast irons, carbon exists as graphite.
• Microstructure and mechanical behaviour depend on
composition and heat treatment.
8. Common Cast Iron Types:
• Gray cast iron
• Nodular cast iron
• White cast iron
• Malleable cast iron
• Compacted graphite cast iron

21
 GREY CAST IRONS…
1. Carbon and Silicon Contents:
I. Carbon contents: Vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt%.
II. Silicon contents: Typically range between 1.0 and 3.0 wt%.
2. Graphite Form and Microstructure:
I. Graphite exists in the form of flakes, resembling corn flakes.
II. Typically surrounded by an 𝛼-ferrite or pearlite matrix.
III. Microstructure depicted in the figure.
3. Fractured Surface and Appearance:
I. Fractured surface appears grey due to the presence of graphite flakes.
II. The graphite flakes have sharp and pointed tips, potentially causing stress
concentration in external tensile stress applications.
4. Mechanical Properties:
I. Comparatively weak and brittle in tension.
II. Higher strength and ductility under compressive loads.
III. Table 11.5 provides typical mechanical properties and compositions of
common grey cast irons.

22
GREY CAST IRONS
5. Applications and Characteristics:
I. Effective in damping vibrational energy, making them suitable
for structures exposed to vibrations.
II. High resistance to wear.
III. High fluidity in the molten state allows for casting intricate
shapes with low shrinkage.
IV. Cost-effective and among the least expensive metallic materials.
6. Microstructure Modification:
I. Adjusting composition and/or using appropriate treatment can
generate microstructures different from the typical one.
II. Lowering silicon content or increasing cooling rate may alter
microstructure, with graphite flakes embedded in a pearlite
matrix.

23
GREY CAST IRONS
Optical photomicrographs
Of various cast irons.
(a) Gray iron: the dark graphite
flakes are embedded in an α-ferrite
matrix. 500×.
(b) Nodular (ductile) iron: the dark
graphite nodules are surrounded by
an α-ferrite matrix.200×.
(c) White iron: the light
cementite regions are surrounded
by pearlite, which has the
ferrite–cementite layered structure.
400×.
(d) Malleable iron: dark graphite
rosettes (temper carbon) in an
α-ferrite matrix. 150×.
(e) Compacted graphite iron: dark
graphite wormlike
particles are embedded within
an α-ferrite matrix. 100×.
24
 DUCTILE (OR NODULAR)
1.IRON
Microstructure Modification:
I. Addition of a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to grey iron before casting.
II. Results in a different microstructure and set of mechanical properties.
2. Graphite Formation:
I. Graphite forms as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes.
3. Alloy Name:
I. Alloy produced is known as ductile or nodular iron.
4. Microstructure Characteristics:
I. Matrix phase surrounding particles is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat treatment.
II. Typically pearlite for as-cast pieces, but heat treatment at about 700°C (1300°F) yields a
ferrite matrix.
5. Strength and Ductility:
I. Castings are stronger and much more ductile compared to grey iron.
II. Mechanical properties approach those of steel.
III. Tensile strengths range between 380 and 480 MPa (55,000 and 70,000 psi).
IV. Ductilities (percent elongation) range from 10% to 20%.
6. Applications:
I. Used in various applications such as valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other
automotive and machine components.

