Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya Engineering College

104BS-Semiconductor Physics
New Syllabus-2024

For B.V.M Autonomous Students

Dr. Sandip Unadkat

2024, B.V.M. Engineering College

Table of Contents

Table of Contents iii

1 Electronic materials 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Conduction in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2.1 Properties of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.3 Electron Theory of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3.1 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 Success of Free Electron Theory of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4.1 Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4.2 Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals . . . . 5

1.5 Energy bands in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.5.1 Formation of Energy bands in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.5.2 Band Structure in Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6 Energy Bands in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6.1 Valence Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6.2 Forbidden Energy Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.6.3 Conduction Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7 Classification of Solids into Metal, Semiconductors and Insulators on

the basis of Band Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7.1 Types of Electronic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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1.8 Some basic Information about Band Theory of Solids . . . . . . . . . 11

1.8.1 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.8.2 Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.9 Kronig - Penny Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.9.1 E - k Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.10 Direct and Indirect Band gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.10.1 Direct Band Gap Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.10.2 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.11 Phonon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.12 Fermi Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.12.1 Occupation Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1.13 Density of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.13.1 derivation to determine the Number of available states . . . . 32

1.13.2 Carrier Concentration nc in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.14 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 43

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.2 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.2.1 Properties of Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3 Types of Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.1 Elemental and Compound Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.5 Carrier Concentration in an Intrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.5.1 Expression for Density of electrons in conduction band. . . . . 49

2.5.2 Expression for Density of Holes in the Valence Band. . . . . . 52

2.6 Fermi level and its variation with Temperature in Intrinsic Semiconductor 55

2.6.1 Dependence of EF on Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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2.7 Law of Mass Action for Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.8 Mobility and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.9 Determination of Band Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.10 Extrinsic Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.10.2 n -type Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.10.3 p - type Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.11 Expression for carrier concentration in n - type semiconductor . . . . 65

2.11.1 Expression for carrier concentration (Density)of electrons in the

conduction band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2.12 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and impurity concentration

in n -type semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.13 Expression for Carrier Concentration in p - type Semiconductor . . . 71

2.13.1 Expression for Carrier Concentration (Density)of Holes in the

Valence band for p - type semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

2.14 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and Impurity Concentration

in p - type Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2.15 Variation of Carrier Concentration with Temperature in Extrinsic Semi-

conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2.16 Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.17 P - N junction Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.18 Biasing of the P-N Junction Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.18.1 Zero Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.18.2 Forward Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.18.3 Reverse Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

2.19 Voltage - Current (V-I)characteristic of Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

2.20 Photovoltaic Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

2.20.1 Photovoltaic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

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2.21 Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

2.21.1 Working of Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

2.21.2 Applications of Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

2.21.3 Merits and Demerits of Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

2.22 Drift and Diffusion Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2.22.1 Drift Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2.22.2 Diffusion Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.22.3 Einstein’s Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

2.23 Metal - Semiconductor Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

2.24 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

3 Laser 107

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.2 Characteristic of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.3 Einstein’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

3.3.1 Relation between Einstein’s Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

3.3.2 Ratio of Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission rates . . . . . 113

3.4 Basic Concepts in Laser Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.4.1 Principle of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.5 Nd:YAG Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

3.6 Applications of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2 )Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

3.8 Ruby Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

3.9 Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.9.2 Recording or Construction of Hologram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.9.3 Reconstruction of Hologram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

3.10 Lasers in Material Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

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3.10.1 Laser instrumentation for Material Processing . . . . . . . . . 132

3.10.2 Lasers in Microelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.10.3 Laser Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.10.4 Laser Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

3.10.5 Laser Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3.11 Fermi’s Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

3.12 Exciton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

3.13 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4 Measurement Techniques 153

4.1 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4.2 UV - VIS Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

4.3 Hot - Probe Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

4.4 Four Probe Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

4.5 Four Probe Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

4.6 Capacitance - Voltage (C-V) Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

4.6.1 Advantage of C - V Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

5 Crystal Physics 173

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

5.2 Classification of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

5.2.1 Crystalline Solids (Crystals) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

5.2.2 Amorphous Solid (Non-Crystalline Solids) . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5.2.3 Difference between crystalline and non-crystalline materials . . 175

5.3 Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5.3.1 Fundamental crystallographic terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

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5.4 The Crystal System and Bravais Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

5.4.1 Crystal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

5.4.2 Bravais Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

5.5 Space Lattice of Cubic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.6 Miller Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.6.1 Procedure for finding Miller Indices

OR
Steps in the determination of Miller Indices . . . . . . . . . . 191

5.7 Crystal Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

5.7.1 Few Crystal Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

5.8 Relation between Interplaner distance and Cubic Edge . . . . . . . . 200

5.9 Crystal Structure of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

5.9.1 Number of atoms per unit cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

5.9.2 Co-ordination Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

5.9.3 Relation between Atomic radius and Lattice Constant . . . . . 208

5.10 Atomic Packing Factor of the Cubic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

5.11 Relation between Lattice Constant and Density . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5.12 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

6 Quantum Physics 227

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

6.2 Wave and Particle Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

6.3 de-Broglie’s Hypothesis for Matter Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6.4 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6.5 properties of Matter Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6.6 Davisson and Germer’s Electron Diffraction Experiment . . . . . . . . 234

6.6.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6.6.2 Experimental Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

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6.6.3 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.6.4 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.7 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.8 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

A Units of Measurements and Converastion Tables 249

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Chapter No 1

Electronic materials

1.1 Introduction

Conducting materials are defined on the basis of their electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity. Metal and alloys are good conductor of heat and electricity. Non - metals like
glass, rubber, wood etc... are poor conducting materials. Liquid and Gases are in
general very poor in conducting heat and electricity.

In general, a conducting material contains large number of free electrons or mobile

charge carriers. The electrons are free to move in the lattice and does not belong to
a particular atom. Only valence electrons in the atom are said to have this degree
of freedom. It is the valence electron which are responsible for the both, electrical
and heat conduction in metals. Consequently, there is also a relation between the
electrical and thermal conductivity of metal. Which is also supported by both, theory
and experiment.

1.2 Conduction in Metals

1.2.1 Properties of Metal

⇒ Metals have high electrical and thermal conductivity.

⇒ In steady state, metal obey Ohm’s Law.

I∝E

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⇒ The current in steady state is directly proportional to the electric field.

⇒ Resistivity above the Debye’s Temperature is proportional to the absolute

temperature.
ρ∝T

⇒ At low temperature, resistivity of metal is proportional to the fifth power of

absolute temperature.
ρ ∝ T5

⇒ For most of the metals, resistivity is inversely proportional to the pressure.

1
ρ∝
P

⇒ Above Debye’stemperature, the ratio of Thermal conductivity and Electrical

conductivity is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. Which is
known as Wiedemann - Franz Law.

k
∝T
σ

Where, k is the Thermal Conductivity and σ is Electrical Conductivity.

⇒ At absolute zero, the resistivity tends to zero and specimen exhibits the phe-
nomenon of Superconductivity.

⇒ The conductivity of the specimen varies in the presence of magnetic field. This
effect is called Magneto Resistance.

1.3 Electron Theory of Metals

The study of valence electrons present in a band which controls the various properties
of metal is known as Electron Theory of Metals.

Electron Theories are of three types.

⇒ Classical Free Electron Theory (Drude - Lorentz Theory)

⇒ Quantum Free Electron Theory. (Sommerfield Theory)

⇒ Band Theory or Zone Theory of Solids.

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1.3.1 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metal

This theory was first given by Drude in 1900 and Later in 1909 modified by Lorentz.
Hence collectively this theory is known as Drude - LorentzTheory. This is the first
ever theoretical model which successfully explains the most of the properties of metals.
In this theory, free electrons are treated like the gas molecules in gas and Maxwell -
Boltzmann statistic is applied.

Main Assumptions of this Theory are;

⇒ A metal is composed of positive metal ions fixed in the lattice.

⇒ All the valence electrons are free to move among the ionic array.

⇒ Such freely moving electrons contribute towards conduction in metal.

⇒ There are large number of free electrons in a metal and they move about the
whole volume like the molecules of a gas.

⇒ The free electron collide with the positive ions in the lattice and among them-
selves.

⇒ All collisions are elastic, means there is no loss of energy.

⇒ The electrostatic force of attraction between free electron and the metallic ions
are neglected.

⇒ The total energy of free electron is equal to its kinetic energy.

⇒ All the free electrons in metals have wide rage of energies and velocities.

⇒ In absence of electric field, the random motion of free electron is equally probable
in all the directions. So the net current flow is zero.

⇒ When electric field is applied as shown in below figure 1.1 the electron gain a
velocity called drift velocity (νd )and moves in the opposite direction to the field,
resulting in a current flow in the direction of field.

Drift Velocity (νd )

The drift velocity is the average velocity acquired by an electron on applying an

electric field.

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Figure 1.1: Conduction of Electrons in Metal

Relaxation Time (τ )

Definition :1 It is defined as the time required for the drift velocity to reduce (1/e)
times its initial value, just when the field is switched off.

Definition :2 It is defined as the time taken by free electron to reach its equilibrium
position from its disturbed position, just when fields is switched off.

After electron suffers a collision, it takes some time for an electron to acquire equilibrium
state. That time is called Relaxation Time (τ )

Mean Collision Time (τc )

The average time between two consecutive collisions of an electron with the positive
lattice ion points is called Mean Collision Time.

Mean Free Path (λ)

It is the average distance traveled by the conduction electron between successive

collisions with lattice ions.

1.4 Success of Free Electron Theory of Metal

1.4.1 Success

⇒ It varifies Ohm’s Law.

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⇒ It explains the Thermal and Electrical conductivities of metals.

⇒ It is used to deduce Wiedemann - Franz law.

⇒ It explains the optical properties of metals.

1.4.2 Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

⇒ Classical Free Electron Theory states that all free electrons absorbs the supplied
energy.

⇒ But quantum theory states that only few electron absorbs the supplied energy.

⇒ The electrical conductivity of semiconductor and insulator can not be explained

by this Classical Free Electron Theory.

⇒ The Concepts of Photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and Black Body radiation
can not be explained on the basis of this theory.

⇒ The susceptibility of Para-magnetic material is inversly proportional to the

temperature according to classical theory.

1
χ=
T

⇒ But experimental results shows that Para-magnetism of a metal is independent

of temperature.

⇒ Moreover, Ferro-magnetism can also not be explained by this theory.

⇒ The Theoretical value of specific heat of metal do not agree with the experimen-
tally obtained values.
Specific Heat: Specific Heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to
raise the temperature by one degree Celsius.

⇒ Classical Free Electron Theory fails to explain Superconductivity Phenomenon.

⇒ In Classical Free Electron Theory it is assumed that electrons are completely

free, but in actual they aren’t completely free.

⇒ They interact with the lattice, among themselves and with impurities.

⇒ According to Classical Free Electron Theory σkT = L(Constant) at all tempera-

ture, but this is not constant at lower temperature.

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⇒ The failure of Classical Free Electron Theory was due to the assumption that
the electron follows Maxwell -Boltzmann distribution of energies and velocities.

⇒ but in reality the electrons have spin half integer and they found to follow Fermi
- Dirac Statistics

1.5 Energy bands in Solids

1.5.1 Formation of Energy bands in Solids

In the case of single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit as shown in figure 1.2
have definite energy, as a result they occupy discrete energy levels, as shown in figure
1.3(a).

Figure 1.2: The energy levels of Single isolated atom

The Pauli’s exclusion principle allows each energy level to contain only two electrons.
For example the 2S energy level with two electrons and 2P level contains 3 energy
levels with two electrons in each level thus, with a total of six electrons as shown in
figure 1.3 (a).

1.5.2 Band Structure in Solid

Let us consider the formation of bands in solid Sodium (Na).

The single energy level of an isolated sodium (z = 11) has an electronic configuration
as
z = 11 → 1S 2 2S 2 2P 6 3S 1

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Figure 1.3: The energy levels broaden into energy bands

When an another Sodium (Na) atom is brought close to it, the electrons will be
subjected to the effect of an additional field. As a result, each energy level splits in to
two as shown in figure 1.3(b). Similarly, when three atoms come close together, the
original level splits into three levels and so on.

More generally, when a solid is formed by bringing N atoms together, the Pauli’s
principle still demands that only two electrons can occupy a same energy level. Hence,
in a solid the different split energy levels of electrons come together to form continuous
bands of energies as shown in figure 1.3 (c).

Consequently, the 2S band in a solid sodium contain N discrete energy levels and 2N
electrons, two in each energy level. Similarly, each of the 2P level contains N energy
levels and 2N electrons. Hence, a broad 2P band will contain 3N energy levels and
6N electrons since the three 2P bands overlap.

Hence in general, each energy band has a total of N individual levels and each energy
band can hold maximum of 2(2l + 1)N electrons.

[Each energy level can hold 2(2l + 1) electrons, 2 corresponds to the electrospin and
(2l + 1) corresponds to the orientation of the electron orbital angular momentum].

The result is that, electrons in any orbit of atom within a solid can have a ranges
of energies rather than a single value. Thus, the range of energies possessed by an
electron in a solid is known as Energy Band. Each energy level of an isolated atom

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becomes a band in a solid as shown in figure 1.3(c).

In general, it is the outermost energy levels that are mostly affected whereas, the
innermost levels barely suffers any splitting during the formation of a band.

1.6 Energy Bands in Solids

As explained in the case of solid sodium, the discrete energy levels of an atom becomes
band during the formation of solid due to the influence of the constituent atoms. Each
band consists of a large number of energy levels which corresponds to a range of energy
values. The energies within the bands depend on the spacing between the atoms.

The highest occupied band is called the Valence band, below which all the lower bands
are fully occupied. Valence band may even be partially filled. in the case of Sodium,
the 3S energy level are the valence band which is partially filled.

The empty band which is immediately above the valence band is called the Conduction
band. In the case of Sodium atom the empty 3P energy level which are separated from
the 3S band by an energy gap is the conduction band.

The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called the Forbidden
band or Energy Gap.

Hence, following are the important energy bands in the solids.

⇒ Valence Band

⇒ Forbidden Band or Energy Gap

⇒ Conduction Band

1.6.1 Valence Band

The band of energies occupied by the valence electrons is called as valence band.

The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electron. In a
normal atom valence band possess the electrons of higher energy. This band may be
completely or partially filled. electrons can be moved from the valence band to the
conduction band by the application of external energy.

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1.6.2 Forbidden Energy Gap

The gap between the valence band and the conduction band on the energy level
diagram is known as Forbidden band or energy gap. Electrons are never found in this
gap. Electrons may jump back and forth from the top of the valence band to the
bottom of the conduction band. But they never come to rest in the forbidden band.

1.6.3 Conduction Band

The band of energies occupied by conduction electron is known as conduction band.

This is the uppermost band, all electrons in the conduction band are free electrons.
The conduction band is empty for insulators and partially filled for conductors.

1.7 Classification of Solids into Metal, Semicon-

ductors and Insulators on the basis of Band
Theory

1.7.1 Types of Electronic Materials

According to the band structure the electronic materials are classified in to below
given three categories.

⇒ Metal (Conductors)

⇒ Semiconductor

⇒ Insulator

1.7.1.1 Metals

⇒ Metals are also considered as a conductors.

⇒ Conductors are characterized by high electrical conductivity.

⇒ These are the solids in which plenty of free electrons are available for electrical
conduction. e.g. Silver, Copper, Gold, Iron, Aluminum etc...

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Figure 1.4: Schematic representation of band structure of solids

⇒ In general, the resistivity of conductor lie in the range of 10−9 Ω m at room

temperature.

⇒ In a conductor the conduction band and the valence band overlap each other as
shown in figure 1.4(a)

⇒ so that the electrons can readily pass in to the conduction band, i.e., the electrons
can readily move under the influence of applied field. for

⇒ For conductors the energy gap is of the order of 0.01 eV .

1.7.1.2 Semiconductors

⇒ These are the solids whose electrical properties lie between those of conductor
and insulators, e.g. Germanium and Silicon.

⇒ The resistivity of semiconductor lies in between 10−4 Ω m to 103 Ω m at room

temperature.

⇒ In terms of energy bands, semiconductor can defined as those materials which

have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
very narrow energy separating the two bands ≈ 1 eV

⇒ At low temperature, the valence band of the semiconductor is completely filled

and conduction band is completely empty.

⇒ Therefore, semiconductor virtually behaves like an insulator at low temperature.

⇒ However, at room temperature some electrons cross over to the conduction band
giving the conductivity to the semiconductors.

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⇒ As temperature increases more valence electrons cross over to the conduction

band and conductivity increases.

⇒ This shows the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase

of temperature.

⇒ i.e. Semiconductor have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity.

⇒ The energy gap for germanium is 0.7 eV and for Silicon 1.1 eV .

1.7.1.3 Insulators

⇒ In an insulator the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is
very large ≈ 5 eV or more as shown in figure 1.4 (c).

⇒ Therefore, a very high energy is required to push the electrons to the conduction
band.

⇒ For these reasons the electrical conductivity of the insulator is extremely small
and mat be regarded as nil under ordinary conditions ( Room temperature).

⇒ The resistivity of insulator lies in between 103 Ωm to 1017 Ωm at room tempera-

ture.

⇒ At room temperature, the valence electrons of the insulator do not have the
enough energy cross over to the conduction band.

⇒ However, when the temperature is raised some of the valence electrons gain
enough energy to cross the conduction band.

⇒ Hence , the resistance of the insulator decreases with increase of temperature.

⇒ i.e. an Insulator also has a negative temperature coefficient of resistivity.

⇒ For an insulator such as Diamond the forbidden gap is ≈ 6 eV and for Glass
≈ 10 eV

1.8 Some basic Information about Band Theory of

Solids

⇒ The classical free electron theory could not explain the specific heat capacity,
electronic specific heat etc..

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⇒ But they are well explained using Quantum free electron Theory.

⇒ On the other hand, quantum free electron theory fails to explain the distinction
among the metals, semiconductors and insulators, the positive value of Hall
Effect and some of the transport properties.

⇒ All the above failures were overcome by the energy band theory of solids.

⇒ The band theory of solids is used to explain the band structure and the electrical
properties of solids.

⇒ The outcome of Quantum Mechanics, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and Bohr’s

atomic model are result in the band theory of solids.

⇒ The statistics that mainly used to derive the velocity and energy distribution of
particles, is of three types namely

1. Maxwell - Boltzmann Statistics

2. Bose - Einstein Statistics

3. Fermi - Dirac Statistics

Maxwell - Boltzmann Statistics

Maxwell–Boltzmann (M–B) statistics is used to describe particles that are identical

and treated as distinguishable. This statistics deal with the particles having no spin.
e.g. Gaseous Particles.

Bose - Einstein’s Statistics

The Bose–Einstein statistics applies only to the particles that do not obey the Pauli
exclusion principle.
Such particles have integer values of spin and are named bosons
This Statistic explains the particles like Photon having an integral spin Boson.
For both B–E and M–B statistics, more than one particle can occupy the same state,

Fermi - Dirac Statistics

This statistics deals with the particles like protons which are having half integral
spin. e.g. Electron, proton, neutrons etc... Hence, the particles are known as Fermi
Particles or Fermions.

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1.8.1 Fermions

In Particle Physics Fermion is a particle that follows the Fermi - Dirac Statistics.
These particle obey Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

⇒ This is a quantum Mechanical Principle which states that

⇒ Two or more identical fermions (particles with half integral spin) can not occupy
the same quantum state.

⇒ Fermions, include all Quarks and Leptons as well as Composite particles made
of an odd number of these, such as all Baryons and many atoms and nuclei.

⇒ Particles with integral spin are Bosons and particle with half -spin are fermions.

⇒ e.g. Electron, Proton, Neutrons etc...

1.8.2 Bosons

⇒ In quantum mechanics a Boson is a particle which follows the Bose - Einstein’s

statistics.

⇒ The name Boson was coined by Pauli and Dirac to commemorate the contribution
of an Indian Physicist Satyendra nath Bose.

⇒ Examples of Bosons are Photons, Glueons, Higgs Boson etc....

⇒ An important characteristic of Boson is that, their statistics do not restrict the

number of the number of bosons that occupy the same quantum state.

⇒ Unlike, bosons, two identical fermions can not occupy the same quantum state.

⇒ The bosons are force carriers that function as the glue holding matter together.

1.9 Kronig - Penny Model

⇒ The Kronig - Penny model is a simplified model for an electron in a one

dimensional periodic potential.

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⇒ It is a simple idealized quantum - mechanical system that consists of an infinite

periodic array of rectangular potential barriers.

⇒ Many properties of metal can be explained by Free Electron Theory of Metals

given by Drude - Lorentz.

⇒ It is also know as classical free electron theory of metal

⇒ However, there are many properties which can not be explined by Drude -
Lorentz theory or Sommerfield model.

⇒ e.g. why some elements crystallizes to form a good conductor whereas others
are insulator or semiconductor.

⇒ In free electron theory, it was assumed that electron is free to move in the body
of metal constantly with zero potential.

⇒ So no force acts on electron in moving throughout the body of the matter. but
this is not the true.

⇒ Actually, whenever electron passes near to a positive ion an electrostatic force

acts on it.

⇒ These are the rectangular arrangements of positive ions in the lattice.

⇒ So in moving from one place to another, electron passes over a changing potential
of an ion.

⇒ Here, electron is under the impact of periodic potential instead of being in a

constant potential, as it was assumed in the case of free electron theory.

⇒ This aspect of periodic potential was first considered by F. Bloch.

⇒ He considered that electron is passing through the periodic potential in the body
of metal.

⇒ Kronig & Penny represented 1D periodic potential for the solid through which
electron moves.

⇒ This 1D array of potential is shown in below figure 1.5.

⇒ The figure 1.5 shows the array of square well potential taken by Kronig & Penny.

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Figure 1.5: Ideal Periodic Square well potential used by Kronig & Penny

⇒ It is assumed that when electron passes through the solid then near the positive
ion, electron experiences a very large potential (negative), but away from this
electron is free.

⇒ but again as it reaches to the another positive ion it experiences a large potential
which is attractive potential

⇒ Hence, electron experiences two types of conditions in the solid as per the model.

⇒ As electron is a quantum mechanical object we can write Schrodinger’s wave

equation for this electron for the region where potential is zero (V = 0) and the
region where the potential is very high (V = V0 ).

Hence, The possible states that the electron can occupy are determined by the
Schrödinger equation, Schrodinger equation for this two regions can be written as

Region - I V = 0, where electron is almost free

d2 ψ(x) 2mE
+ 2 ψ(x) = 0 0<x<a (1.1)
dx2 ℏ
for region 0 → a.

Region - II V = V0 , where potential is high

d2 ψ(x) 2m
+ 2 (E − V0 )ψ(x) = 0 −b<x<0 (1.2)
dx2 ℏ
for region −b → 0.

here ψ(x) is the wave function for the electron, (x) is because electron travels in x
direction.

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Figure 1.6: Bloch’s Periodic Potential

Now for simplification of equation 1.1 and 1.2 let us assume that; 2mE
ℏ2
= α2 .

⇒ in equation 1.2 V0 is the Potential Energy and E is the kinetic energy of electron
which is free,

⇒ but here Kinetic energy (E) is much much less than the potential energy (V0 ),

⇒ So the term (E − V0 ) is negative in the equation 1.2.

Hence to make it positive equation 1.2 can be rewritten as

d2 ψ(x) 2m
− 2 (V0 − E)ψ(x) = 0 −b<x<0 (1.3)
dx2 ℏ

⇒ and put 2m
ℏ2
[V0 − E] = β 2 .

now rewrite the equation 1.1 and 1.2 as follows;

d2 ψ(x)
+ α2 ψ(x) = 0 0<x<a (1.4)
dx2

d2 ψ(x)
− β 2 ψ(x) = 0 −b<x<0 (1.5)
dx2

Above equations can also be understood by considering the following figure of Bloch’s
Periodic Potential.

⇒ Hence the figure 1.6 shows the periodic potential inside a metal which electron
experiences.

⇒ This potential can be represented by uk (x).

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⇒ Where, uk (x) is the Bloch’s Periodic Potential.

⇒ Let us assume that the solution of equation 1.4 and 1.5 is

ψ(x) = uk (x)eikx (1.6)

After simplifying the above equation we get the following final expression.

P sinαa
+ cosαa = coska (1.7)
αa

⇒ This is the desired solution of Schrodinger equation.

⇒ Here P is referred as the Scattering Power of Potential barrier.

⇒ It represents the strength with which electrons in a crystal attached to the ions.

⇒ With an increase of P , an electron bound more strongly to a potential well. and

when P → 0, the electrons are free.

⇒ As the condition leads to an equation with trigonometric functions.

⇒ Therefore, certain values of α are possible and hence certain values of E can be
defined.

⇒ here function αa is the variable.

⇒ So by plotting the left hand side of an equation 1.7 for a finite values of P
against αa, it is possible to determine the allowed values of αa.

⇒ The right hand side of the equation has cosine function, so the minimum values
of cosine function lies in between ±1.

⇒ Here cos ka is in the right hand side of the whole equation.

⇒ It means, if the value of right hand side cosine function lies in between ±1, then
the value of left hand side function will also lie in between ±1.

⇒ Hence, when we plot the graph , the values will be valid only in between ±1.

⇒ Once we plot the graph, nature of the graph will be as shown in below figure 1.7.

⇒ As the cosine function lies in between ±1, values of curve is valid only in between
±1.

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Figure 1.7: Allowed and Forbidden values of Energy is shown

⇒ Hence, outside this range, the upper and portion of the curve (shaded region) is
not allowed.

⇒ Hence the shaded values are not allowed values.

⇒ Hence, we can say that all part of the energy is not allowed, only portion of the
energy is allowed which lies in between ±1.

⇒ can be these allowed values of energies can be marked by taking intersection of

αa with ±1 values.

⇒ From this graph we can say that the conduction electrons in periodic potential
of lattice ion posses the bands of allowed energy separated by forbidden regions.

⇒ So by taking the values of cos ka = ±1 and it happens only when ka = nπ,

⇒ Where, n is the integer so k can be written as k = nπ

a
.

⇒ So, the allowed values of energies are valid only when k = nπ

a

⇒ It means that energy spectrum consists of infinite number of energy bands

(allowed) which are separated by intervals having no energy levels

⇒ These energy levels are know as Forbidden Energy levels.

⇒ As the value of αa increases, the width of allowed energy band increases and
width of forbidden bands decreases.

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Figure 1.8: Allowed values of Energy for P → 0.

1.9.0.1 Effect of varying P

⇒ now let us see the effect of varying P .

⇒ if the value of P is large, then the curve crosses ±1 line steeply.

⇒ So that the allowed bands are narrower and forbidden bands are wider.

⇒ For limit P → ∞, the allowed energy bands reduces to single energy level.

⇒ The energy levels in this case is discrete and similar to the energy levels of
particle in a constant potential box of atomic dimensions.

⇒ When P → 0, then the left hand side of the equation will not cross the ±1 line.

⇒ Hence, all the energies are allowed to the electron.

⇒ Thus, by varying P from zero to infinity, the energies of electrons will vary from
continuous to bound.

⇒ Means free electron to bound electrons.

1.9.1 E - k Diagram

⇒ The free electrons moving in a periodic potential of lattice can have energy
values only in the allowed regions.

⇒ It is possible to plot the total energy E of free electrons Vs. their wave vector
or propagation constant k, as shown in figure 1.9

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Figure 1.9: E - k Diagram

⇒ we know the equation 1.3 here

2mE
α2 =
ℏ2

So above term can be written as

ℏ2 α2
E=
2m

⇒ Here in figure 1.9 we have k along x- axis and E along y-axis.

⇒ Hence, for k = nπ
a
where (n = 1, 2, 3.......) we get this type of curve as shown in
figure 1.9.

⇒ Here, function is a periodic function in nπ

a
period.

⇒ So, if we know the values of energy in ± πa period, then we can easily find it in
next period ± 2π
a
, an so on.

⇒ Hence it is nit necessary to plot all these values.

⇒ We can make this graph easy and simple just by plotting function only in between
+ πa to − πa .

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⇒ Simplified graph is shown in figure 1.10

Figure 1.10: Reduced Zone E - k Diagram

⇒ This plot is known as Reduced Zone E - k diagram.

⇒ This plot is known as reduced zone as all the zones are reduced to one.

⇒ As the function is periodic this graph is also known as Periodic Reduced Zone E
- k Diagram.

⇒ In a way, this is also known as Direct Band Gap Diagram, as one band is exactly
over the other band.

⇒ If in this plot , upper energy portion is not exactly align above the lower portion,
then this plot is known as Indirect Band Gap.

⇒ If we take the energy values from top of the upper band to the lower of the
upper curve, then it forms a band.

⇒ Hence the lower band is known as the Valence Band and upper band is known
as the Conduction Band.

⇒ It is also observed that the electrons are having energy in the lowest part of the
conduction band and the at the highest part of the valence band.

⇒ So only these electrons take part in to the conduction in semiconductor.

⇒ This is the outcome of Kronig - Penney Model.

⇒ Which explains why certain materials do not conduct at normal temperature,

while some of the material conducts at the normal temperature, like metals.

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⇒ This diagram can further be simplified to Extended Zone E-k diagram as shown
in figure 1.11

Figure 1.11: Extended Zone E - k Diagram

⇒ In this diagram let us show only conduction values for conduction band.

⇒ Hence, values will be drawn in between π

a
to − πa first period, Second period and
so on.

⇒ Electrons are having allowed energies in the region k = π

a
to − πa .

⇒ The allowed values of energies in the first period is known as First Brillouin
Zone.

⇒ After a break in the energy values called Forbidden Band, electrons have another
allowed zone of the energy values in between + 2π a
to − 2π
a
. This zone is known
as Second Brillouin Zone.

⇒ Similarly, the higher order Brillouin Zones can be defined.

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⇒ There is a discontinuities that occurs at boundaries of Brillouin Zone .

⇒ Each part of the curve gives the number of allowed energies called Allowed Band.

⇒ The curves are horizontal at top and bottom and they are Parabolic near the
top and bottom.

⇒ As P decreases, the discontinuous E − k graph will reduce to a continuous

parabolic graph (as shown by dotted lines) and forbidden band disappears.

1.10 Direct and Indirect Band gap

In semiconducting Material, the band gaps are of two type.

1. Direct Band Gap Semiconductor

2. Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor

1.10.1 Direct Band Gap Semiconductor

⇒ The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band.

⇒ However, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band
are not generally at the same value of the electron momentum.

⇒ Minimum energy state in conduction band and the maximum energy state in
the valence band are each characterized by a certain crystal momentum and k
-vector in the Brillouin Zone.

⇒ If k- vectors are same for the conduction band minima and valence band maxima,
then it is called Direct Band GapSemiconductor.

⇒ A band gap is Direct if the momentum of electron and holes is the same in both
the conduction band and the valence band.

⇒ An electron can directly emit the photon.

⇒ Here, electron in conduction band minima recombine directly with the holes
in the valence band maxima, without change in momentum as well as kinetic
energy.

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Figure 1.12: Direct Band Gap Semiconductor E - k diagram

⇒ So, the energy will be emitted in the form of light.

⇒ This phenomenon is called Spontaneous Emission.

⇒ Here, energy is conserved by means of emitting a photon.

⇒ Such transitions are known as Radiative transitions.

⇒ Relative carrier life is small in the case of direct band gap semiconductor.

⇒ e.g. Ga As, In AS, In Sb,Ga N , In N ,Zn O, Cd Se.

1.10.2 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor

⇒ If the k- vector (Propagation vactor or Wave vector)are different for conduc-

tion band minima and valence band maxima, it is called Indirect Band Gap
Semiconductor.

⇒ In this case momentum is not same for conduction band minima and valence
band maxima.

⇒ In indirect band gap semiconductor, a photon can not be emitted, because an

electron must pass through an intermediate state and transfer momentum to
the crystal lattice.

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⇒ Here, during excitation there is a change in momentum, Kinetic energy as well

as direction and path of electron.

⇒ In indirect band gap semiconductor energy emits in the form of heat.

⇒ Hence, indirect transition is also known as Non - radiative Transition.

⇒ Carrier life time in case of indirect band gap semiconductor is greater than the
carrier life time of direct band gap semiconductor.

⇒ e.g. Si, Ge, Ga P etc...

Figure 1.13: indirect Band Gap Semiconductor E - k diagram

1.11 Phonon

⇒ A Phonon is the quantum mechanical description of elementary vibrational

motion in which a lattice of atoms or molecules uniformly oscillates at a single
frequency.

⇒ Phonons are also considered as a quanta of heat or lattice vibrations.

⇒ The concept of Phonon was first introduced by Soviet Physicist Igor Tamm.

⇒ A short wavelength and higher frequency phonons are responsible for the majority
of thermal capacity of solids.

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⇒ In condensed matter physics, a unit of vibrational energy that arises from

oscillating atoms with a crystal is called Phonon.

⇒ Any solid crystal consisting of atoms bound in to a specific repetitive pattern in

three dimension is called lattice.

⇒ Because atom behaves as if they are connected by tiny springs.

⇒ Their own thermal energy or outside forces makes lattice to vibrate.

⇒ This generates the mechanical wave that carry heat and sound through the
material.

⇒ A packet of these waves can travel throughout the crystal with definite energy
and momentum.

⇒ So in quantum mechanical terms the wave can be treated as a particle called a

Phonon.

⇒ Phonons and Electrons are two main type of elementary particles in solids.

⇒ Whereas electrons are responsible for the electrical properties of materials.

⇒ Phonons are responsible for heat and sound propagation from material.

1.12 Fermi Distribution Function

⇒ The Fermi Distribution Function, also known as Fermi Function give the probabil-
ity of energy levels occupied by Fermions in terms of Fermi Energy, Temperature
and Boltzmann Constant.

⇒ Here, fermions are half integer spin particles, like electrons, which obey Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle.
Def. 2: Fermi Distribution Function is defined as " the probability that the
energy level E is occupied by an electron/fermion".

⇒ Consider a system of electrons in thermal equilibrium at temperature T (K).

⇒ The probability f (E) of an electron occupying a particular energy level (E) is

given by;
1
f (E) =  E−E 
f
(1.8)
1+e kβ T

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here, E is the energy of the electron at a particular state.

f (E) is the Fermi Function or Function of Energy
Ef is the Fermi Energy
kβ is the Boltzmann’s Constant T is the Absolute Temperature

⇒ Thus, the system is characterized by its Temperature and its Fermi Energy.

⇒ For filled energy level, f (E) = 1 and for unfilled energy level f (E) = 0.

The dependency of fermi function under different conditions of temperature and the
effect of occupancy of energy level are as follows

1.12.0.1 Case 1: (At T = O K)

⇒ At absolute zero temperature, the electrons occupy the lowest energy level first,
followed by the next higher energy level as per the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.

⇒ i.e A pair of electrons one with spin up and other with spin down occupy the
lowest level.

⇒ The next pair of electrons occupy the next higher level and so on, till all the
electrons of the metal are accommodated as shown in below figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14: Distribution of electrons in the band. Electrons Occupy all the levels
below Ef

Fermi Energy: The upper most filed energy level is referred as Fermi Level and
energy of electrons in the fermi level at absolute zero degree is called Fermi Energy.

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⇒ Thus, at absolute zero temperature, all the energy levels lying above fermi level
are empty and those lying below are completely filled.

⇒ Hence Fermi level helps to distinguish between an occupied and unoccupied

energy state.

⇒ Since, there are two electrons in each level, out of N allowed states, N
2
of them
will be occupied.

1.12.1 Occupation Probability

Case: (a)
At T = 0 K for E < EF

Now substituting the above condition in the equation 1.12.1 we get;

1
f (E) = E−Ef

1 + exp kβ T

For energy levels E lying below EF , the term (E − EF ) takes the negative value, hence,
the exponential term becomes −∞.

1
f (E) =
1 + E −∞
1
= (∵ e−∞ = 0)
1
=1
f (E) = 1

⇒ This value clearly indicates that at T = 0 K. The energy levels below Fermi
Energy level EF are fully occupied by electrons.

⇒ Therefore, there is a 100% probability that the electron to occupy energy levels
below Fermi energy.

⇒ Generally, the conduction band has more energy levels than a free electron.