25
 WHITE CAST IRON
1. Composition Characteristics:
• Low-silicon cast irons (< 1.0 wt% Si) with rapid cooling rates.
2. Carbon Existence and Microstructure:
• Most carbon exists as cementite.
• Fracture surface appears white, termed "white cast iron."
3. Sectional Variation:
• Thick sections may have a surface layer of white iron, while interior regions cool more slowly, forming
grey iron.
4. Mechanical Properties:
• Extremely hard due to significant cementite.
• Virtually unmachinable and very brittle.
5. Applications:
• Limited use for very hard and wear-resistant surfaces.
• Commonly found in applications like rollers in rolling mills.
6. Use in Production:
• Often used as an intermediary in the production of malleable iron.
7. Photomicrograph:
• Figure 11.3c illustrates the optical photomicrograph of white iron.
8. Relation to Malleable Iron:
Serves as a precursor in the production of malleable iron.
26
 MALLEABLE CAST IRON
1. Malleable Iron Production:
• Heating white iron at 800-900°C (1470-1650°F) for an extended time in a neutral atmosphere
decomposes cementite.
• Graphite forms in clusters or rosettes, surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix
2. Microstructure and Photomicrograph:
• Ferritic malleable iron microstructure resembles nodular iron.
• Offers high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability.
• Photomicrograph displayed in Figure.
3. Mechanical Characteristics:
• Table lists typical mechanical characteristics.
• Relatively high strength and ductility.
4. Applications:
• Used in automotive components like connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential
cases.
• Also employed in heavy-duty applications such as flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for
railroad and marine services.
5. Production Comparison:
• Grey and ductile cast irons are produced in similar amounts.
• White and malleable cast irons produced in smaller quantities. 27
 COMPACTED GRAPHITE
1.IRON…
Introduction to Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI):
• Relatively recent addition to the cast iron family, abbreviated as CGI.
• Carbon exists as graphite, promoted by silicon (1.7-3.0 wt%) with carbon
concentration between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%.
2. Microstructure:
• Graphite in CGI alloys has a wormlike shape, intermediate between grey iron
and ductile iron.
• Some graphite may exist as nodules (<20%) to avoid sharp edges, detrimental to
fracture and fatigue resistance.
3. Additives:
• Magnesium and/or cerium are added in lower concentrations compared to
ductile iron.
• Complex chemistries controlled for desired microstructure.
4. Matrix Phase and Heat Treatment:
28
COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON
5. Mechanical Properties:
• Strength and ductility linked to microstructure and graphite particle shape.
• Degree of nodularity influences strength and ductility enhancements.
• CGIs with ferritic matrices have lower strengths but higher ductilities.
6. Comparisons with Other Cast Irons:
• Tensile and yield strengths comparable to ductile and malleable irons, greater than
higher-strength grey irons.
• Ductilities intermediate between grey and ductile irons.
• Moduli of elasticity range between 140 and 165 GPa.
7. Desirable Characteristics of CGIs:
• Higher thermal conductivity.
• Better resistance to thermal shock.
• Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures.
8. Applications:
• Used in diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed
trains, and flywheels. 29
30
31
32
 UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (UNS) FOR
1.STEEL:
Definition:
• The Unified Numbering System (UNS) is a system developed by ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials) and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) to
uniquely identify and classify metals and alloys.
2. Format:
• UNS designation for steel typically consists of a letter prefix followed by a series of
numbers.
• The letter prefix indicates the major category or alloy group, while the numeric code
provides specific details about the steel composition.
3. Letter Prefixes:
• Letter "A": Indicates a ferrous material (iron-based).
• Letter "G": Represents AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) and SAE carbon and
alloy steels.
• Letter "S": Refers to stainless steel.
• Other letters may be used for specific alloy groups.
4. Numeric Code:
• The numeric code following the letter prefix provides detailed information about the
steel composition.
• For carbon and alloy steels (prefix "G"), the first two digits represent the major
alloying elements or, in some cases, carbon content.
5. Example:
• UNS G10450 represents a carbon steel (G) with approximately 0.45% carbon 33
UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (UNS) FOR STEEL:
6. Special Codes:
• Additional letters and numbers may be added to the UNS designation to
specify certain details such as heat treatment, product form, or variations in
chemical composition.
7. Standardization:
• UNS provides a standardized way of identifying steels, ensuring consistency
in communication and specification across industries globally.
8. Application:
• Used in various industries including construction, automotive, aerospace, and
manufacturing.
• Facilitates accurate material identification for design, manufacturing, and
quality control purposes.
Understanding the UNS designation for steel is crucial for professionals in the
materials and manufacturing industries to ensure proper material selection and
compatibility.

34
 COPPER AND ITS
• ALLOYS…
Historical Significance: Copper and its alloys have been utilised across diverse
applications since ancient times due to their unique physical properties.
• Properties of Unalloyed Copper: Softness and ductility hinder machining but enable
extensive cold working; high corrosion resistance in environments like seawater and
industrial settings.
• Improvement through Alloying: Alloying enhances mechanical and corrosion-resistance
properties; heat treatments don't harden most copper alloys, necessitating cold working or
solid-solution alloying.
• Brasses – Common Copper Alloys: Predominantly zinc-based, exhibit various phases
based on zinc content; 𝛼 phase (up to 35 wt% Zn) is soft and ductile, while higher zinc
content introduces the harder 𝛽′ phase.
• Types of Brasses and Uses: Yellow, naval, cartridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal;
applications span costume jewellery, cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical
instruments, electronics, and coins.
• Bronzes – Copper Alloys with Other Elements: Alloyed with tin, aluminium, silicon, and
nickel for improved strength and corrosion resistance; ideal when both properties are
crucial.
• Heat-Treatable Copper Alloys – Beryllium Coppers: Exceptional tensile strengths (up to
1400 MPa), excellent electrical properties, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance with35
proper lubrication; achieved through precipitation-hardening heat treatments, albeit at a
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS…
Brass
∙The Copper-Zinc binary phase diagram (brass) is
another example of a complex phase diagram which
shows many invariant reactions.
∙Two common alloy compositions are shown,
Cartridge brass Cu-30 wt % Zn,
Muntz metal (green) Cu-40 wt % Zn.

36
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS…

Bronze compositions vary widely based on the specific

application and desired properties. However, some
common bronze compositions include:
• Copper: Typically forms the majority of the alloy, often
comprising around 80-95% of the bronze composition.
• Tin: The addition of tin, usually in the range of 5-20%,
is a defining characteristic of bronze. Higher tin content
tends to increase hardness and strength.
• Other Alloying Elements: Depending on the desired
properties, other elements like aluminum, silicon,
nickel, or phosphorus might be added in smaller
quantities (usually less than 5%) to modify
characteristics such as strength, corrosion resistance,
and machinability.

37
Bronze Artwork Brass Artifacts

Bronze typically contains tin as a primary alloying element,

which can be costlier than zinc, the primary alloying
element in brass. Additionally, other elements used in
bronze, such as aluminum or nickel, might affect the cost
compared to brass compositions.

38
Compositions, Mechanical
Properties, and Typical
Applications for Eight
Copper Alloys

39
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS…
1. Aluminum Characteristics:
• Low density compared to steel (2.7 g/cm³ vs. 7.9 g/cm³)
• High electrical and thermal conductivities
• Resistance to corrosion in various environments, including ambient atmosphere
• High ductility, evidenced by thin aluminium foil production
2. Ductility and Crystal Structure:
• Maintains ductility due to FCC crystal structure even at low temperatures
• Limitation: Low melting temperature (660°C or 1220°F) restricts use at high temperatures
3. Enhancing Mechanical Strength:
• Strength enhancement through cold work and alloying
• Trade-off: Strength enhancement may decrease corrosion resistance
• Principal alloying elements: copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, zinc
4. Alloy Classification and Designation:
• Classification as cast or wrought aluminium alloys
• Four-digit numbering system indicates impurities and purity levels
• Decimal point for cast alloys; hyphen followed by temper designation (e.g., F, H, O)
• Table 11.7 presents the temper designation scheme

40
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS…
5. Properties, Compositions, and Applications:
• Table 11.8 details compositions, properties, and applications of various wrought
and cast aluminium alloys
• Applications include aircraft structural parts, beverage cans, bus bodies,
automotive components
6. Aluminum Alloys for Fuel Efficiency:
• Attention towards aluminium, magnesium, and titanium alloys for transportation to
reduce fuel consumption
• Specific strength: Tensile strength–specific gravity ratio; enables load
sustainability despite lower tensile strength
7. Advancements: Aluminum-Lithium Alloys:
• New generation alloys developed for aircraft/aerospace industries
• Low densities (2.5-2.6 g/cm³), high specific moduli, excellent fatigue and
low-temperature toughness
• Precipitation hardening is possible but more costly due to lithium's reactivity,
requiring special processing techniques