⇒ Here, conduction band is filled up to certain energy levels marked as EF .

⇒ The energy levels above EF are empty.

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⇒ Hence, Fermi energy level is defined as;

"The upper most filled energy level in a conduction band at 0 K is known as
Fermi Energy Level."
OR

"The highest energy level occupied by an electron in a conductor at 0 K is the

Fermi Energy Level."

Case:(b)

Occupation Probability at T = 0 K, E > EF

Now again if we substitute the above condition in equation 1.12.1.

1
f (E) = E−Ef

1 + exp kβ T

⇒ for the energy levels E above EF , the term (E − EF ) takes the positive value.

⇒ Hence the argument (E − EF /kβ T ) in the exponential function becomes ∞.

1
f (E) =
1 + e∞
1
= (∵ e∞ = ∞)
1+∞
1
=
∞
f (E) = 0

⇒ Above equation clearly indicates that at T = 0 K, all the energy levels above
EF are unoccupied or vacant.

⇒ There is a 0 % probability for electrons to occupy the energy level above the
Fermi Energy.

Case: (C)
Occupation Probability at T > 0 K and E = EF

⇒ At ordinary temperature (room temperature).

⇒ The value of probability starts reducing from 1.

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Figure 1.15: Fermi Dirac Distribution function at 0 K

⇒ At T > 0 K for E = EF the argument in the exponential function becomes zero.

1 1
f (E) = = (∵ e0 = 1)
1 + e0 1+1
1
=
2
f (E) = 0.5

⇒ Thus, f (E) = 0.5 implies that, the probability of occupancy of an electron is

50% at any temperature above 0 K.

⇒ Further, for E > EF the value of Fermi function f (E) falls off to zero rapidly.

case: (d)
Occupation Probability at very high temperature

⇒ At very high temperature, it is observed that, the transition between completely

filled states and completely empty states is gradual, rather than abrupt.

⇒ i.e., f (E) Fermi Function changes from 1 to 0 more and more gradually.

⇒ Hence, as temperature increases, an electron may get energy of the order of kβ T

and go to higher vacant state.

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Figure 1.16: Fermi Dirac Distribution function at T = 0 K and T > 0 K

⇒ as a result Fermi Function falls.

⇒ But for energies below EF , such that (E − EF ) >> kβ T the value of f (E) will
be unity i.e., only in the region of Ef , f (E) begins to fall as shown in figure
1.17.

Figure 1.17: Fermi Dirac Distribution function at very high temperatures

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 31 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1.13 Density of States

Density of states: Density of states Z(E) dE is defined as number of energy states

Z ′ (E) dE per unit volume in an energy interval dE.

Z ′ (E) dE
Z(E) dE =
V olume

⇒ The Fermi function gives us only the occupation probability of an energy state
by an electron.

⇒ But it does not give the actual number of electron with a given energy.

⇒ Hence, to know the actual number of electrons with given energy;

⇒ The number of available energy state in the system with a particular energy has
to be determined first.

⇒ Then by multiplying the number of energy states by the occupation probability,

we get the actual number of electrons.

⇒ The number of electrons in the system is given by;

N (E)dE = Z ′ (E)dE f (E) (1.9)

⇒ Here N (E)dE = Number of electrons in a system with energy dE.

⇒ Z ′ (E)dE = Number of available energy states/ Density of states.

⇒ f (E) = Fermi Function and defines occupation probability of given energy states.

1.13.1 derivation to determine the Number of available states

To find Z ′ (E)dE

⇒ Consider a free particle of mass m moving in a rectangular box with edges of

length a, b and c.

⇒ Since the particle is assumed to move in a three dimensional box, three quantum
numbers nx , ny and nz are required to specify the corresponding motion of the
electron along the three axis X, Y and Z.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 32 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Hence, the equation for the energy of a particle in 3D potential well is given by;

h2
E= (n2 + n2y + n2z ) (1.10)
8ma2 x

⇒ here nx ,ny and nz are positive integers and m is the mass of the electron.

⇒ let us take n2x + n2y + n2z = n2

⇒ by substituting the values in equation 1.10 we get

h2 2
E= n (1.11)
8ma2

⇒ Above equation is for allowed values of energy for different values of n.

⇒ Since, equation n2x + n2y + n2z = n2 represents a sphere, and if we take nx , ny and
nz along three mutually perpendicular axes of a coordinate system then, each
set of such values can be represented as a point in the system. Hence, a very
large number of such set of values we get a spherical distribution of points.

Figure 1.18: An Octant of a Sphere

⇒ Therefore , to know the actual number of energy states with all possible energies
a sphere of radius n is constructed.

⇒ Thus, every point within this sphere represents an energy state,

⇒ i.e., a unit volume of this sphere contains exactly one state.

⇒ Also, since the values of nx , ny and nz are restricted to be positive: only one
octant (1.e., 18 ) of the sphere is available.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 33 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Hence in order to calculate the number of energy states with small energy dE,
we construct two spheres, one with radii n and the other with radii n + dn with
energies E and E + dE respectively.

⇒ Within the sphere the octant considered is shown in figure 1.18.

⇒ Therefore, the number of available states with sphere of radius n is = 1

8
× 4π 3
3
n

⇒ Here, 4π 3
3
n is the volume of the sphere.

⇒
1
= π n3
6

⇒ Similarly, the number of available states with sphere of radius (n + dn) is

= 18 × 43 π(n + dn)3
1
= π (n + dn)3
6

⇒ Thus the number of allowed energy states in an energy range E and E + dE (in
the energy interval of dE)is

1 1
Z ′ (E)dE = π(n + dn)3 − π n3 (∵ (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 )
6 6
π
= (n3 + dn3 + 3n2 dn + 3ndn2 − n3 )
6

⇒ now neglecting the higher power of dn, i.e., dn2 and dn3 we get

π 2
Z ′ (E)dE =[3n dn]
6
π
= n2 dn
2
π
Z (E)dE = n(n × dn)
′
(1.12)
2

We need to find the values of n and n × dn from 1.12.

⇒ Hence from the equation 1.11

n2 h2
E=
8ma2
8ma2 E
n2 =
h2
!1
8ma2 2
n= E (1.13)
h2

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 34 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ On differentiating equation 1.13 we get

8ma2
2ndn = dE
h2
8ma2
ndn = dE (1.14)
2h2

⇒ Substituting the values of n and ndn in equation 1.12

π
Z ′ (E)dE = n(ndn)
2
#1
π 8ma2 E 2 8ma2
"
= dE
2 h2 2h2
Simplifying above equation we get
!3
π 8ma2 2
1
Z (E)dE =
′
E 2 dE (1.15)
4 h2

⇒ According to Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, since there can be two electrons, one
with spin up and another with spin down in a single energy state.

⇒ Therefore, the number of energy states available for electron occupancy is

!3
π 8ma2 2
1
Z (E)dE = 2 ×
′
E 2 dE
4 h2
!3
π 8ma2 2
1
Z (E)dE =
′
E 2 dE (1.16)
2 h2

This is the expression for density of stats in a 3D solid. Now the number of energy
states per unit volume with energy interval dE is

Z ′ (E)dE
Z(E)dE =
Volume
 3 1
π 8m
2 h2
2
a3 E 2 dE
=
a3
3
π 8m

2 1
Z(E)dE = E 2 dE (1.17)
2 h2

The actual number of electrons N (E)dE can be obtained by multiplying the actual

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 35 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

number of available energy states with f (E), the probability of occupation i.e.,

N (E)dE = Z ′ (E)dE f (E)

!3
π 8ma2 2
1
N (E)dE = E 2 dEf (E) (1.18)
2 h2

1.13.2 Carrier Concentration nc in Metals

The number of electrons per unit volume nc (i.e., density of electrons or carrier
concentration)is

N (E)dE
nc =
V
= Z(E)dE × f (E)
3
π 8m

2 1
nc = E 2 dEf (E) (1.19)
2 h2

Thus the equation 1.19 is the general expression for carrier concentration at any
temperature in metals.

1.14 Examples

Example 1 Evaluate the Fermi function for an energy kT above fermi energy.

Solution:

Given : E − Ef = kT , [k = kB is the Boltzmann constant]; f (E) =?

1
f (E) = 
E−EF

1 + e kB T
1
= 
kB T

1+e kB T

1
=
1 + e1
1
=
1 + 2.78
f (E) = 0.269

Example 2 Use the Fermi function to obtain the value of f (E) for E − EF = 0.01 eV
at 200 K.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 36 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Solution:

Given : E − Ef = 0.01 eV = 0.01 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, T = 200 K; f (E) =?

1
f (E) = 
E−EF

1+e kB T

1
= 
0.01×1.6×10−19

1+e 1.38×10−23 ×200

1
=
1 + e0.57910
1
=
1 + 1.78443
1
=
2.78443
f (E) = 0.35913

Example 3 Calculate the Fermi velocity and the mean free path for conduction
electron in aluminum given that it’s Fermi energy is 11.63 eV , and the relaxation time
for electron is 7.3 × 10−15 s. (Given: Mass of electron (m) = 9.11 × 10−31 , Charge of
electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given : Ef = 11.63 eV = 11.63 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, τ = 7.3 × 10−15 sec vF =?; λ =?

s
2EF
VF =
m
s
2 × 11.63 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
9.11 × 10−31
√
= 4.085 × 1012
vF = 2.0211 × 106 ms−1
The mean free path is
λ = τ vF
= 7.3 × 10−15 × 2.011 × 106
= 1.47 × 10−8 m
λ = 14.754 nm

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 37 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 4 Calculate the Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi
velocity of electrons in the metal is 0.86 × 106 m sec. (Given: Mass of electron (m) =
9.11 × 10−31 , Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : vF = 0.86 × 106 m/sec, EF =? TF =?

1
EF = mvF2
2
1
= × 9.11 × 10−31 × (0.86 × 106 )2
2
EF = 3.3688 × 10−19 J
EF = 2.105 eV
Fermi Temperature is given by
EF
TF =
kB
3.3688 × 10−19
=
1.38 × 10−23
TF = 24.41 × 103 K

Example 5 Calculate the Fermi temperature and Fermi velocity for sodium whose
Fermi level is 3.2 eV . (Given: Mass of electron (m) = 9.11 × 10−31 , Charge of electron
is 1.6 × 10−19 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : EF = 3.2 eV = 3.2 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, TF =? vF =?

The Fermi temperature is
EF
TF =
kB
3.2 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
1.38 × 10−23
= 3.7101 × 104 K
TF = 37.10 × 103 K
The Fermi velocity is
s
2EF
vF =
m

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 38 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS
s
2 × 3.2 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
9.11 × 10−31
√
= 1.1240 × 1012
vF = 1.0602 × 106 m s−1

Example 6 Using the Fermi function evaluate the temperature at which there is 1%
probability that an electron in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV .
(Given: Mass of electron (m) = 9.11 × 10−31 , Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given : E = 5.5 eV , EF = 5 eV ; E − EF = 0.5 eV = 0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19 J; f (E) =

1% = 0.01, T =?
1
f (E) = 
E−EF


 
1 + e kB T
" E−EF
#
f (E) 1 + e KB T
=1
 E−E 
f

f (E) + f (E)e kB T
=1
 E−E 
f

f (E)e kB T
= 1 − f (E)
1 − f (E)
 E−E 
f

e kB T
=
f (E)
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
E − EF 1 − f (E)
= loge
kB T f (E)
= loge [1 − f (E) − loge f (E)]
E − EF
kB T =
loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)
E − EF
T =
kB [loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)]
0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
1.38 × 10−23 [loge [1 − 0.01] − loge 0.01]
8 × 10−20
=
1.38 × 10−23 [loge 0.99 − loge 0.01]
8 × 10−20
=
1.38 × 10−23 [−0.01005 − (−4.6051)]

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

8 × 10−20
=
1.38 × 1 −−23 [4.59505]
8 × 10−20
=
6.3411 × 10−23
T = 1261.597
T = 1.2615 × 103 K

Example 7 The Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV . What are the energies for which
the probabilities of occupancy at 300 K are 0.99, 0.01 and 0.5. (Given: Mass of electron
(m) = 9.11 × 10−31 , Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given : EF = 2.1 eV = 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, T = 300 K, f (E1 ) = 0.99, f (E2 ) = 0.01,
f (E3 ) = 0.5; E1 =?, E2 =?, E3 =?
1
f (E) = 
E−EF

1 + e kB T
E−EF

( )
f (E) 1 + e kB T
=1

Taking logarithm on both sides and simplifying it, we get

E − EF
= loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)
kB T
E = EF + kB T [loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)]

To find E1 , E2 and E3
(a) f (E) = 0.99
E1 = EF + kB T [loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)]
= 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.38 × 10−23 × 300[loge (1 − 0.99) − loge 0.99]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [−4.6051 − (−0.01005)]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [−4.59505]
= 3.36 × 10−19 − 1.90237 × 10−20

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 40 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

= 3.169 × 10−19 J
E1 = 1.98eV

(b) EF = 0.01
E2 = EF + kB T [loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)]
= 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.38 × 10−23 × 300[loge (−0.99) − loge 0.01]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [−0.01005 − (−4.60517)]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [4.5951]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 1.90237 × 10−20
= 3.550 × 10−19 J
E2 = 2.21 eV

(c) EF = 0.5
E3 = EF + kB T [loge [1 − f (E)] − loge f (E)]
= 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.38 × 10−23 × 300[loge (0.5) − loge 0.5]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [−0.6931 − (−0.6931)]
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 4.14 × 10−21 [0]
= 3.36 × 10−19 J
E2 = 2.1 eV

Example 8 In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01 eV below fermi level. What
is the probability of this level not being occupied by an electron?

Solution:

Given : Energy DifferenceEF − E = 0.01 eV , The thermal energy at room temp =

kB T = 0.02 eV

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 41 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1
f (E) = 
EF −E

−
1+e kB T

1
=
1+ e−(0.01)/0.026
1
=
1 + e−0.3846
f (E) = 0.595
Therefore
1 − f (E) = 1 − 0.595
1 − f (E) = 0.405

There is 40% probability that energy level will not be occupied by electron.

Example 9 In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.1 eV below fermi level. What
is the probability of this level not being occupied by an electron?

Solution:

Given : Energy DifferenceEF − E = 0.1 eV , The thermal energy at room temp =

kB T = 0.02 eV

1
f (E) = 
EF −E

−
1+e kB T

1
=
1+ e−(0.1)/0.026
1
=
1+ e−3.84615
1
=
1 + 0.02136
1
=
1.02136
f (E) = 0.9790
Therefore
1 − f (E) = 1 − 0.9790
1 − f (E) = 0.020

There is 2% probability that energy level will not be occupied by electron.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 42 B.V.M. Engineering College

Chapter No 2

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Semiconductors

2.1 Introduction

Semiconductor are group of a materials having resistivity between those of metals and
insulators. The resistivity of semiconductor lie in the range of 10−6 to 108 Ωm.

The interesting feature of semiconductors is that, they are bipolar, i.e., current con-
duction take place by two charge carriers namely electrons and holes. Semiconductors
are especially important because, varying conditions like temperature and impurity
can easily alter their conductivity.

Application importance of semiconductors result from the fact that, they can be
conductors as well as insulators. The major applications of semiconductors are in the
manufacture of electronic devices and integrated circuits.

In this chapter and in the next chapter, the different types of semiconductors and
their mechanism of conduction will be studied.

2.2 Semiconductors

Semiconductors are solid materials having electrical resistivity in between those of

conductors and insulators. Commonly used semiconducting materials are : Si, Ge,GaAs
and InP.

43
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.2.1 Properties of Semiconductors

⇒ The resistivity of semiconductor is usually high.

⇒ The semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

⇒ This refers to the decrease in resistivity in of a semiconductor with rise in

temperature.

⇒ Semiconductors are metallic in nature. But are generally hard and brittle.

⇒ At 0K, semiconductors behave as insulators.

⇒ In semiconductors both electrons and holes are the charge carriers.

⇒ Semiconductors have a filled valence band empty conduction band at 0K.

2.3 Types of Semiconductors

The semiconductors can be classified in to various types based on different charac-

teristics. In the following section the classification of semiconductors based on the
number of constituting elements and on purity aspects are explained.

2.3.1 Elemental and Compound Semiconductor

Based on the number of constituting elements, there are two general classifications of
semiconductors.

1. Elemental Semiconductors.

2. Compounds or Compound Semiconductors.

2.3.1.1 Elemental Semiconductors

Semiconductors which are composed of single species if atoms are called elemental
semiconductors. Elemental semiconductors are found in group IV of the periodic table.

Example: Si and Ge.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.3.1.2 Compound Semiconductor

Semiconductors which are composed of two or more different species of atoms are
called compounds or compound semiconductors.

These semiconductors can be formed by combining different group elements from

periodic table.

III − V Compounds

Compound semiconductor formed from third and fifth groups are called III − V
compounds.

II − IV Compounds

Compound semiconductor formed by elements from second and sixth groups are called
II − IV compounds.

List of few elements from Periodic Table

Elements: II III IV V VI
Zn B C P S
Cd Al Si As Te
Ga Ge Sb
pb

A compound semiconductor consist of two elements is called Binary Compound.

Examples:

1. GaAs, GaP, InP, and InSb.

These compounds are formed by combining group III and V elements of periodic
table.

2. ZnS, CdS, CdTe, ZnTe.

These compounds are formed by combining elements of II and V I group from
periodic table.

Compound semiconductors consisting of three and four elements are called Ternary
and Quaternary compounds respectively.

Example of Ternary Compounds GaAsP, AlGaAs.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 45 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example of Quaternary compounds AlGaAsP, InGaAsP.

The Major advantage of compound semiconductor over elemental semiconductors is

the availability of a wide range of energy gaps and the high mobility of charge carriers.

The compounds find a wide range of optoelectronic applications like fiber optic
communication, Optical storage, compact disc, indicators in appliances,traffic signals,
commercial displays, laser printers etc.