41
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS…

42
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS…

43
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS…

44
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
1. Magnesium's Key Characteristics:
• Lowest density among structural metals (1.7 g/cm³), ideal for weight-sensitive applications like
aircraft components
• HCP crystal structure, relatively soft, with a low elastic modulus (45 GPa)
2. Deformation and Fabrication Challenges:
• Difficult to deform at room temperature; limited cold work possible without annealing
• Fabrication primarily through casting or hot working (200°C - 350°C or 400°F - 650°F)
• Moderately low melting temperature (651°C or 1204°F)
3. Corrosion and Chemical Properties:
• Relatively unstable, susceptible to corrosion in marine environments
• Reasonable resistance to corrosion or oxidation in normal atmospheric conditions due to
impurities
4. Classification and Alloying Elements:
• Classified as cast or wrought, some heat-treatable
• Major alloying elements: aluminum, zinc, manganese, rare earth
5. Common Magnesium Alloys:
• Table 11.9 details the compositions, properties, and applications of several magnesium alloys
• Usage in aircraft, missile applications, luggage, and various industries
6. Increasing Demand and Applications:
• Recent surge in demand across diverse industries
• Replacing engineering plastics due to stiffness, recyclability, and lower production costs
• Applications in handheld devices, automobiles (steering wheels, transmission cases), audio-video
45
equipment, and communication devices.
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

46
 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
•Titanium's Unique Properties:
• Low density (4.5 g/cm³), high melting point (1668°C or 3035°F), elastic modulus of 107 GPa.
Titanium alloys exhibit exceptional strength (up to 1400 MPa), yielding remarkable specific
strengths
• High ductility, easy forging, and machining capabilities
•Crystal Structure and Alloy Phases:
• Unalloyed titanium: Hexagonal close-packed (𝛼 phase) at room temperature; transforms to
body-centred cubic (𝛽 phase) at 883°C (1621°F)
• Alloying elements like vanadium, niobium, and molybdenum influence phase stability and
transformation temperatures
•Titanium Alloy Classifications:
• 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛼 + 𝛽, and near-𝛼 alloys based on the dominant phase(s) after processing
•Characteristics of Alloy Types:
• 𝛼-titanium alloys (alloyed with aluminium and tin) preferred for high-temperature applications,
limited forgeability
• 𝛽-titanium alloys exhibit high forgeability and high fracture toughness, retaining the 𝛽 phase at room
temperature
•𝛼 + 𝛽 and Near-𝛼 Alloys:
• 𝛼 + 𝛽 alloys allow for improved strength through heat treatment, diverse microstructures, and good
formability
• Near-𝛼 alloys have limited 𝛽 content but similar properties to 𝛼 alloys with a broader range of 47
microstructures
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

48
CERAMICS…
Ceramics are a class of materials characterized by their inorganic nature and a combination
of metallic and non-metallic elements. In contrast to metals, ceramics exhibit a significant
disparity in physical characteristics, leading to distinct applications. This diversity in properties
allows ceramics to complement other materials, such as metals and polymers, in various
industrial and technological applications.
The application–classification scheme for ceramic materials encompasses several groups,
each with unique properties and uses:
1. Glasses: Amorphous solids with a random atomic arrangement, glasses are transparent
and often used in windows, containers, and optical devices.
2. Structural Clay Products: This group includes bricks, tiles, and other clay-based
materials used for construction purposes due to their strength and durability.
3. Whitewares: These are ceramics with a white or light-colored appearance, such as
porcelain and fine China, commonly used for decorative and functional purposes.
4. Refractories: Heat-resistant ceramics are employed in high-temperature applications like
furnaces, kilns, and industrial processes.

49
 CERAMICS…
5. Abrasives: Ceramics are used as abrasive materials for cutting, grinding, and polishing
applications due to their hardness and wear resistance.
6. Cements: Ceramic materials that, when mixed with water, form a solid mass, widely utilized in
construction for bonding and structural purposes.
7. Ceramic Biomaterials: Ceramics designed for medical applications, including dental implants
and bone substitutes, due to their biocompatibility and resistance to corrosion.
8. Carbons: Carbon-based ceramics with unique properties, often used in electronic components,
high-temperature applications, and as structural materials.
9. Advanced Ceramics: Newly developed ceramics with enhanced properties, such as high
strength, toughness, and thermal resistance, expanding their applications in cutting-edge
technologies.

50
CERAMICS: GLASSES
Glasses, a well-recognized subset of ceramics, find widespread use in everyday items such as
containers, lenses, and fibreglass. These materials, characterized as noncrystalline silicates,
incorporate various oxides, including CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which play a significant role in
determining the properties of glass. A standard soda–lime glass, for example, comprises
approximately 70 wt% SiO2, with the remaining portion primarily constituted by Na2O (soda) and CaO
(lime). The standout features of these materials include their optical transparency and the notable ease
with which they can be shaped and processed.

51
GLASS –
CERAMICS…
• Inorganic glasses can transform from a noncrystalline state to a crystalline state through
high-temperature heat treatment, a process known as crystallization.
• This results in the formation of fine-grained polycrystalline materials referred to as glass-ceramics. The
formation of these grains involves nucleation and growth stages, and the kinetics of crystallization can
be described using principles similar to those applied to phase transformations in metal systems.
• The degree of transformation can be expressed with isothermal and continuous-cooling
transformation diagrams. Figure 13.2 illustrates a continuous-cooling transformation diagram for the
crystallization of lunar glass, showing similarities to eutectoid composition curves for iron–carbon
alloys.
• Nucleating agents, often containing titanium dioxide, are added to promote crystallization, causing
shifts in transformation curves to shorter times. Additionally, a critical cooling rate is identified, below
which glass-ceramic material forms.

52
GLASS – CERAMICS…

53
 GLASS CERAMICS-Properties and
1.Applications
Glass-Ceramic Characteristics:
• High mechanical strengths, low thermal expansion, good high-temperature
capabilities, suitable dielectric properties, biologically compatible, varied
transparency (opaque or transparent)
2. Ease of Fabrication:
• Conventional glass-forming techniques, mass production of nearly pore-free
ware
3. Commercial Trade Names:
• Pyroceram, CorningWare, Cercor, Vision
4. Common Uses:
• Ovenware, tableware, oven windows, range tops, electrical insulators,
substrates for printed circuit boards, architectural cladding, heat exchangers
and regenerators
5. Included in Table 13.1:
1. Typical glass-ceramic composition details

54
CLAY PRODUCTS
1. Clay as a Widely Used Ceramic Raw Material:
• Abundant and inexpensive, clay is a commonly used ceramic raw material.
• Often used in its natural state without quality upgrades.
2. Ease of Forming Clay Products:
• Clay, when mixed with water in proper proportions, forms a plastic mass, making it highly moldable.
3. Processing Steps:
Formed pieces are dried to reduce moisture. Elevated-temperature firing enhances mechanical strength.
4. Broad Classifications of Clay Products:
1. Structural Clay Products:
• Examples: Building bricks, tiles, sewer pipes.
• Emphasizes structural integrity in applications.
2. Whiteware Ceramics:
• Become white after high-temperature firing.
• Examples: Porcelain, pottery, tableware, china, plumbing fixtures (sanitary ware).
6. Composition and Influences:
Many clay-based products contain nonplastic ingredients influencing drying, firing processes, and final
characteristics. Clays are aluminosilicates composed of alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) that contain
chemically bound water. They have a broad range of physical characteristics, chemical compositions,
and structures; common impurities include compounds (usually oxides) of barium, calcium, sodium,
potassium, iron, and also some organic matter. Crystal structures for clay minerals are relatively
complicated; however, one prevailing characteristic is a layered structure. The most common clay
minerals that are of interest have what is called the kaolinite structure [Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4].
55
REFRACTORIES
Clay Refractories: Subclassified into two categories- fireclay and high-alumina.
1. Fireclay Refractories:
Primary ingredients: High-purity fireclays with alumina and silica mixtures (25-45 wt% alumina).
According to the SiO2–Al2O3 phase diagram (Figure 12.25), the highest temperature without a
liquid phase is 1587°C (2890°F). Mullite and silica (cristobalite) are equilibrium phases below this
temperature.
The presence of a small amount of liquid phase during service use is permissible without
compromising mechanical integrity. Above 1587°C, the fraction of the liquid phase depends on
refractory composition.
Higher alumina content increases maximum service temperature, allowing for a small amount of
liquid formation.
2. High-Alumina Refractories:
Principal ingredient: Bauxite, a mineral composed of aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 and kaolinite
clays.
Alumina content varies between 50 and 87.5 wt%. More robust at high temperatures compared to
fireclay refractories. Suited for exposure to more severe environments.