2.3.1.3 Direct band gap and Indirect band gap Semiconductors.

Based on the type of energy emission the semiconductor can be of two groups;

1. Direct band gap Semiconductor.

2. Indirect band gap Semiconductor.

(1) Direct Band Gap Semiconductor

In direct band gap semiconductor such as GaAs, AlAs and InP , when an excited
electron falls back in to valance band, the electrons and holes recombine to produce
light energy. i.e.
e− + hole → hν(P hoton)

This process is known as Radiative Recombination. Also called Spontaneous

Emission. These Direct band gap semiconductors are used to make LED’s and lasers
of different colours.

(2) Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor

In indirect band gap semiconductor such as Si, Ge and GaP, when an excited electron
falls back into the valance band, the electrons and holes recombine to generate heat
and its dissipated within the material. i.e.

e− + hole → P honon

This process is known as Non - radiative Transition/recombination.

2.3.1.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Based on purity, Semiconductors are of two types;

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 46 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductor.

2.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor

The intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials. These semiconductors

possess poor conductivity. The elemental compound semiconductor can be of intrinsic
type.

⇒ The energy gap between valance band and conduction band is relatively very
small.

⇒ Hence, at room temperature, some electrons may possess enough thermal energy
to cross over the band gap enter the conduction band.

⇒ Thus, the excited electrons leave behind a vacancy which may be filled by another
electron in the valence band.

⇒ The vacancy produced in the valance band due to electron excitation is called
Hole.

⇒ In intrinsic semiconductor for every conduction electron promoted to the con-

duction band, there is a hole in the valance band.

⇒ Holes and electron created in this way are known as intrinsic charge carriers.
Thus, in an intrinsic semiconductor.

ne = nh

⇒ i.e. The density of electrons = The density of holes.

⇒ In an intrinsic semiconductor, when an electron moves to fill a hole, another

hole is created at the original electron source.

⇒ Consequently, the holes appear to act as positively charged electron and carry
an electrical charge.

⇒ When a voltage is applied to the material, the electrons in the conduction band
accelerate towards the positive terminal and the holes in the valance band moves
towards the negative terminal.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 47 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Hence, current conduction takes place due to the movement of both the charge
carriers electrons and holes.

⇒ Thus, the expression for conductivity is given by

σi = ne eµe + nh eµh

σi = ni e(µe + µh )

⇒ Where, ne = nh = ni is called the intrinsic carrier concentration and µe , µh are

the mobilities of electrons and holes respectively.

2.5 Carrier Concentration in an Intrinsic Semicon-

ductor

⇒ In general, the number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is
called carrier concentration.

⇒ At 0K in an intrinsic semiconductor, the valence band is completely filled and

the conduction band is completely empty.

⇒ The Fermi level lies exactly midway between the valence band and conduction
band as shown in below figure (2.1).

⇒ As the temperature of the semiconductor is increased, electrons from the valence

band get thermally excited to the conduction band.

⇒ These electrons in the conduction band behaves like a free particle with an
effective mass m∗e .

⇒ Similarly, the holes created by these electrons in the valence band also behaves
like a free particle with an effective mass m∗h .

⇒ Hence the electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band both
contribute to electrical conduction.

Effective Mass: is a parameter that takes in to account the effect of internal

forces in the crystal. This parameter relates the acceleration of an electron in
the conduction band of a solid to an external force.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 48 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.1: Energy band diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K and

T > 0K

2.5.1 Expression for Density of electrons in conduction band.

The carrier density in a semiconductor, can be obtained by integrating the product of

density of states Z(E)dEand probability function i.e., the Fremi function f (E) over
all possible states.

Z Emax
e= Z(E)dEf (E) (2.1)
E=0

Thus, the density of electrons ne in the conduction band can be evaluated by integrating
the above expression from the bottom of the conduction band labeled Ec to the top
of the conduction band labeled ∞.

∴ Density of electrons in the conduction band is

Z ∞
ne = Z(E)dEf (E) (2.2)
Ec

Since, the Fermi function becomes zero at higher energies, it becomes difficult to
locate the actual top levels of the conduction band. Hence for this reason, the upper
limit is taken as ∞.

The density of states with energy interval E and E + dE for an electron which behaves
as a free particle with effective mass m∗e is given by;

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 49 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

 23
π 8m∗e

1
Z(E)dE = E 2 dE (2.3)
2 h2

[Above expression is written based on the general expression for density of states, with
mass m replaced by m∗e .]

The energy E for an electron in the conduction band, now becomes equal to E − Ec .

Hence, E in equation (2.3) must be replaced by E − Ec .

 23
π 8m∗e

1
Z(E)dE = (E − Ec ) 2 dE (2.4)
2 h2

Equation (2.3) has been obtained by taking E = 0 for the bottom of the conduction
band as reference. But now, since we are considering the energy value of the bottom
of the conduction band to be Ec , the energy E for an electron in the conduction band
is equal to E − Ec .

Therefore, submitting equation (2.4) in equation (2.2) we get,

 23 Z ∞
π 8m∗e

1
ne = (E − Ec ) 2 dEf (E) (2.5)
2 h2 Ec

but we know the probability function for the occupancy of an electron is given by

1
f (E) =  E−E 
f
(2.6)
1+e kβ T

For all temperatures, the energy required by an electron to move from the valence
band to the conduction band is always greater than Kβ T

let us assume, at room temperature EF is lower than Ec by atleast a few kβ T

(≥ 4kβ T ∼
= 0.01eV ) i.e., E − EF >> kβ T Hence, if (E − EF >> kβ T ), then term
 1 in

E−EF

the denominator of equation (2.6) can be neglected (since E−EF

kβ T
>> 1 then, e kβ T

is also >> 1). 1

f (E) =  E−E 
F
e  kβ T 
E−EF
−
f (E) = e kβ T

 
E−EF

f (E) = e kβ T
(2.7)

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 50 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Therefore substituting for f (E) from equation (2.7) in equation (2.5)we get,

 23 Z ∞
8m∗e
 
E−EF
π

1
ne = (E − Ec ) e 2
kβ T
dE (2.8)
2 h2 Ec

TO solve the above integration, let us define,

E − Ec = xkβ T (2.9)

E = Ec + xkβ T (2.10)

on differentiating the above equation, we get,

dE = dxkβ T (2.11)

Based on equation (2.9), the integral limits for equation (2.8) also get changed
accordingly as follows.

When E = Ec Similarly, when E = ∞

Ec − Ec = x ∞ − Ec = x
or x = 0 x=∞
(Lower Limit) (Upper Limit).

Therefore, equation (2.8) becomes ,(Substituting equation (2.9), (2.10), (2.11) and
limits)

 32 Z ∞
8m∗e
E 
F −xkβ T −Ec
π

1
ne = (xkβ T ) e2
kβ T
kβ T dx
2 h2 0

 32
8m∗e
 Z
EF −Ec ∞
π

1 1
ne = (kβ T ) (kβ T )1 e
2
kβ T
x 2 e−x dx
2 h2 0

!3 E √
π 8m∗e kβ T 2 F −Ec π
ne = e kβ T

2 h2 2

1
√
Since, x 2 e−x dx = . This is called Gamma Function.
R∞ π
0 2

Therefore, on simplifying the above equation we get,

!3 E
1 8πm∗e kβ T

2 F −Ec
ne = e kβ T

4 h2

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

or !3 E
2πm∗e kβ T

2 F −Ec
ne = 2 e kβ T
(2.12)
h2
Thus, the above equation is the expression for the density of electrons in the conduction
band for an intrinsic semiconductor.

2.5.2 Expression for Density of Holes in the Valence Band.

The density of holes nh in the valence band can be evaluated by integrating the
product of density of states Z(E)dE and the probability function for a hole[1 − f (E)]
between the limits from the bottom of the valence band labeled (−∞) to top of the
valence band labeled Ev as shown in figure (2.2).

Figure 2.2: Energy band diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor at T > 0 K

The density of holes in valence band is

Z EV
nh = Z(E)dE[1 − f (E)] (2.13)
−∞

[Here, the limits are from −∞ to EV for the reasons similar to the one’s stated in the
evaluation of ne ].

Probability function for holes: As per the rules of probability, the probability of
absence = 1- probability of presence. Hence based on above rule, the absence of an
electron at some energy level means, the presence of a hole in the same energy level in
the band.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

∴ Hole Probability = 1 - electron probability. We know the electron probability is

f (E).

∴ The probability that a hole is available with energy E is = 1 − f (E).

 
1
1 − f (E) = 1 −
  
E−EF

1+e kβ T

"   #−1
E−EF

=1− 1+e kβ T

 
E−EF

Using binomial series (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + . . . with x = e kβ T

and neglecting
higher powers, we get;
"  # "  #
E−EF E−EF

1 − f (E) = 1 − 1 + e kβ T
= − −e kβ T

 
E−EF

1 − f (E) = e kβ T
(2.14)

From the above equation it is clear that, in valence band E < EF , i.e., the Fermi level
EF is again assumed to lie a few Kβ T above EV .

Therefore, the function [1 − f (E)] decreases exponentially. Also, it implies that holes
reside near the top of valence band.

The expression for Z(E)dE for holes behaving as a free particle with effective mass
m∗h is given by [with reference to equation (2.3)].

 32
π 8m∗h

1
Z(E)dE = (EV − E) 2 dE (2.15)
2 h2

Note: Since energy for the holes increases in the downward direction in the band
structure, E has been replace by EV − E in the expression of Z(E)dE.

Therefore, substituting equation (2.14) and (2.15) in equation (2.13), we get

 23 Z EV
π 8m∗h E−EF

1 ( )
nh = (EV − E) 2 e kβ T
dE (2.16)
2 h2 −∞

To solve the above integration, let us define.

EV − E = xkβ T (2.17)

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 53 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

E = EV − xkβ T (2.18)

On differentiating the above equation we get

dE = −dxkβ T (2.19)

Based on equation (2.17), the integral limits for equation (2.16)also get changed
accordingly as follows.
when E = ∞ Similarly, when E = EV
EV + ∞ = x 0=x
or x = ∞ x=0
(Lower limit) (Upper limit)

Hence, on substituting equations (2.17), (2.18), (2.19) and the corresponding limits in
equation (2.16), we get;

 32 Z 0
8m∗h
hE i
V −xkβ T −EF
π

1
nh = (xkβ T ) e 2
kβ T
(−dxkβ T )
2 h2 ∞

On simplifying,
 23
8m∗h
 Z
EV −EF 0
π

1 1
nh = (kβ T ) (kβ T ) e
2
1 kβ T
x 2 e−x (−dxkβ T )
2 h2 ∞

or !3 E
8m∗h kβ T
Z
π 2 V −EF ∞ 1
nh = e kβ T
x 2 e−x dx (2.20)
2 h2 0

1
Since, x 2 e−x dx = π2 ,equation (2.20)becomes,
R∞
0

!3 E √
π 8m∗h kβ T 2 V −EF π
nh = e kβ T

2 h2 2

!3 E
1 8πm∗h kβ T

2 V −EF
nh = e kβ T

4 h2
or !3 E
2πm∗h kβ T

2 V −EF
nh = 2 e kβ T
(2.21)
h2

Thus the above equation is the expression for density of holes in the valence band for
an intrinsic semiconductor.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 54 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.6 Fermi level and its variation with Temperature

in Intrinsic Semiconductor

we know in an intrinsic semiconductor;

ne = nh

i.e.,{Density of electrons in the conduction band} = {Density of holes in the valence

band}

Therefore, [from equation(2.12)and (2.21)] We know that,

!3 E
2πm∗e kβ T

2 F −Ec
ne = 2 e kβ T

h2

and !3 E
2πm∗h kβ T

2 V −EF
nh = 2 e kβ T

h2

!3 E !3 E
2πm∗e kβ T 2πm∗h kβ T
 
2 F −Ec 2 V −EF
2 e kβ T
=2 e kβ T

h2 h2
Now after canceling common terms we get;
   
EF −Ec EV −EF

(m∗e )3/2 e kB T
= (m∗h )3/2 e kB T

Now take exponential term on L.H.S. and (m∗e )3/2 on R.H.S.

  !3/2
EF −Ec −EV +EF
m∗h
e kB T
=
m∗e
  !3/2
2EF −Ec −EV
m∗h
e kB T
=
m∗e
  !3
2EF
m∗h 2
e kB T
e(−Ec −EV /kB T )
= (2.22)
m∗e
Now take log on both the sides

2EF 3 m∗h
!
−Ec − EV
+ = ln
kB T kB T 2 m∗e

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 55 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2EF 3 m∗h Ec + EV
" ! #
= ln +
kB T 2 m∗e kB T
kB T 3 m∗h Ec + EV
" ! #
EF = ln +
2 2 m∗e kB T
3 m∗h kB T Ec + EV
!
EF = ln kB T +
2 me∗ 2 kB T
3kβ T m∗h Ec + EV
!
EF = ln + (2.23)
4 m∗e 2
When m∗e = m∗h , the above equation gets reduced to

Ec + EV
EF = , since, ln(1) = 0 (2.24)
2

Thus the Fermi level is in the middle of the band gap i.e., E = Eg
2
.

As Shown in figure Eg lies half way between the top of valence band and bottom of
conduction band.

2.6.1 Dependence of EF on Temperature

The variation of Fermi level with temperature for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown
in figure. At T = 0K, the Fermi level lies in the middle of forbidden gap as shown in
figure (2.3).

Figure 2.3: Position of Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor at various tempera-

tures

At low temperature region, EF is practically independent of temperature. But, there

is a slight variation in EF in the high temperature region. The region is, in actual

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

case m∗h > m∗e (Effective mass of hole is always greater than effective mass of electron).
 ∗
m
Thus, the term ln mh∗ begins to contribute slightly. This results in small increase in
e
magnitude of EF . Thus the Fermi level gets raised slightly as shown in figure as T
increase.

2.7 Law of Mass Action for Semiconductors

The law states that, for a given semiconductor material either intrinsic or extrinsic, the
product of charge carrier concentration remains a constant at any given temperature
even if the doping is varied. i.e.,

ne .nh = n2i = a (constant) (2.25)

Where, ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration or also called as intrinsic charge carrier
density.

based on law of mass action,

!3 E !3 E
2πm∗e kβ T 2πm∗h kβ T
 
2 F −Ec 2 V −EF
n2i = ne .nh = 2 e kβ T
×2 e kβ T

h2 h2

!3
2πkB T
n2i =22
(m∗e m∗h )3/2 e(EF −Ec +EV −EF /kB T )
h2

or !3
2πkβ T
 
−Ec +EV
3
n2i =22
(m∗e m∗h ) 2 e kβ T

h2

!3
2πkβ T
 
−(Ec +EV )
3
n2i = 22 (m∗e m∗h ) e 2
kβ T

h2
!3/2
2πkβ T
 
−(Ec +EV )
3
ni = 2 (m∗e m∗h ) 4 e kβ T
(2.26)
h2

!3
2πkβ T
 
2 −Eg
3
ni = 2 (m∗e m∗h ) 4 e kβ T

h2

[Since Ec + EV = Eg ].

The above equation shows that, the product of ne .nh does not depends on EF , but

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

remains a constant at a given temperature. Thus, equation (2.26) gives the intrinsic
carrier concentration.

For an intrinsic semiconductor

ne = nh = ni

2.8 Mobility and Conductivity

On the basis of free electron theory, the charge carriers can be assumed to be moving
freely inside a semiconductor. In case of an intrinsic semiconductor both the electrons
and holes contribute to the electrical conductivity.

The conductivity due to electrons is given by

σe = ne eµe (2.27)

Where µ is the mobility of electrons. It is defined as the velocity acquired by the

conduction electron per unit field strength. i.e.,

Vd
µe = (2.28)
E

Similarly, the conductivity due to holes is given by

σh = ne eµh (2.29)

Where , µh is the mobility of holes. It is defined as the velocity acquired by the holes
per unit field strength.
Therefore, the total conductivity for an intrinsic semiconductor is given by the sum of
σe and σh . σ =σ +σ ,
i e h

= ne eµe + nh eµh ,
σi = ni e(µe + µh )
[∵ ne = nh = ni ] (2.30)

Substituting for ni ,
!3
2πkβ T
 
2 −Eg
3
σi = 2e (m∗e m∗h ) e 4
2kβ T
(µe + µh ) (2.31)
h2

or  
−Eg

σi = Ce 2kβ T
(2.32)

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

The above equation (2.32)shows that, the electrical conductivity depends upon the
negative exponential of the forbidden energy gap, temperature and on the mobilities
of both electrons and holes.

Taking logarithm on both sides for equation (2.32), we get,

Eg
lnσi = lnC − (2.33)
2kβ T

The above equation shows that, a graph drawn between lnσi versus 1
T
must result in
a straight line as shown in Figure (2.4)

Figure 2.4: variation of electrical conductivity with temperature

From the graph it is understood that the conductivity increases with increasing
temperature.

2.9 Determination of Band Gap

From equation(2.32), the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is

1
 
−Eg

σi = Ce 2kβ T
[∵ ρi = ] (2.34)
σi

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

but ρi = Ril A , Where Ri is the resistance, A is the area of section and l is the length
of the intrinsic semiconductor specimen. theref ore equation (2.34)becomes,

1
 
Eg
Ri A
= e 2kβ T
l C  
Eg
l
Ri = e 2kβ T

AC
 
Eg
l
Ri = Be 2kβ T
[W here, B = ] (2.35)
AC
Taking logarithm for equation (2.35)on both sides,

Eg
lnRi = lnB + (2.36)
2kβ T

or
lnRi Eg
=
2kβ
 
1
T

Thus, measuring the resistance of the semiconductor at various temperature, the band
gap can be determined. The resistance of the semiconductor can be determined using
post office box, meter bridge or carey foster bridge.
 
If a graph is plotted between lnRi and 1
T
, then the slope gives the value of Eg
2kβ
as
shown in Figure (2.5)

Figure 2.5: variation of resistivity with temperature in intrinsic semiconductor

dy Eg
∴ =
dx 2kβ

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 60 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

or !
dy
Eg = 2kβ (2.37)
dx

Where, kβ is Boltzmann Constant.

2.10 Extrinsic Semiconductors

2.10.1 Introduction

Extrinsic Semiconductor is an impure semiconductor, which is formed from an intrinsic

semiconductor by adding small quantity of impurity atoms also called dopants.

This process of adding the impurity to the semiconductor is known as Doping.

⇒ Addition of impurity alters the electrical properties of the semiconductor and

improves its conductivity.

⇒ The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor depends primarily on the number

of dopant atoms.

⇒ The purpose of doping is to produce an enormous amount of charge carriers in

the semiconductor.

⇒ Based on the elements of doping, Semiconductors are of two types.

1. n - type semiconductor
2. p - type semiconductor

2.10.2 n -type Semiconductor

⇒ A n - type semiconductor gets formed on doping atoms that have Five valence
electrons to an intrinsic semiconductor like Si and Ge.

⇒ Consider the intrinsic semiconductor Si which has a 4 valence electron is cova-

lently bonded with one of four adjacent Si atom as shown in below figure (2.6)

⇒ To this Si atom, if an atom with five valence electron such as Phosphorus (P),
Arsenic (As) or Antimony (Sb) is incorporated into the crystal then, four of the

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.6: Si structure

electrons from the dopant atom will participate in the covalent bond formation,
thereby leaving an extra electron (Fifth electron) in the unbounded state as
shown in below figure 2.7

⇒ This extra electron is only weakly bounded to the atom and enters into an energy
level in a donor state just below the conduction band as shown in figure (2.7).

⇒ Since, this extra electron is not tightly bound to the atom, all such electrons
at room temperature can get excited to the conduction band even for a small
increase in the external energy leaving the parent atom positively ionized.

⇒ Since, the pentavalent atoms donates electrons to the conduction band in

obtaining n - type semiconductor they are also called as Donor atoms.

⇒ Ed is the minimum energy required for the electron to enter the conduction
band.
Donor Energy Level: It is the electronic state or level introduced by the
donor atoms because of the presence of an extra electron.
Donor Energy Ed : Donor energy is defined as the energy difference between
the bottom of the conduction band and the donor energy level.

⇒ Since the excitation of these weakly bound electrons does not result in the
formation of hole.

⇒ The number of electrons in such a material far exceeds the number of thermally
generated holes.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 62 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.7: Charge Carrier excitation in a n - type semiconductor

⇒ Hence, in this type of semiconductor electrons are majority carriers and the
holes are minority carriers.

2.10.3 p - type Semiconductors

⇒ A p - type semiconductor gets formed on doping atoms that have Three valence
electrons to an intrinsic semiconductor like Si and Ge.

⇒ The trivalent elements like Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) or Boron (B)can be added
as a dopant to an intrinsic semiconductor.

⇒ Let us assume a trivalent element Ga is added to an intrinsic semiconductor Si.

⇒ All the three valence electrons of Ga will form three covalent bonds with three

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 63 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

neighboring Si atoms as shown in below figure (2.8).

Figure 2.8: Charge Carrier excitation in a p - type semiconductor

⇒ Thus, the dopant is in need of an extra electron to complete its fourth covalent
bond formation with Si.

⇒ This extra electron may be supplied by Si, thereby creating an electron hole
(i.e. a vacant site)in the valence band can be filled by electrons from the other
locations in the band in turn creating an another caccant site.

⇒ Thus the hole acts as acceptors of electrons.

⇒ These hole sites have an energy slightly higher than the normal energy and create
an energy level called acceptor energy level which lie just above the valence band.

⇒ Since, the dopant atom Ga accepts electrons they are called as acceptors.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 64 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ An electron must gain energy of the order of Ea in order to create a hole in the
valence band even at room temperature.

⇒ Hence, holes are created in the valence band and are ready for conduction.

⇒ When a sufficiently large number of acceptor atoms are added, the holes greatly
out number the thermally excited electrons.

⇒ Hence, the holes are the majority carriers, while electrons are the minority
carriers in p - type semiconductor.

⇒ In case, if the temperature is sufficiently high, in addition to the above process,

additional electron hole pairs also get generated due to breaking of covalent
bonds.

2.11 Expression for carrier concentration in n -

type semiconductor

As a first step, before obtaining an expression for the carrier concentration of electrons
in the conduction band of an extrinsic n -type semiconductor, let us derive an expression
for the Fermi level.

The energy level diagram of n - type semiconductor is shown in figure 2.9

Figure 2.9: Charge Carrier excitation in a n - type semiconductor

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 65 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Let Nd be the donor concentration i.e. number of donor atoms per unit volume
of the material and Ed is the donor energy level in n - type semiconductor.
Note: Nd can also be taken as the donor energy level per unit volume of energy
Ed . i.e Nd is the density of the donor energy level.

⇒ Let us assume that Ec − EF > kβ T , then in that case, density of electrons in

the conduction band is given as
!3/2
2πm∗e kβ T EF −Ec

ne = 2 e kβ T
(2.38)
h2

⇒ At 0 K, the Fermi level EF lies in between Ec and Ed .

⇒ Also, at very low temperature, all donor levels will be filled with electrons (donor
atoms).

⇒ With increase of temperature, more and more donor atoms get positively ionized
due to electron donation to the conduction band and hence, the density of
electrons in the conduction band increases.

⇒ If we assume that EF lies more than few kβ T above the donor level Ed , then
the density of ionized donor atoms Nd+ must be equal to the product of density
of the donor atoms Nd and the probability function [1 − f (Ed )] for an electron
absence in the donor energy level.

N d+ = Nd [1 − f (Ed )] (2.39)

Solving for 1 − f (Ed )

We know that
1
f (Ed ) = Ed −Ef
( )
1+e kβ T

1
1 − f (Ed ) = 1 − Ed −Ef
( )
1+e kβ T
 −1
1
=1−
 
E −E 
( dk T f )
1+e β

Ed −EF
( )
= 1 − [1 − e kβ T
]

Ed −EF
( )
1 − f (Ed ) = e kβ T
(2.40)

⇒ From above equation it is clear that Ed < EF , i.e., Ed − EF is negative

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 66 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Hence, substituting equation 2.40 in equation 2.39, we get

Ed −EF
( )
Nd+ =e kβ T
(2.41)

⇒ At very low temperature, since no electron hole pair is generated due to the
breaking of covalent bonds, the density of electrons ne in the conduction band
must be equal to the density of positively ionized donor atoms Nd+ .

ne = Nd+

!3/2
2πm∗e kβ T
 
EF −EC Ed −EF
( )
2 e kβ T
= Nd e kβ T

h2

⇒ Taking logarithm on both the sides we get,

 !3/2 
2πm∗e kβ T EF − Ec Ed − EF
ln 2 + = lnNd +
h2 kβ T kβ T

⇒ on rearranging the above equation we get

 !3/2 
2πm∗e kβ T
!
EF − Ec Ed − Ef
− = lnNd − ln 2 
kβ T kβ T h2

 !3/2 
EF − Ec − Ed + EF 2πm∗e kβ T
= lnNd − ln 2 
kβ T h2

⇒ Multiplying on both the sides with kβ T and after simplification the above
equation becomes;
 
Nd
2EF − (Ec + Ed ) = kβ T ln 
  ∗

3/2 
2πme kβ T
2 h2

⇒ now using lna − lnb = ln( ab ).

 
Nd
2EF = (Ec + Ed ) + kβ T ln  
2πm∗e kβ T 3/2
   
2 h2

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 67 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS
 
Ec + Ed kβ T  Nd
EF = + ln  

2 2 ∗
3/2 
2πme kβ T
2 h2

⇒ Now consider that !3/2

2πm∗e kβ T
Nc = 2
h2

⇒ then the above equation finally can be written as

Ec + Ed kβ T Nd
 
EF = + ln (2.42)
2 2 Nc

⇒ At T = 0K, above equation becomes;

Ec + Ed
EF = (2.43)
2

⇒ The above equation 2.43 implies that Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of
the donor level Ed and the bottom of the conduction band Ec .

2.11.1 Expression for carrier concentration (Density)of elec-

trons in the conduction band

⇒ From the equation 2.38, the density of electrons in the conduction band is given
by;
!3/2
2πm∗e kβ T EF −Ec

ne = 2 e kβ T

h2

⇒ We know that !3/2

2πm∗e kβ T
Nc = 2
h2
, hence above equation can be written as
EF −Ec
( )
ne = Nc e kβ T
(2.44)

⇒ Now substituting value of EF from the equation 2.42 in above equation, we get
an expression for the density of electrons in the conduction band.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 68 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

EF −Ec
( )
⇒ Let us first simplify the term EF − Ec in e kβ T
factor.
 
Ec + Ed kβ T  Nd
EF − Ec = + ln     − Ec

2 2 2
2πm∗ k T 3/2
e β
h2

 
Ed − Ec kβ T  Nd
EF − Ec = + ln  

2 2 ∗
3/2 
2πme kβ T
2 h2

⇒ On dividing the above equation by kβ T we get;

 
EF − Ec Ed − Ec 1  Nd
= + ln  

kβ T 2kβ T 2 ∗ k T 3/2
 
2πm
2 e β
h2

 
1/2
EF − Ec Ed − Ec  Nd 
= + ln  
(2.45)
2kβ T 1/2
  
kβ T

∗
2πme kβ T
 3/2
2
 
h2

x
⇒ Using xln( ab ) = ln abx

⇒ Therefore, substituting equation 2.45 i the expression of ne we get

 
1/2
2πm∗e Kβ T
3/2 !
Ed − Ec Nd
  
ne = exp  + ln  
 
h2 2kβ T  1/2 
2πm∗e kβ T 3/2
2
 
h2

⇒ simplifying the exponential terms using the formula ea+b = ea .eb , we get
!3/2  E 1/2
2πm∗e kβ T

d −Ec Nd
ne = 2 e 2kβ T
3/2 1/2
h2
 
2πm∗e kβ T
2 h2

⇒ On simplification we get;
!3/4  E
2πm∗e kβ T

d −Ec
ne = (2Nd ) 1/2
e 2kβ T
(2.46)
h2

⇒ Hence, the density of electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the

square root of donor concentration Nd .

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ This equation holds good only at low temperature and at high temperatures,
the intrinsic carrier concentration must also be taken into account.

⇒ Thus at very high temperatures, the n-type semiconductor behaves like an

intrinsic semiconductor.

⇒ The ionization energy of donors is given by ∆E = Ec − Ed , It is the amount

of energy required to transfer an electron from the donor energy level Ed to the
conduction band.

⇒ Electrical Conductivity:
for a pure n -type semiconductor which has only the donor atoms, the electrical
conductivity is given by σ = ne eµe . where, ne is given by equation 2.46 and µe
is the mobility of electrons.

2.12 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature

and impurity concentration in n -type semi-
conductor

EF variation with temperature

⇒ The Fermi level decreases with increase of the temperature as given by equation
2.42.

⇒ As the temperature gets slowly increased more and more donor atoms gets
ionized due to transfer of electrons to the conduction band.

⇒ Here, this time fermi level lies in between Ec and Ed .

⇒ Where Ec is the conduction band edge and Ed is donor energy level.

⇒ At a particular temperature, all the donor atoms would have been ionized.

⇒ Hence, beyond this temperature electron hole pairs get generated due to breaking
of covalent bonds; and, the material tends to behave as an intrinsic semiconduc-
tor.

⇒ Thus, the Fermi level gradually shifts towards the intrinsic fermi level Ei as
shown in figure 2.10 EF variation with donor concentration

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.10: Variation of Fermi level position with temperature and carrier concentra-
tion in n - type semiconductor

⇒ In the figure 2.10 the variation of fermi level EF with high and low donor
concentration is indicated.

⇒ It is seen from the figure that, the shifting of Fermi level with rise of the
temperature is slow in the case of higher donor concentration then, the lower
donor concentration.

⇒ Naturally, highly doped semiconductor will lose their extrinsic behavior only at
a very high temperature.

2.13 Expression for Carrier Concentration in p -

type Semiconductor

As a first step, before obtaining an expression for the carrier concentration of holes in
the valence band of an extrinsic p -type semiconductor let us derive an expression for
the fermi level.

The energy level diagram for a p - type semiconductor is shown in figure 2.11.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.11: Charge carrier excitation in p - type semiconductor

⇒ Let Na be the acceptor concentration, i.e; the number of acceptor atoms per
unit volume in a p - type semiconductor, and Ea is the acceptor energy level.

Note: Na can also be taken as the acceptor energy level per unit volume of
energy Ea . i.e. Nd is the density of acceptor energy level.

⇒ Let us assume that Ea − EF > kβ T . Then, in that case, density of holes in the
valence band is given as
!3/2  E
2πm∗h kβ T

v −EF
nh = 2 e kβ T
(2.47)
h2

⇒ At 0K, the Fermi level EF lie in between Ev and Ea .

⇒ Also, at very low temperature, all acceptor level remains empty.

⇒ With increase of temperature, more and more acceptor atoms get negatively
ionized due to electron’s transfer from the valence band to the acceptor energy
level Ea .

⇒ Hence, the density of holes in the valence band increases.

⇒ If we assume that EF lie below the acceptor energy level Ea then, the density of
negatively ionized acceptor atoms Na− must be equal to the product of density
of acceptor atoms Na and the probability function f (Ea ) for the occupancy of

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

an electron.
Na− = Na f (Ea ) (2.48)

⇒ We know that;
1
f (Ea ) = E
a −Ef
 (2.49)
1+e kβ T

⇒ Since, the acceptor level lies above the Fermi level, Ea − EF is positive.

⇒ Therefore, the term

 Efirst in the denominator of equation 2.49 can be neglected,

a −E f

compared to the e kβ T
which is very large.

⇒ Hence equation 2.49 can be written as;

 Ea −Ef

−
f (Ea ) = e kβ T
(2.50)

⇒ Therefore, substituting equation 2.50 in equation 2.48, we get

 
−(Ea −EF )

Na− = Na e kβ T
(2.51)

⇒ At very low temperature, the density of holes nh in the valence band must be
equal to the density of negatively ionized acceptor atoms Na− .

⇒ i.e. Nh = Na−
!3/2  E
2πm∗h kβ T
  
v −EF −(Ea −EF )

2 e kβ T
= Na e kβ T

h2

2πm∗h kβ T 3/2
⇒ let us consider that 2( h2
) = Nv

⇒ Hence the above equation can be written as

   
Ev −EF −(Ea −EF )

Nv e kβ T
= Na e kβ T

⇒ Taking logarithm on both the sides, we get

Ev − EF Ea − EF
lnNv + = lnNa −
kβ T kβ T

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Rearranging the above equation we get,

!
EV − EF EF − Ea
− = lnNa − lnNv
kβ T kβ T

⇒ Therefore
−2EF Ev + Ea Na
+ = ln
kβ T kβ T Nv

⇒ On multiplying negative sign on both the sides and rearranging the terms we
get,
2EF Ev + Ea Na
= − ln
kβ T kβ T Nv

⇒ Hence equation in the terms of EF can be written as;

Ev + Ea kβ T Na
EF = − ln (2.52)
2 2 Nv

⇒ At T = 0K the above equation becomes;

Ev + Ea
EF = (2.53)
2

⇒ Thus the equation 2.53 implies that, the fermi level EF lies exactly at the middle
of the acceptor level Ea and top of the valence band Ev .

2.13.1 Expression for Carrier Concentration (Density)of Holes

in the Valence band for p - type semiconductor

⇒ From the equation 2.47, the density of holes in the valence band is given by;
!3/2  E
2πm∗h kβ T

v −EF
nh = 2 e kβ T

h2

⇒ Substituting for EF from the equation 2.52 in above equation, we get an expres-
sion for the density of holes in the valence band.
 
Ev −EF

⇒ Let us first simplify the term Ev − EF in e kβ T

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

3/2
2πm∗h kβ T

⇒ Also substitute Nv = 2 h2
.

(Ev + Ea ) Na
Ev − EF = Ev − + kβ T ln 
2 2πm∗h kβ T 3/2

2 h2

Ev − Ea kβ T Na
= + ln 
2 2 2πm∗h kβ T 3/2

2 h2

⇒ on dividing by kβ T , we get

Ev − EF Ev − Ea 1 Na
= + ln 
kβ T 2kβ T 2 2 2πm∗h kβ T 3/2

h2

Ev − EF Ev − Ea Na1/2
= + ln   (2.54)
kβ T 2kβ T  1/2
2πm∗h kβ T 3/2
2 h2

⇒ Therefore, substituting equation 2.54 in the expression for nh , we get

 
!3/2
2πm∗h kβ T
!
 Ev − Ea Na1/2 
nh = 2 exp  + ln  h
 
2kβ T
1/2 
h2 ∗
2πmh kβ T
i3/2
2
 
h2

⇒ Simplifying the exponential terms using the formula ea+b = ea .eb , we get
!3/2 
2πm∗h kβ T

Ev −Ea
Na1/2
=2 e 2kβ T
 1/2
h2
 
2πm∗h kβ T 3/2
2 h2

⇒ Hence, after simplification we get the final expression in the below form
!3/4 
2πm∗h kβ T

Ev −Ea
nh = (2Na ) 1/2
e 2kβ T
(2.55)
h2

⇒ From equation 2.55, it is observed that, the density of holes in the valence band
is proportional to the square root of acceptor concentration Na .

⇒ Just similar to n-type semiconductor, at very high temperature, the p - type

semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.

⇒ The ionization energy of acceptors is given by ∆E = Ea − Ev.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.12: Variation of fermi level position with temperature and carrier concentra-
tion in p - type semiconductor

⇒ It is the energy required for an electron to move from valence band Ev to the
acceptor energy level Ea .
Electrical Conductivity: For pure p -type semiconductor which has only
the acceptor atoms, the electrical conductivity is given by σ = nh eµh

⇒ Where nh is given by equation 2.55 and µh is the mobility of the holes.

2.14 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature

and Impurity Concentration in p - type Semi-
conductor

EF variation with temperature

⇒ The Fermi level increases with increasing temperature as given by equation 2.52.

⇒ As the temperature gets slowly increased more and more acceptor atoms gets
negatively ionized due to transfer of electrons from the valence band.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Here Fermi level lies in between Ev and Ea .

⇒ Where Ev is the valence band edge and Ea is the Acceptor energy level.

⇒ But, at a particular temperature, all the acceptor atoms would have been ionized.

⇒ Hence, beyond this temperature electron hole pairs get generated due to breaking
of covalent bonds, and material tends to behave as an intrinsic semiconductor.