56
 SUPERALLOYS…
Definition: Superalloys are a group of high-performance materials designed for extreme
temperature, pressure, and corrosive environments.
Key Characteristics
1.Heat Resistance: Maintain strength at high temperatures, often above 1000°C.
2.Corrosion Resistance: Excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
3.Strength and Durability: Exceptional mechanical strength and durability even in harsh
conditions.
4.Versatility: Widely used in aerospace, gas turbine engines, chemical processing, and nuclear
reactors.
5.Composition: Base Metals- Nickel, cobalt, or iron-based. Alloying Elements- Chromium,
aluminium, titanium, and others for enhanced properties.

57
SUPERALLOYS…
6. Applications
• Aerospace Industry: Jet engines, turbine blades, and other high-temperature components.
• Energy Sector: Gas turbine power plants, nuclear reactors.
• Chemical Processing: Corrosion-resistant components for aggressive environments.
• Medical Devices: Biocompatible alloys for medical implants.
7. Examples
• Inconel: Used in aircraft components and gas turbine engines.
• Hastelloy: Resistant to corrosion and used in chemical processing.
• Waspaloy: High-temperature applications, such as turbine blades.
8. Challenges
• Cost: High manufacturing costs due to complex alloy compositions and processing.
• Processing Difficulty: Challenges in casting and forming due to high melting points.

58
SUPERALLOYS

59
 SHAPE-MEMORY ALLOYS
(SMAS)…
1. Definition: A group of metals, including nickel-titanium alloys (Nitinol), exhibiting shape-memory
phenomena.
2. Shape-Memory Effect:
• Deforms at low temperatures.
• Returns to original shape upon proper heat treatment.
• Common alloys: Nitinol, Cu–Zn–Al, Cu–Al–Ni.
3. Polymorphic Nature:
• Two crystal structures (austenite and martensite) involved in the shape-memory effect.
• Deformation occurs through the migration of twin boundaries.
4. Deformation Process:
• Deformation at martensite phase, retention of shape when stress is removed.
• Subsequent heating reverts material to its original size and shape.

60
SHAPE-MEMORY ALLOYS
(SMAS)…
6. Transformation Temperatures:
• Martensite-to-austenite transformation occurs between As (austenite start) and Af
(austenite finish) temperatures.
• Transformation cycle is repeatable.
7. Thermoelastic Property:
• Deformation is nonpermanent; termed thermoelastic.
• Heat treatment restores the original shape.
8. Applications:
• Aerospace (hydraulic lines, joints on pipelines, plumbing on ships and submarines).
• Other applications include eyeglass frames, tooth-straightening braces, collapsible
antennas, greenhouse window openers, anti-scald control valves, women's foundation
garments, fire sprinkler valves, and biomedical devices.
9. Versatility:
• Can vary transformation temperatures by adjusting Ni–Ti ratio and adding other elements.
• Falls under the category of "smart materials" due to sensing and responding to
61
temperature changes.
SHAPE-MEMORY
ALLOYS
(SMAS)…

62
NANOMATERIALS…
1. Definition:
• Recently discovered carbon materials with unique properties.
• Crucial in cutting-edge technologies and anticipated to have a significant role in future
high-tech applications.
2. Three Key Nanocarbons:
• Fullerenes: Hollow carbon molecules.
• Carbon Nanotubes: Tubular structures.
• Graphene: Single-layer carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
3. Nano Scale:
• Particle size is less than about 100 nanometers.
4. Bonding Structure:
• Carbon atoms within each nanoparticle bonded through hybrid sp2 orbitals.
5. Applications:
• Actively used in cutting-edge technologies.
• Expected to play a vital role in future high-tech applications.
These nanocarbons exhibit exceptional properties, making them versatile and promising materials in
various scientific and technological advancements.

63
 NANOMATERIALS- FULLERINES…
1. Discovery: One type of fullerene, was discovered in 1985. Consists of a hollow spherical cluster of 60 carbon
atoms, denoted as C60.
2. Structural Configuration:
• Carbon atoms form hexagonal and pentagonal geometrical configurations.
• The C60 molecule has 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons, resembling the symmetry of a soccer ball.
• Material composed of C60 molecules is known as buckminsterfullerene or buckyball.
3. Solid State Arrangement:
• In the solid state, C60 units form a crystalline structure in a face-centred cubic array.
• This material is called fullerite.
4. Endohedral and Exohedral Fullerenes:
• Endohedral Fullerenes: Atoms or groups of atoms encapsulated within the carbon cage.
• Exohedral Fullerenes: Atoms, ions, or clusters of atoms attached to the outside of the fullerene shell.
5. Applications:
• Antioxidants: Used in personal care products.
• Biopharmaceuticals: Unique chemical and biological characteristics.
• Catalysts: Applied in various chemical processes.
• Organic Solar Cells: Utilized in renewable energy.
• Long-life Batteries: Potential for enhanced battery performance.
• High-temperature Superconductors: Advancements in superconductivity.
• Molecular Magnets: Development of advanced magnetic materials.
64
NANOMATERIALS

65
 NANOMATERIALS- CARBON NANOTUBE
1. Structure:
• Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) consists of a single graphene sheet rolled into a tube.
• Multiple-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have concentric cylinders.
2. Dimensions:
• Each nanotube is a single molecule composed of millions of atoms.
• Length is much greater (thousands of times) than its diameter.
3. Mechanical Properties:
• Extremely strong and stiff, relatively ductile.
• Tensile strengths range between 13 and 53 GPa (orders of magnitude greater than carbon
fibres).
• Elastic modulus values around 1 TPa, with fracture strains between 5% and 20%.
• Relatively low densities.
66
NANOMATERIALS- CARBON NANOTUBE
4. Applications:
I. Structural Applications:
• Potential use in structural applications due to high strength.
• Current applications are limited to bulk nanotubes in nanocomposites to enhance
mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties.
II. Electrical Characteristics:
• Metal or semiconductor behaviour based on hexagonal unit orientation.
• Potential use in wiring for circuits (metal state) or transistors and diodes (semiconductor
state).
• Excellent electric field emitters for flat-screen displays.
III. Other Potential Applications:
• More efficient solar cells.
• Better capacitors as battery replacements.
• Heat removal applications.
• Cancer treatments (target and destroy cancer cells).
• Biomaterial applications (e.g., artificial skin, monitoring engineered tissues).
• Body armor.
• Municipal water-treatment plants (more efficient removal of pollutants and
contaminants). 67
 NANOMATERIALS- GRAPHENE…
1. Structure:
• Single atomic layer of graphite.
• Composed of hexagonally sp2 bonded carbon atoms.
2. Production:
• Initially produced by peeling apart layers of graphite using plastic adhesive tape.
• Other cost-effective processes developed for high-quality graphene production.
3. Exceptional Characteristics:
• Perfect order with no atomic defects.
• Extremely pure with only carbon atoms.
• Unbonded electrons move much faster than in ordinary metals and semiconductors.
4. Properties:
• Strength: Strongest known material (~130 GPa).
• Thermal Conductivity: Best thermal conductor (~5000 W/m ·K).
• Electrical Conductivity: Lowest electrical resistivity (10−8 Ω·m), best electrical conductor.
• Transparency: Transparent.
• Chemical Inertness: Chemically inert.
• Modulus of Elasticity: Comparable to other nanocarbons (~1 TPa).