⇒ Thus, the Fermi level gradually shifts towards the intrinsic Fermi level Ei as
shown in below figure 2.12 EF variation with Acceptor Concentration

⇒ In figure 2.12 the variation of Fermi level EF with high and low acceptor
concentration is indicated.

⇒ It is seen from the figure, that, the shifting of Fermi level with rise of temperature
is slow in the case of highly doped semiconductor.

⇒ The reason is highly doped semiconductors will lose their extrinsic behaviour
only at higher temperature.

2.15 Variation of Carrier Concentration with Tem-

perature in Extrinsic Semiconductor

The variation of carrier concentration with temperature for a n-type semiconductor is

shown in figure 2.13.

⇒ In a n - type semiconductor electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes
are the minority carriers.

⇒ At 0K both the conduction band and valence band are free from any charge
carriers and hence the conductivity is zero.

⇒ Now, when the temperature is slowly increased, the donor atoms gets ionized
and hence, the electron concentration in the conduction band increases as shown
by the region OA in figure 2.13.

⇒ Since this range occur due to the impurity atoms ionization this region OA is
called Impurity Range.

⇒ During this process the Fermi level shifts towards the donor level Ed from the
middle of Ec and Ed .

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.13: Variation of carrier concentration with temperature in n -type semicon-

ductor

⇒ With the slow increase of temperature more and more donor atoms gets ionized.

⇒ Hence, at about room temperature all the donor atoms would have been ionized.

⇒ So the concentration of electrons in the conduction band remains constant over

a certain range of temperature as shown by AB region in the curve.

⇒ This range is called Exhaustion Range and in this range fermi level crosses the
donor level Ed .

⇒ As the temperature is increased further, and if the thermal energy is sufficiently

high, the covalent bonds get broken and thus the electron - hole pairs get
generated.

⇒ As a result, electrons from the valence band starts moving towards the conduction
band and thereby increasing the concentration of electrons in the conduction
band considerably.

⇒ Thus with continuous increase of temperature, the electrons from the valence
band completely out number the donor electrons.

⇒ During this process, the Fermi levels also moves down gradually until it reaches
the middle of the forbidden gap.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Thus, the material becomes completely intrinsic in the range BC and is known
as Intrinsic Range.
Hole Concentration: The dotted curve indicates the hole concentration . In
the intrinsic range both the hole and electron concentration curve overlap since
they become equal in number. The Exhaustion region is observable only for
smaller concentration of Nd . If Nd is large, the low temperature impurity region
passes to intrinsic region without passing the flat region AB.
Note: The variation of carrier concentration with temperature in a p -type
semiconductor can also be explained in the same manner.

2.16 Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductor

The variation of conductivity with temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor is shown

in figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: Variation of electrical conductivity with temperature in an extrinsic

semiconductor

⇒ At low temperature, near absolute zero, only few of the impurity atoms gets
ionized and hence the conductivity is low.

⇒ As the temperature increased, more and more of the impurity atoms gets ionized
and so the conductivity σ increases.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ But, this increase in σ is gradual due to large impurity scattering and the
availability of small amount of carriers.

⇒ At higher temperature the carrier density increases enormously and so the

conductivity increases steeply.

⇒ At high temperatures the material becomes practically intrinsic.

2.17 P - N junction Diode

⇒ The extrinsic semiconductors are of limited use when taken individually.

⇒ But, the situation changes considerably, when a junction of p and n - type

material is formed.

⇒ A p - n junction is a metallurgical boundary in a semiconductor crystal in which

holes are the majority charge carriers on one side and electrons are the majority
carriers on the other side.

⇒ If a single piece of Germanium is doped with p -type material from one side and
the other half is doped with n - type material, then the plane dividing the two
zones forms the p - n junction.

⇒ Because of the difference in concentration of electrons and holes on the two

sides of the junction, the electrons in n - region tend to diffuse to the p - region
and holes from p - region tend to diffuse into n - region. This process is called
Diffusion.

⇒ The diffuse charge carrier combine at the junction to neutralize each other.

⇒ Hence, development of immobile positive ions in n - region and negative ions in

p - region near the junction takes place and a charge free space is formed.

⇒ This charge free space is called Depletion Layer.

⇒ Thus, the depletion layer of few microns is formed near the junction.

⇒ The diffusion process continues till the material on both the sides of the junction
equalize their Fermi Level.

⇒ The immobile ions form parallel rows of opposite charges facing each other across
the depletion layer.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Because of the charge separation, an electric potential VB is developed across

the junction under equilibrium condition as shown in figure 2.15.

⇒ This potential is called the Junction Potential or Barrier Potential.

⇒ It prevents the further diffusion of majority charge carriers across the junction.

⇒ Out side of the barrier, on each side of the junction, material is still neutral.

Figure 2.15: Formation of P - N junction

2.18 Biasing of the P-N Junction Diode

2.18.1 Zero Bias

When p-n junction is in equilibrium the barrier potential VB does not allow the carriers
to cross the junction. Hence there is no current flow across the junction.

2.18.2 Forward Bias

⇒ When the p-n junction is connected in an external circuit such that, the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the p region and negative terminal is

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

connected to the n region, then the junction is said to be forward bias.As shown
in below figure 2.16

⇒ The effect of forward bias is to reduce the potential barrier and the width of the
depletion layer.

⇒ The hole from p - region are repelled by the positive terminal of battery towards
the junction.

Figure 2.16: Forward connection of P - N junction diode

⇒ Also the electrons in n - region are repelled by the negative terminal of battery
towards the junction.

⇒ The applied voltage should be high enough so that the electrons and holes
acquire enough energy to overcome the potential barrier at the junction and
cross the junction.

⇒ The barrier voltage is usually small [0.3 volts for Ge diode and 0.7 volts for Si
diode].

⇒ Hence a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier.

⇒ Once the barrier is overcome, the junction resistance becomes almost zero. Hence,
large current flows through the junction at small voltage.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The direction of current gives the forward direction of p-n junction.

⇒ The current range is usually of the order of mA.

2.18.3 Reverse Bias

⇒ When the external potential difference is applied to the p-n junction such that
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to n - region and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the p - region, then the junction is said to
be Reverse Biased as shown in figure 2.17.

⇒ The reverse bias increases the potential barrier and also the width of the depletion
layer.

⇒ Under the reverse biased mode, the electrons in n-region and holes in p-region
move away from the junction.

⇒ Hence, there is no current due to the majority charge carriers.

⇒ However, in practice a very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit
under the reverse bias.

⇒ Thus is the reverse current which is due to the movement of minority charge
carriers in the either sides of the junction.

⇒ Even with a large reverse bias the current flow is small.

⇒ Thus, the p-n junction conducts when forward biased and practically does not
conduct when reverse biased.

⇒ This one way conducting property is used for the rectification.

2.19 Voltage - Current (V-I)characteristic of Diode

⇒ The plot of the voltage across the diode versus the diode current gives the (V − I)
characteristics and it is shown in figure 2.18

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.17: Reverse connection of P - N junction diode

Comparison between Silicon and Germanium Diode Charac-

teristics

⇒ The cut in voltage for Silicon (Si)diode is 0.7 volts whereas for Germanium (Ge)
diode it is 0.3volts.

⇒ The reverse breakdown voltage for silicon is greater than that of germanium
diode.

⇒ hence silicon diode can withstand higher reverse voltage compared to germanium
diode.

⇒ The reverse saturation current in silicon diode is very small (of the order of
nanoamperes(nA)) whereas for germanium diode it is much higher (of the order
of micoramperes (µA)).

⇒ As in silicon diode, the reverse saturation current is very small and it can
withstand high reverse voltage, it is widely used in practice.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.18: V-I characteristic of P - N junction diode

2.20 Photovoltaic Effect

The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a

photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight.

⇒ It is this effect that makes solar panels useful, as it is how the cells within the
panel convert sunlight to electrical energy.

⇒ The photovoltaic effect was first discovered in 1839 by Edmond Becquerel.

⇒ He found that certain material produces small amount of electric current when
exposed to the sunlight.

⇒ The first Photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratory in 1954.

2.20.1 Photovoltaic Process

⇒ The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells. These solar cells are composed of
two different types of semiconductors - a p-type and an n-type - that are joined
together to create a p-n junction.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the

region of the junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to
the negative n-side.

⇒ This field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and
positively charged particles in the other direction.

⇒ Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles of electromagnetic

radiation or energy.

⇒ These photons can be absorbed by a photovoltaic cell - the type of cell that
composes solar panels.

⇒ When light of a suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the
photon is transferred to an atom of the semiconducting material in the p-n
junction.

⇒ Specifically, the energy is transferred to the electrons in the material.

⇒ This causes the electrons to jump to a higher energy state known as the conduc-
tion band.

⇒ his leaves behind a "hole" in the valence band that the electron jumped up from.

⇒ This movement of the electron as a result of added energy creates two charge
carriers, an electron-hole pair.

⇒ When unexcited, electrons hold the semiconducting material together by forming

bonds with surrounding atoms, and thus they cannot move.

⇒ However in their excited state in the conduction band, these electrons are free
to move through the material.

⇒ Because of the electric field that exists as a result of the p-n junction, electrons
and holes move in the opposite direction as expected.

⇒ Instead of being attracted to the p-side, the freed electron tends to move to the
n-side.

⇒ This motion of the electron creates an electric current in the cell. Once the
electron moves, there’s a "hole" that is left.

⇒ his hole can also move, but in the opposite direction to the p-side. It is this
process which creates a current in the cell.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.21 Solar Cell

A solar cell is a photovoltaic device designed to convert the sunlight, i.e., solar energy
in to the electrical energy.

⇒ A simple p-n junction can be used for this conversion.

⇒ The solar cells are made from semiconductor materials like silicon.

⇒ Most commercially available solar cells are made from a high purity single crystal
of silicon with minute amount of trace elements like Boron and Phosphorous.

⇒ A thin layer of p -type material is doped on a n -type substrate, thus forming a

p-n junction as shown in figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19: Schematic diagram of Solar cell device

⇒ The thickness of the p-layer is very small, of the order of 0.2 − 0.5µ m.

⇒ Electrical contacts are made to the diffused region as well as to the back of the
silicon wafer.

⇒ To enhance the transmission of light into the material, an anti-reflection coating

is given over the p -type layer.

2.21.1 Working of Solar Cell

⇒ When the incident light falls on the surface of the upper p region, it generates
the electron-hole pairs.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The thickness of the p-layer being very small , these electrons and holes immedi-
ately reach the junction.

⇒ At the junction they face the barrier potential which separates them.

⇒ The barrier potential sweeps the electrons from p-region to n- region as well as
from n- region to p-region.

⇒ This leads to an increase in the number of holes on p-side and electrons on the
n-side of the junction.

⇒ The accumulation of charges on the two sides of the junction produces a voltage
or emf known as Photo emf.

⇒ It is known as the open circuit voltage and is proportional to the illumination

as well as the size of the illuminated area.

⇒ when the external circuit is connected across the solar cell terminals, a current
flows through the circuit.

⇒ Thus the solar cell behaves as a battery with n - side as the negative terminal
and p- side as the positive terminal.

⇒ The voltage generated can be measured with a voltmeter.

Figure 2.20: Circuit diagram of Solar cell

⇒ The typical V-I characteristic of the solar cell can be studied with a simple
circuit as shown in figure 2.20

⇒ The V-I characteristic curve is shown in figure 2.21.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 2.21: V - I Characteristic of Solar cell

Parameters of Solar cell:The main three important parameters of Solar cell

is mentioned here.
1. The Open Circuit Voltage Voc :It is the output voltage from the solar cell
when the load impedance is very high.(R → ∞)
2. The Short Circuit Current Isc : It is the current output when the load
impedance is very small. (R → 0)
3. Fill Factor:

⇒ The product of Open Circuit Voltage Voc and Short Circuit Current Isc gives
the Ideal Power Output from the cell.

Pideal = Isc × Voc

⇒ But the actual maximum power output is less than Pideal and is given by the
product of maximum power current Im and maximum power voltage Vm .

Pmax = Im × Vm

⇒ The Fill Factor of the solar cell is defined as the ratio of maximum useful power
to ideal power.
Im × Vm
F.F. =
Isc × Voc

⇒ Usually, the voltage developed by every cell is of the order of 0.6 V and the
efficiency of the of about 21% for silicon

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ For Silicon solar cell has Voc of about 0.5volt. Higher voltage can be obtained
by connecting individual cell in series.

⇒ Current delivered by solar cell is proportional to the intensity of the incoming

light. Higher current can be achieved by connecting cells in parallel.

2.21.2 Applications of Solar Cell

⇒ The solar cell can be used for the large scale power generation with the help of
large arrays of series parallel combinations of cells.

⇒ The most important application of solar cell is in the space program. Satellites
are powered to very high degree by silicon cells.

⇒ in day-to-day life also for a number of applications solar cells are used to supply
the desired power.

2.21.3 Merits and Demerits of Solar Cell

Merits:

⇒ For this type of conversion, the input energy (i.e., Solar Energy) is available at
no cost.

⇒ Such conversion is free from pollution like chemical, thermal or radioactive.

Demerits:

⇒ The input solar energy is not constantly available .

⇒ It changes with time of the day, the day-night cycle and also with seasons.

⇒ Hence, the output is not constant energy.

⇒ Solar cells have low efficiency

⇒ The energy generated during daytime can be stored and used whenever required
but the storage mechanism are very expansive and hence not economical.

⇒ Hence, such conversion is used only at p;aces where other sources of energy are
not practicable.

⇒ Efficiency of the solar cell is temperature dependent, efficiency decreases as the

temperature increases.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.22 Drift and Diffusion Currents

Often we come across drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors. The drift current
occurs due to an applied electric field on a semiconductor and diffusion current occurs
whenever carrier concentration gradient exists in the material. In a semiconductor,
both currents are explained separately in following way;

2.22.1 Drift Current

⇒ Let us consider a semiconductor material of length l at some (room) temperature

T K.

⇒ At this temperature, the free electron and hole concentration is ne and nh

respectively.

⇒ The free electrons and holes possess random motion so that they do not possess
any resultant velocity in any direction inside the crystal.

⇒ When a voltage V is applied across the semiconductor, then the intensity of

electric field (E) in the material is;

E = V /l

⇒ This electric field exerts a force (eE)on each carrier

FE = e E

⇒ Where FE is the force due to the Electric field.Hence

FE = eE
F = ma
a = eE/m

An acceleration eE/m acts on on the carriers, the velocities of electrons and

holes increased in opposite directions up to certain constant value called drift
velocity of carriers.

⇒ These velocities will not increase to large values because of electrical resistance
due to the thermal vibrations of the ions at that temperature.

⇒ The drift velocities of electrons and holes produces drift current in the material.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The drift current density of electrons is;

Je,drif t = n e v (2.56)

⇒ Where v is the drift velocity of electrons and n is the number of free electrons
per unit volume of the material.

⇒ The current density of electrons can also be represented using Ohm’s Law as;

Je,drif t = σe E (2.57)

⇒ Where σe is the electrical Conductivity of free electrons.

⇒ From equation 2.56 and 2.57 we can have;

σe E = ne e v (2.58)

⇒ The drift velocity of electron can be found in a following way:

⇒ The moment when electric field E is applied on semiconductor (t = 0,) the drift
velocity v = 0 is zero.

⇒ Now the electric field exerts a force eE on each electron, so that each electron
acquires constant drift velocity v after time τc , called Collision Time.

⇒ Here vd can be obtained from equation of motion (v = u + a τ ).

⇒ Where v is the drift velocity, u is the drift velocity at time t = 0, and a is the
acceleration a = eE/m.

eE
 
v =0+ τ
m
eτ
 
= E (2.59)
m

⇒ In equation 2.59 let us consider that µe = eτ /m.

⇒ Here, µe is the mobility of electrons.

⇒ Therefore, above equation 2.59 can be written as;

v = µe E (2.60)

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Now substitute the the values of equation 2.60 in equation 2.58, we have;

σe E = ne e µe E
σe = ne e µe (2.61)

⇒ The above equation 2.61 gives the conductivity of electrons.

⇒ Similarly, the conductivity of holes can be written as

σh = nh e µh (2.62)

⇒ Hence, the total drift conductivity of the semiconductor is;

σ = σe + σh
σ = ne e µe + nh e µh (2.63)

⇒ In Intrinsic Semiconductor ne = nh = ni .

⇒ Hence the Intrinsic Conductivity σi is given as;

σi = ni e(µe + µh ) (2.64)

⇒ The resistivity (ρ) of the semiconductor is;

ρ = 1/σ
1
ρ= (2.65)
ne e µe + nh e µh

⇒ Using equation 2.63, we can write the drift current densities of electrons and
holes as:

Je,drif t = ne eµe E (2.66)

Jh,drif t = nh eµh E (2.67)

⇒ Hence the total drift current density is equal to sum of electron and hole drift
current densities.
Jdrif t = ne eµe E + nh eµh E (2.68)

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The variation of conductivity with temperature can be described as follows;

⇒ At 0 K, there are no carriers in the semiconductor.

⇒ As the temperature of the semiconductor increased from 0 K to some low

temperature, the the electrons present in donor level will go to the conduction
band in n-type semiconductor,

⇒ or electrons present in valence band will go to acceptor level to produce holes in

valence band in p-type semiconductor.

⇒ By increasing temperature from 0 K to some low temperature (T K), the carrier

concentration increases in the extrinsic semiconductor.

⇒ Also, the thermal vibrations of ions and hence electrical resistivity increases.

⇒ The increase in conductivity depends on the relative values the above two
quantities, so conductivity increases.

⇒ Afterwards, as the temperature of extrinsic semiconductor increased near to

room temperature, the carrier concentration would not increase and resistivity
increases.

⇒ So, the material possesses positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.

⇒ Above room temperature, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases and hence
the conductivity increases with rise of temperature.

⇒ So the material possess the negative temperature coefficient of resistivity at and

above room temperature.

⇒ At higher temperature material exhibits its intrinsic behaviour.

2.22.2 Diffusion Current

⇒ Non-uniform concentration of charge carriers produces diffusion current.