68
NANOMATERIALS- GRAPHENE
4. Potential Applications:
I. Electronics:
• Touch screens, conductive ink for electronic printing, transparent conductors,
transistors, and heat sinks.
II. Energy:
• Polymer solar cells, catalysts in fuel cells, battery electrodes, supercapacitors.
III. Medicine/Biotechnology:
• Artificial muscle, enzyme and DNA biosensors, photoimaging.
IV. Aeronautics:
• Chemical sensors (for explosives), and nanocomposites for aircraft structural
components.
5. Technological Potential:
• Enormous potential to revolutionize industries, including electronics, energy,
transportation, medicine/biotechnology, and aeronautics.
7. Challenges:
• Economical and reliable methods for mass production are needed before the full
realization of its potential.

69
BIOMATERIALS…
1. Introduction: Biomaterials are substances engineered to interact with biological systems,
tissues, or organisms, often for medical purposes.
2. Types of Biomaterials:
I. Metallic Biomaterials:
i. Examples: Titanium, stainless steel.
ii. Applications: Orthopaedic implants, dental devices.
II. Polymeric Biomaterials:
i. Examples: Polyethylene, silicone.
ii. Applications: Artificial organs, and drug delivery systems.
III. Ceramic Biomaterials:
i. Examples: Hydroxyapatite, alumina.
ii. Applications: Dental implants, bone grafts.
IV. Composite Biomaterials:
i. Combinations of metals, polymers, and ceramics.
ii. Applications: Joint replacements, tissue engineering scaffolds.

70
BIOMATERIALS
4. Properties of Biomaterials:
I. Biocompatibility: Ability to coexist with living tissues without causing adverse reactions.
II. Mechanical Properties: Tailored to match the mechanical characteristics of natural tissues.
III. Bioactivity: Ability to stimulate specific cellular responses for tissue regeneration.
IV. Degradation Rate: Controlled degradation for temporary implants.
5. Applications:
I. Medical Devices: Implants, prosthetics, pacemakers.
II. Tissue Engineering: Scaffold materials for growing new tissues.
III. Drug Delivery Systems: Controlled release of pharmaceuticals.
IV. Dental Applications: Fillings, crowns, implants.
6. Challenges and Future Trends:
I. Biocompatibility Enhancement: Ongoing research to improve compatibility.
II. Nanotechnology Integration: Nanoscale biomaterials for targeted therapies.
III. 3D Printing Technology: Precision in fabricating complex biomaterial structures.

71
 OPTICAL
FIBERS…
1. Introduction:
Optical fibers are thin, flexible, transparent strands of glass or plastic used for transmitting light signals over
long distances.
2. Structure of Optical Fibers:
I. Core: Innermost part through which light travels. Composed of high-refractive-index glass or plastic.
II. Cladding: Surrounds the core, designed with a lower refractive index. Facilitates light reflection within
the core.
III. Buffer Coating: Outermost layer for protection. Enhances durability and flexibility.
3. Principles of Light Transmission:
I. Total Internal Reflection: Light reflects off the core-cladding interface. Ensures minimal signal loss during
transmission.
II. Modulation: Encoding data into light signals by varying intensity or frequency. Common modulation
techniques: amplitude modulation, and frequency modulation.
4. Types of Optical Fibers:
I. Single-Mode Fibers: Small core diameter, allows only one mode of light. Ideal for long-distance
communication.
II. Multi-Mode Fibers: Larger core diameter, permits multiple modes of light. Suitable for shorter-distance
communication.
III. Plastic Optical Fibers (POF): Made of plastic materials. Used for short-distance data transmission.
72
OPTICAL FIBERS
5. Applications:
I. Telecommunications: Backbone networks, internet connections.
II. Data Transmission: Local area networks (LANs), high-speed internet.
III. Medical Imaging: Endoscopy, imaging devices.
IV. Sensors: Temperature, pressure, and strain sensors.
V. Broadcasting: Cable television, satellite communication.
6. Advantages of Optical Fibers:
I. High Bandwidth: Supports large data transmission capacities.
II. Low Signal Loss: Minimal attenuation over long distances.
III. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Unaffected by electrical noise.
IV. Secure Communication: Difficult to tap or intercept.
7. Future Trends:
I. Fiber Optic Internet Expansion: Wider deployment for faster internet connections.
II. 5G Networks: Integral for high-speed, low-latency communication.
III. Fiber Optic Sensing Technologies: Advancements in applications like structural health monitoring

73