⇒ Non-uniform concentration of charge carriers can be formed by thermal or

radiation excitation of a part of the material or by injecting carriers in to the
material through surface.

⇒ Suppose the concentration of electrons and holes increased by ∆e and ∆h at a

point in the material due to excitation.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ These excess carriers diffuse to low concentrated place;

⇒ the rate of diffusion according to Fick’s Law is proportional to concentration

gradient ∂∆
∂x
e
along X direction for excess electrons.

⇒ As the flow takes place from higher concentration region to low concentration
region.

⇒ The rate of flow of electrons is proportional to − ∂∆

∂x
e
,

⇒ The rate of flow of electrons through unit area is equal to −De ∂(∆//−e)
∂x

⇒ Here, De is the proportionality constant called diffusion coefficient of electrons.

⇒ The electron charge flow constitutes electron diffusion current density represented
as Je,dif f .

∂(∆e )
" #
Je,dif f = (− e) × − De
∂x
∂(∆e )
Je,dif f = De e (2.69)
∂x

Similarly for holes,

∂(∆h )
" #
Jh,dif f = (e) × − Dh
∂x
∂(∆h )
Jh,dif f = Dh e (2.70)
∂x

⇒ Where, Dh is called the diffusion coefficient of holes.

⇒ Even though the excess electrons and holes diffuses in the same directions, their
current densities are in opposite direction because of opposite charge on electron
and hole.

⇒ The total diffusion current is

Jdif f = Je,dif f + Jh,dif f

∂(∆e ) ∂(∆h )
Jdif f = De e − Dh e (2.71)
∂x ∂x

⇒ If there is a concentration gradient along X- direction and if we apply an electric

field E on it; then the total current in the semiconductor is the sum of drift and
diffusion current.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Hence the total current due to electrons and holes are;

Je = Je,drif t + Je,dif f

∂(∆e )
Je = ne e µe E + De e (2.72)
∂x

Jh = Jh,drif t + Jh,dif f

∂(∆h )
Jh = nh e µh E + Dh e (2.73)
∂x

∂(∆e ) ∂(∆h )
Jtotal = ne e µe E + De e + nh e µh E + Dh e (2.74)
∂x ∂x

2.22.3 Einstein’s Relations

⇒ Einstein showed the direct relation between the mobility (µ) and diffusion
coefficient (D) of semiconductor.

⇒ Suppose a semiconductor is in equilibrium at some temperature T K with no

applied electric field.

⇒ The free electrons and holes distribution is uniform and there is no net current
flow in any direction.

⇒ Any disturbance in carrier concentration leads to generate diffusion current in

the material.

⇒ As the material is at some temperature T K, it possesses electrical resistance

due to thermal vibrations of ions.

⇒ The product of resistance and diffusion current results in voltage and hence
electric field in the material.

⇒ Therefore, in equilibrium, the drift and diffusion currents due to excess concen-
tration are equal.

⇒ So, for electrons, we can write;

∂(∆e )
(∆e )e µe E = De e (2.75)
∂x

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 96 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The force (F ) which acts on excess electrons (∆e ) to restore the equilibrium is
given by the product of δe and electric field eE on each electron. Thus we have;

F = (∆e )e E (2.76)

⇒ By taking µe on right hand side equation 2.75 can be written as;

De ∂(∆e )
(∆e )e E = e =F (2.77)
µe ∂x

⇒ At temperature T K, the force which acts on excess electrons to maintain

equilibrium depends on thermal energy of excess electrons which is equal to kβ T
times the concentration gradient ∂(∆
∂x
e)

⇒ Thus
∂(∆e )
F = kβ T (2.78)
∂x

⇒ Equation 2.77 and 2.78 are equal;

De ∂(∆e ) ∂(∆e )
e = kβ T
µe ∂x ∂x
De kβ T
= (2.79)
µe e

It can also be written as

kβ T
De = µe (2.80)
e

⇒ Similarly, for holes

Dh kβ T
= (2.81)
µh e

kβ T
Dh = µh (2.82)
e

⇒ now by comparing the two equations 2.79 and 2.81, we have

De Dh
= (2.83)
µe µh

De µe
= (2.84)
Dh µh

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 97 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The equations 2.79 and equation 2.84 are called Einstein’s Equations.

⇒ Using above equations, the diffusion coefficients of electrons and holes can be
determined.

kβ T
⇒ At 300 K, e
= 26 mV .

⇒ The diffusion coefficient for Si are De = 3.6×10−3 m2 /s and Dh = 1.3×10−3 m2 /s

⇒ And for Ge, De = 10 × 10−3 m2 /s and Dh = 5 × 10−3 m2 /s

2.23 Metal - Semiconductor Junction

⇒ Metal-semiconductor contacts are an obvious component of any semiconductor

device.

⇒ A metal–semiconductor (M–S) junction is a type of junction in which a metal

comes in close contact with a semiconductor material.

⇒ It is the oldest practical semiconductor device.

⇒ There are mainly two types of Metal - Semiconductor contacts are there

1. Ohmic Contacts (Non-rectifying)

2. Schottky Contact (Rectifying)

⇒ Such contacts cannot be assumed to have a resistance as low as that of two

connected metals.

⇒ Metal–semiconductor junctions are crucial to the operation of all semiconductor

devices.

⇒ Usually an ohmic contact is desired, so that electrical charge can be conducted

easily between the active region of a transistor and the external circuitry.

⇒ Occasionally however a Schottky barrier is useful, as in Schottky diodes, Schottky

transistors, and metal–semiconductor field effect transistors.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 98 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

2.24 Examples

Example 1 For intrinsic silicon, the room temperature electrical conductivity is

4 × 10−4 Ω−1 m−1 . The electron and hole mobilities are 0.14 and 0.040 m−2 V −1 s−1
respectively. Compute the electron and hole concentrations at room temperature.
(Given: Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given :σi = 4 × 10−4 Ω−1 m−1 , µe = 0.14 m2 V −1 s−1 , ne =? and nh =?

σi = ni e(µe + µh )
σi
ni =
e(µe + µh )
4 × 10−4
=
1.6 × 10−19 (0.14 + 0.04)
4 × 10−4
ni =
2.88 × 10−20
ni = 1.388 × 1016 m−3

Since ne = nh = ni from of law of mass action the electron and hole concentrations
are 1.388 × 1016 m−3

Example 2 The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 1019 /m3 .
If the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m−1 V −1 s−1 (Given: Charge of
electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given : ni = 2.37 × 1019 m3 , µe = 0.38m−1 V −1 s−1 respectively, calculate the resistivity.

σi = ni e(µe + µh )
1
ρ=
ni e(µe + µh)
1
ρ=
2.37 × 1019× 1.6 × 10−19 (0.38 + 0.18)
1
=
2.37 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.56
1
=
2.1232
ρ = 0.4709 Ω m

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 3 The electron and hole mobilities in In - Sb semiconductor are 6 and

0.2 m2 V −1 s−1 respectively. At room temperature, the resistivity of In - Sb is 2 ×
10−4 Ωm. Assuming that the material is intrinsic, determine its intrinsic carrier density
at room temperature.(Given: Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given : ρ = 2 × 10−4 Ωm, µe = 6m2 V −1 s−1 ; µh = 0.2m2 V −1 s−1 , ni =?

σi = ni e(µe + µh )
σi
ni =
e(µe + µh )
1
=
ρe(µe + µh )
1
=
2× 10−4× 1.6 × 10−19 × (6 + 0.2)
1
=
2 × 10 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 6.2
−4

1
=
1.984 × 10−22
ni = 5.040 × 1021 m−3

Example 4 The energy gap of silicon is 1.1 eV . Its electron and hole mobilities at
room temperature are 0.48 and 0.13m2 V −1 s−1 . Evaluate its conductivity. (Given:
Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant
= 6.625 × 10−34 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : Eg = 1.1.eV = 1.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, µe = 0.48m2 V −1 s−1 , µh = 0.13m2 V −1 s−1 ,

σi =?
σi = ni e(µe + µh )
but ni has to be calculated hence
!3/2
2πm∗e kB T −Eg
ni = 2 e 2kB T
h2
assuming m∗e = m∗h = m0
2 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 −
 
1.1×1.6×10−19
!
ni = 2 e 2×1.38×10−23 ×300

(6.625 × 10−34 )2

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

= 2 × (5.3964 × 1016 )3/2 × e(−21.25)

= 2(×1.25359 × 1025 × 5.90530 × 10−10
ni = 1.48056 × 1016 m−3
σi = 1.4805 × 1016 × 10−19 (0.48 + 0.13)
= 1.4805 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.61
−1 m−1
σi = 1.4449 × 10−3 Ω

Example 5 In intrinsic GaAs, the electron and hole mobilities are 0.85m2 V −1 s−1
and 0.04m2 V −1 s−1 respectively. The corresponding effective masses are 0.068m0 and
0.5m0 . Where m0 is the rest mass of an electron. Given the energy band gap at 300K
as 1.43 eV , determine the intrinsic carrier concentration and conductivity. (Given:
Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant
= 6.625 × 10−34 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : µe = 0.85m2 V −1 s−1 , µh = 0.04m2 V −1 s−1 , m∗e = 0.068m0 , m∗h = 0.5m0 ,

Eg = 1.43 eV = 1.43 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, T = 300 K, ni =?, σi =?
!3/2
2πkB T
 
−Eg

ni = 2 (m∗e m∗h )3/4 e 2kB T

h2
!3/2
2 × 3.14 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
ni = 2 × (0.068 × 9.11 × 10−31
(6.625 × 10−34 )2
−1.43×1.6×10−19
×0.5 × 9.11 × 10−31 )3/4 × e 2×1.38×10−23 ×300
= 2 × 1.4417 × 1070 × 6.884 × 10−47 × 9.9817 × 10−13
= 2.8834 × 1070 × 6.884 × 10−47 × 9.9817 × 10−13
ni = 1.9813 × 1012 m−3
σi = ni (µe + µh )
= 1.9813 × 1012 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.85 + 0.04)
= 1.9813 × 1012 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.89
σi = 2.821 × 10−7 Ω −1 m−1 .

Example 6 For si semiconductor with Eg 1.12 eV determine the position of the Fermi
level at 300 K if m∗e = 0.12m0 and m∗h = 0.28m0 (Given: Charge of electron is

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 ,
Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : Eg = 1.12 × 1.6 × 10−19 J, m∗e = 0.12m0 , m∗h = 0.28m0 , T = 300 K, EF =?.

Eg 3kB T m∗h
!
EF = + ln
2 4 m∗e
1.12 × 1.6 × 10−19 3 0.28m0
 
= + × 1.38 × 10−23
× 300 × ln
2 4 0.12m0
3
= 8.96 × 10−20 + × 4.14 × 10−21 × 0.84729
4
= 8.96 × 10−20
+ 2.6308 × 10−21
EF = 9.22308 × 10−20 J
EF = 0.5764 eV

Example 7 Suppose that the effective mass of holes in a material is 4 times that of
electrons. At what temperature would the Fermi level be shifted by 10% from the
middle of the forbidden energy gap. Given Eg = 1 eV . (Given: Charge of electron
is 1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 ,
Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : m∗h = 4m0 , Eg = 1 eV = 1.6times10−19 J, m∗e = m0 .

Ec + Ev 3kB T m∗h
!
EF = + ln
2 4 m∗e
At T = 0K, EF can be taken as (Ev + 0.5)eV
Ec + Ev
(EV + 0.5) =
2

At any temperature T K, the Fermi level shifted by 10%, i.e., 0.1 eV .

Hence EF = (Ev + 0.6) eV

Ec + Ev 3kB T 4m0
 
(Ev + 0.6)eV = + ln
2 4 m0

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

subtract equation 2 from equation 3

3
0.1eV = kB T ln4
4
3
0.1eV = × 1.38 × 10−23 × T × ln4
4
4 × 0.1eV
T =
3 × 1.38 × 10−23 ln4
4 × 0.1 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × ln4
T = 1115.12 K

Example 8 Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod of 1 cm long, 1 mm wide

and 1 mm thick at 300 K. For Ge, ni = 2.5times1019 /m3 , µe = 0.39m2 V −1 s−1 and
µh = 0.19m2 V −1 s−1 . (Given: Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron =
9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given : l = 1 × 10−2 m, breadth = 1 × 10−3 m, thickness = 1 × 10−3 m, T = 300 K,

µe = 0.39m2 V −1 s−1 ,µh = 0.19m2 V −1 s−1 .

σi = ni e(µe + µh )
= 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.39 + 0.19)
= 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.58
σi = 2.32Ω −1 m−1
we know resistance
ρl
R=
A
l
R=
σA
1 × 10−2
R=
2.32 × (1 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3 )
[Area = Breadth × thickness]
1 × 10−2
=
2.32 × 106
R = 4310 Ω

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 9 In a p-type Ge ni = 2.1 × 1019 m−3 , density of boron = 4.5 ×

1023 atoms m−3 . The electron and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 V −1 s−1 respec-
tively. What is its conductivity before and after addition of boron atoms. (Given:
Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10−31 , Plank’s Constant
= 6.625 × 10−34 , Boltzmann Constant = 1.38 × 10−23 ).

Solution:

Given: ni = 2.1 × 1019 m−3 , me = 0.4 m2 V −1 s−1 , µh = 0.2 m2 V −1 s−1 , nboron =

4.5 × 1023 m−3 .
Before adding boron atoms, the semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor.

σi = ni e(µe + µh )

σi = 2.1 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.4 + 0.2)

= 2.1 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.6

σi = 2.016 Ω −1 m−1

After adding boron atoms, the semiconductor becomes a p-type semiconductor.

σi = nboron eµh
= 4.5 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.2
σb = 1.44 × 104 Ω −1 m−1

Example 10 Find the concentration of holes and electrons in n-type silicon at 33K, if
the conductivity is 3 × 104 Ω −1 m−1 . Also find these values for p-type silicon. (Given:
ni = 1.5 × 1016 m−3 , µe = 1300 × 104 m2 V −1 s−1 and µh = 500 × 10−4 m3 V −1 s−1 Charge
of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , ).

Solution:

Given: ni = 1.5 × 1016 m−3 , µe = 1300 × 104 m2 V −1 s−1 and µh = 500 × 10−4 m3 V −1 s−1 ,
σ = 3 × 104 Ω −1 m−1 , ne =? and nh =?.

The density of electron in n-type silicon is

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

σ
ne =
eµe
3 × 104
=
1.6 × 1019 × 1300 × 10−4
3 × 104
=
2.08 × 10−20
ne = 1.4423 × 1023 electrons/m3
The density of holes is
n2i
ni =
ne
(1.5 × 1016 )2
=
1.4423 × 1024
nh = 1.56 × 108 holes/m3
Density of holes in p-type silicon is
σ
nh =
eµh
3 × 104
=
1.6 × 10−19 × 500 × 10−4
3 × 104
=
8 × 10−21

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 105 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 106 B.V.M. Engineering College

Chapter No 3

Laser

3.1 Introduction

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

In laser the intensity of light is amplified by a process called Stimulated Emission.
The theoretical explanation was provided by Albert Einstein in 1917. Actual Laser
was made possible quite later, i.e. in 1954 by C.H.Townes ans his co-workers. The
first Solid State laser (Ruby Laser) was made by T.H.Maiman in 1960.

Laser is an optical phenomenon which find major applications in various fields such
as medicine, engineering, fiber optic communication, industries etc. Laser are more
powerful radiation than ordinary light.

3.2 Characteristic of Laser

The following characteristic, distinguishes a laser beam from an ordinary light. They
are

⇒ High Degree of Coherence

⇒ High Intensity

⇒ High Directionality

⇒ High Monochromaticity

Laser light is highly powerful and is capable of propagating over long distance and are
not easily absorbed by water.

107
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1. Coherence

The wave trains which are identical in phase and direction are called Coherent waves.

Since, all the constituents photons of laser beam possess the same energy, momentum
and propagate in the same direction, the laser beam is said to be highly coherent.

2. High Intensity

Due to the coherence nature of laser, it has the ability to focus over small area of
10−6 cm2 , i.e. extremely high concentration of its energy over a small area.

3. High directionality

An ordinary light source emits light in all possible directions. But, since laser travels
as a parallel beam it can travel over a long distance without spreading.

The angular spread of a laser beam is 1 mm/meter. This reveals the directionality of
the laser beam.

4. High Monochromaticity

The light from a normal monochromatic source spread over a range of wavelength of
the order 100nm. But, the spread is of the order of 1nm for laser. Hence, Laser is
highly monochromatic i.e., it can emit light of single wavelength.

3.3 Einstein’s Theory

Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum theory of light. Produc-
tion of laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with matter.
Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions and may lead to the
transition of an atom or molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition
is from a higher state to a lower state, the system gives a part of its energy. But, if
the transition is in the reverse direction, then it absorbs the incident energy.

There are three possible ways by which interaction of radiation and matter can take
place. Among the three types,one is absorption also known as Induced Absorption and
the other two are emissions.

The emission of radiation can occur in two ways as suggested by Einstein. They are
Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission.

The interpretation of the interaction is done on the basis of ideas related to energy
levels of the concerned system for which light is to be obtained.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

All the three processes are described by considering an atom having only two energy
levels E1 and E2 .

(a) Induced Absorption (Absorption)

Let the atom be initially in the lower state E1 . If a photon of energy hν is incident on
the atom on the lower state, the atom absorbs the incident photon and gets excited
to the higher energy state E2 . This process is called Induced Absorption as shown in
Figure (3.1).

Figure 3.1: Induced Absorption

Atom + P hoton −→ Atom∗

The rate of absorption R12 is proportional to the population of the lower energy level
N1 and to the density of incident radiation ρ. hence,

R12 ∝al N1 ρ
R12 = B12 N1 ρ (3.1)

Where, B12 is the proportionality constant known as the probability of absorption of

radiation per unit time.

(b) Spontaneous Emission

It is a process in which there is an emission of a photon whenever an atom transits

from a higher energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external
agency.

for this process to take place, the atom has to be in the excited state. Since, the
higher energy level is an unstable one, the excited atom in the higher energy level E2
spontaneously returns to the lower energy level E1 with the emission of a photon of
energy hν = E2 − E1 . The process of spontaneous emission is shown in Figure (3.2).

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 3.2: Spontaneous Emission

Atom∗ → Atom + P hoton

The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation R21 (sp) is proportional to the population
N2 at the higher energy level E2 .

R21 (sp) ∝al N2

R21 (sp) = A21 N2 (3.2)

Where, A21 is the proportionality constant known as the probability of spontaneous

emission per unit time.

(c) Stimulate Emission

It is a process in which thee is an emission of a photon whenever an atom transits

from a higher energy level to a lower energy level under the influence of an external
agency, i.e., an inducing photon.

For this process also, an atom should be already in the excited state. Let a photon
having an energy hν = E2 − E1 interact with an atom in the excited state. Under
such interaction, the incident photon stimulates the excited atom in the level E2 to
transit to the lower energy level E1 , resulting in the emission of a photon of energy
hν = E2 − E1 .

Both inducing photon and the emitted photon will have same energy, phase and
direction of movement. This kind of emission is responsible for laser action. i.e., the
stimulated emission of radiation is the principle used in laser action as shown in Figure
(3.3).

Atom∗ + P hoton → Atom + (P hoton + P hoton)

The rate of stimulated emission of radiation R12 (st) is proportional to the population

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 3.3: Stimulated Emission

N2 at the higher energy level E2 and to the density ρ of the inducing photon.

R21 (st) ∝al N2 ρ

R21 (st) = B21 N2 ρ (3.3)

Where, B21 is the proportionality constant known as the probability of stimulated

emission of radiation per unit time.

The coefficients B12 , A21 and B21 in the equations (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) are called the
Einstein’s Coefficients.

3.3.1 Relation between Einstein’s Coefficients

Einstein obtained a mathematical expression for the existence of two different kind of
processes, Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission.

Since, the transition between the atomic energy states is a statistical process, it not
possible to predict which particular atom will make a transition from one one state to
another at a particular instant. But it is possible to calculate the rate of transmission
between states.

Let us assume that, the atomic system is in equilibrium with electromagnetic radiation.
Hence at thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transition is equal to the number
of downward transitions per unit volume per second.

i.e. The rate of Absorption = The rate of Emission

B12 N1 ρ = A21 N2 + B21 N2 ρ (3.4)

From the above equation,

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(B12 N1 − B21 N2 )ρ = A21 N2

A21 N2
ρ=
(B12 N1 − B21 N2 )
A21
ρ=   (3.5)
B12 N
N2
1
− B 21

Under thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N1 and N2 in the energy states E1
and E2 at a temperature T is given by Boltzmann distribution law. Hence, we have

 
−E1

N1 = N0 e kβ T
(3.6)
 
−E2

N2 = N0 e kβ T
(3.7)

Where, N0 is the total number of atoms and kβ is the Boltzmann’s constant.

Therefore,
 
−E2 −(E2 −E1 )
N2 kβ T
=  −E  = e kβ T
N1 1
kβ T
 
N2 −hν
= e kβ T
N1
 
N1 hν
=e kβ T
(3.8)
N2

Substituting equation (3.8) in equation (3.5)

A
ρ= "   # (3.9)
hν
kβ T
B12 e − B21

or
A21 1
ρ= "   # (3.10)
B21  B12  khνT
B21
e β −1

But, from Plank’s black body theory of radiation

8πhν 3 1
ρ= 3
  (3.11)
c hν
e kβ T − 1

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Hence comparing equation (3.10) and (3.11) we get

A21 8πhν 3
= (3.12)
B21 c3
B12 = B21 (3.13)

Taking B12 = B21 = B and A21 = A. The constant A and B are called Einstein’s
Coefficients.

Equation (3.13)shows that, the probability of absorption is equal to the probability of

stimulated emission.

From equation (3.12) it is seen that, the ratio of spontaneous emission and stimulated
emission is proportional to ν 3 . It means that, the probability of spontaneous emission
dominates over stimulated emission.

3.3.2 Ratio of Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission rates

From equation (3.2) and (3.3)

R21 (st) B21 N2 ρ

=
R21 (sp) A21 N2

R21 (st) B21

= ρ (3.14)
R21 (sp) A21

But, from equation (3.10)

B21 1
ρ= "   #
A21 hν
B12
B21
e kβ T
−1

But B12 = B21 from equation (3.13). Therefore, the above equation becomes

B21 1
ρ= "   # (3.15)
A21 hν
e kβ T
−1

Replacing R.H.S. of equation (2.14)with equation (3.15), we get

R21 (st) 1
="  
R21 (sp)
#
hν
e kβ T
−1

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or
R21 (sp) R21 (sp)
 
hν
N1
=e kβ T
− 1, = −1 (3.16)
R21 (st) R21 (st) N2
Thus, when the energy of the incident photon is much greater than kβ T , the number
of spontaneous emission far exceeds the number of stimulated emissions. Hence, under
this condition, i.e., hν >> kβ T , laser action is not possible.

In order to achieve more stimulated emission, the population N2 of the excited state
should be made larger than the population N1 of the lower state. This condition is
called population inversion.

Hence, in order to amplify a beam of light by stimulated emission; we must have

to create a population inversion state and increase the energy density of interacting
radiation.

3.4 Basic Concepts in Laser Physics

Population Inversion

Population inversion is a state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state
compared to ground state.
N2 > N1

If this condition is satisfied, then there is a more chance for stimulated emission to
take place. Hence, population inversion is an essential condition for producing laser.

Population inversion is achieved by a process called Pumping.

Pumping

Pumping is the mechanism of exciting atoms from the lower energy state to higher
energy state by supplying energy from an external source.

The most commonly used pumping mechanisms are,

1. Optical Pumping
In this type of Pumping atoms are excited (i.e., population inversion is achieved)
by means of an external optical source.
This type of Pumping is adopted in solid state lasers such as ruby laser and
Nd:YAG laser.

2. Electrical Pumping

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In this type of pumping the electrons are accelerated to a high velocity by a

strong electric field. These moving electrons collide with the neutral gas atoms
and ionise the medium. Thus due to ionization they get raised to a higher energy
level.
This type of pumping is adopted in gas lasers such as CO2 laser.

3. Direct Conversion
In this type of pumping , a direct conversion of electrical energy into light take
place. This technique is adopted in semiconductor laser.
In addition to above three, the other types of pumping are inelastic collision
between atoms and chemical method which are respectively adopted in He - Ne
gas laser and in Dye and Chemical lasers.

Lasing

The process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after establishing the
population inversion is referred to as Lasing.

Life Time

The limited time for which a particle or an atom remains in the excited state is known
as Life Time. it is about a nano second.

Metastable State

metastable states are the energy levels in the atomic system where the life time of
atom is very large (of the order of 10−3 to 10−2 Second). This property helps in
achieving the population inversion.

Active Medium

A medium in which population inversion is achieved for laser action is called active
medium. This medium can be Solid, Liquid, gas and Plasma.

Based on the active medium and method of pumping the lasers are classified into

1. Soild State Lasers

2. Liquid Lasers

3. Gaseous Lasers

4. Dye Lasers

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5. Semiconductor Lasers

Optical Resonators (Fabry -Perot Resonator)

It is a pair of reflecting surfaces (mirrors); of which one is being a perfect reflector

and the other being partial reflector. It is used for amplifications of photons thereby
producing an intense and highly coherent output.

Fabry - Perot Resonator is a resonator cavity formed by two parallel reflecting mirrors
separated by a medium such as air or gas. When the mirrors are aligned perfectly
parallel to each other, the reflections of the light wave between two mirrors interfere
constructively and destructively giving rise to a standing wave pattern between two
mirror surface.

3.4.1 Principle of Laser

It is based in the principle of stimulated emission of radiation, with light amplification.

for stimulated emission of radiation to take place, the population of atoms in higher
energy level should be greater then the lower energy level, i.e., N2 > N1 . This can be
achieved by pumping. Light amplification is achieved by photon multiplication within
an optical resonator cavity.

Initially, the state of population inversion has to be achieved in the active medium
which is within resonator cavity. Then, a spontaneously emitted photon by one of the
excited atom stimulates another atom it encounters in its path to release a second
photon. Thus, these two photons which are coherent in nature stimulates other two
atoms to produce another two photons.Hence, there will be four coherent photons.
Thus, the photon numbers gets multiplied just like a chain reaction thereby producing
an amplified light, stimulated emission resulting in an highly intense beam called
Laser.

Basic Laser system component

A basic layer system has three important components. they are

1. The active medium

2. The pumping source

3. The optical resonator

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3.5 Nd:YAG Laser

This is a four level solid state laser system, Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12 )
commonly called as YAG doped with Neodymium ions N d3+ is the active medium.
The active medium is taken in the form of a crystal and is drawn in to a rod. The
neodymium ions N d3+ are the active centers.

Resonator Cavity

The end faces of the Nd:YAG rod are ground polished and silvered to act as the optical
resonator mirrors or the optical cavity can be formed by using two external reflecting
mirrors M1 and M2 .

Optical Pumping

A Xenon flash lamp or a Krypton flash lamp is used as a pumping source.

Construction

The schematic diagram of a Nd:YAG is shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 3.4: Schematic diagram of Nd:YAG Laser

Construction

A Nd:YAG rod and a krypton flash lamp are enclosed inside an ellipsoidal reflector. In
order to make the entire flash radiation get focused on to the laser rod, the Nd:YAG
rod is placed at one focal axis and the flash lamp at the other focal axis of the
ellipsoidal reflector.

Working

The flash lamp is switched on. The optical Pumping excites the N d3+ ions from the

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ground energy state E0 to the higher energy level E3 and E4 by absorbing radiations
of wavelength 0.80µm and 0.73µm respectively.

Figure 3.5: Energy level diagram of Nd:YAG Laser

The energy level diagram is shown in figure 3.5. The excited N d3+ ions then make
a transition from these energy levels. The transition from the energy level E4 to E2
is non - radiative transition. The state E2 is the metastable state. Upon continues
excitation, population inversion of N d3+ ions is achieved at the metastable state E2 .

The photons traveling parallel to the resonator axis experience multiple reflections
at mirrors. As a result, the transition E2 → E1 yields an intense and coherent laser
beam of wavelength 1.064µm. These lasers give beam continuously. The N d3+ ions,
then make a transition between E1 → E0 which is a non - radiative transition.

Only a part of the energy emitted by the flash lamp is used to excite the N d3+ ions,
while the rest heats up the crystal. Thus, the system can be cooled by either air or
water circulations.

Applications

1. These lasers are widely used for cutting, drilling, welding and surface hardening
of the industrial products.

2. These lasers are used in military as range finder and as target designations.

3. These lasers are used in medical field for cataract surgery, to treat gastrointestinal
bleeding and gall bladder surgery.

4. It is used in long haul communication.

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5. It is used in the study of inertial confinement fusion.

3.6 Applications of Laser

Some of the applications laser in various fields are listed below.

(a) In Industry

1. For welding and melting.

2. For cutting and drilling.
3. To test the quality of the materials.
4. For the heat treatment of metallic and non metallic materials.

(b) In Medicines

1. Used for the treatment of detached retinas.

2. Used in performing micro and bloodless surgery.
3. Used for the treatment of human and animal cancers and skin tumors.

(c) Military Applications

1. The laser beam can serve as a war weapon, i.e., A powerful laser beam can
be used to destroy in a few second, big size objects like aeroplanes, missiles
etc., by pointing the laser laser beam on them. For this reason, it can be
even called as death ray.
2. The laser beam can be used to determine precisely the distance, velocity
and directions as well as the size and from of distant objects by means of
the reflected signals. It is known as LIDAR.

(d) Science and Engineering Applications

1. It is used in fiber optic communication.

2. Communication between planets is possible with laser.
3. It is used in Holography.
4. it is used in underwater communication between submarines, as they are
not easily absorbed by water.
5. It is used to accelerate some chemical reactions.

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6. It is used to create new chemical compounds by destroying atomic bonds

between molecules.
7. It is used to drill minute holes in cell walls without damaging the cell itself.

3.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2)Laser

Active Medium:

⇒ In CO2 laser, the active medium is the mixture of CO2 , N2 and He gases.

⇒ In this CO2 laser, the transition between various vibrational levels of the same
electronic state of CO2 molecule leads to the production of laser beam.

⇒ This is a Four level molecular Laser

Vibrational modes of CO2 molecules

⇒ CO2 molecule is consider as the Linear Tri-atomic molecule.

⇒ A CO2 molecule consists of a central C-atom with two O- atoms attached on

either side.

⇒ A molecule of this type can vibrate with three different independent modes of
vibrations as shown in below figure 3.6

⇒ These three sets of vibration of the molecule is represented by three quantum

numbers (m n q).

⇒ These number represents the amount of energy associated with each mode.

(i) Symmetric Stretching Mode

In this mode, the oxygen atom oscillates along the axis of the molecule, by simultane-
ously departing and approaching the carbon atom in between, which is stationary as
shown in figure 3.6a.

(ii) Bending Mode

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Figure 3.6: The vibrational modes of CO2 molecule

In this mode, all the three atoms of the molecule undergo Vibrational oscillations
perpendicular to the axis of the molecule. But, the corresponding frequency is called
bending frequency and is denoted by n.

(iii) Asymmetric Stretching

In this mode, all the three atoms oscillate along the axis of the molecule with both
the oxygen atoms moving in the same direction while the carbon atom moving in
the opposite direction as shown in figure 3.6c. The corresponding frequency is called
asymmetric stretching frequency and denoted by q.

At any instance, the CO2 molecule can be vibrating in a linear combination of these
three fundamental modes.

Construction

⇒ The discharge tube is of 2.5 cm diameter and 5 cm length. The discharge tube is
filled with the mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases in 1 : 2 : 3
proportions respectively. The active centers are the CO2 molecules. Discharge
is produced by D.C. excitation as shown in figure 3.7

⇒ Sodium chloride windows are placed at the end of the discharge tube inclined at
the Brewster Angle to the resonator axis.

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Figure 3.7: Schematic diagram of Carbon dioxide laser device

⇒ The windows are inclined at Brewster angle to obtain a plane polarized laser
beam.

⇒ A pair of confocal mirrors acts as the optical resonator cavity.

Working

⇒ The CO2 laser is excited a D.C.excitation. As the current passes through the
mixture of gases the N2 molecules get excited to the metastable state.

N2 + e → N2∗

⇒ The excited N2 molecules interact with the ground state CO2 molecules through
inelastic collisions and make them to get excited to the level E4 as shown in the
energy level diagram in figure 3.10.

⇒ The level E4 is the upper laser level. E3 and E2 levels act as the lower laser
levels.

⇒ Due to continuous excitation, population inversion is achieved between E4 level

and the levels at E3 and E2 .

⇒ Any of the spontaneously emitted photon will make the molecules to undergo
transition between E4 → E3 there by generating a stimulated photon.

⇒ These photons traveling along the resonator axis undergo multiple reflections at
the optical resonator mirrors.

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Figure 3.8: Energy level diagram of Carbon dioxide laser

⇒ As a result, the transition E4 → E3 yields an intense and coherent laser output

of wavelength order 10.6 µ m.

⇒ Similarly, the transition between E4 → E2 yields a laser beam of wavelength of

9.6 µ m.

⇒ Both the wavelengths fall in the Far Infra-red region.

⇒ The transition between E3 → E1 and E2 → E1 occur due to the inelastic collision

between the excited CO2 molecules with the unexcited CO2 molecules.

⇒ Finally, by inelastic collision between the helium atoms the CO2 molecules the
transition E1 → E0

⇒ i.e., helium helps in depopulating the lower levels.

⇒ In addition to this, helium helps to conduct heat away to the walls of the
discharge tube keeping CO2 cold and this is achieved due to high thermal
conductivity of helium.

⇒ The role of N2 gas is to increase the population of the upper level of CO2 .

⇒ The power output of this laser is 50 − 60 E/m when there is a longitudinal flow
of gases.

⇒ But, if the flow is perpendicular to the discharge tube the power output can be
raised to 10 kW/m and this type of CO2 laser is known as Transversely Excited
Atmospheric Pressure laser or TEA laser. Disadvantage

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⇒ The CO2 molecules of the active medium dissociate into CO after certain hours
of operation and the CO may contaminate the active medium.

⇒ Thus, Thus the CO has to be periodically removed by the vacuum pump.

Applications

1. It is widely used in material processing such as cutting, drilling, etching,

welding, melting and annealing.
2. It is widely used in open air communication.
3. It is used in pollution monitoring, remote sensing and in LIDAR (Light
Detection And Ranging)
4. It is used in medical field to perform microsurgery and bloodless surgery.

3.8 Ruby Laser

⇒ It is the first working laser developed by Maiman in 1960.

⇒ This is the Three level solid state laser.

⇒ Ruby belongs to a family of gems.

Active Medium:

⇒ A rod of ruby crystal having 20 to 30 cm length and 0.5 to 2 cm of diameter is

used as an active medium.

⇒ When Cr3+ ions are doped in sapphire (Al2 O3 ) ruby gets its pink colour.

Pumping Mechanism:

⇒ A heical Xenon flash lamp is used as a pumping source.

Optical Resonator:

⇒ Optical Resonator can be obtained by placing mirrors on the either sides of the
crystal or cutting and polishing both the ends perfectly with paint of silver such
that one side is 100% reflecting and another side is partially reflecting.

⇒ A schematic diagram of the Ruby laser is shown in below figure.

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Figure 3.9: Schematic Diagram of Ruby laser

Construction

⇒ Figure 3.9 shows the schematic diagram of the Ruby laser.

⇒ A rod of ruby crystal having 20 to 30 cm length and 0.5 to 2 cm of diameter is

taken as an active medium.

⇒ A crystal is placed inside a glass tube.

⇒ A Ruby crystal is surrounded by helical Xenon flash lamp.

⇒ flash lamp provides a pumping light to the system to excite the Cr ions.

⇒ The flash lamp of Xenon tube lasts for several milliseconds (ms) and consumes
several thousand joules of energy.

⇒ Only a part of this energy is used in pumping the Cr ions while rest heat up
the system.

⇒ For this purpose the cooling arrangement is used.

Working

⇒ As shown in figure 3.10 Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser.

⇒ Which means that only three energy levels are taking part into the laser action.

⇒ When helical xenon lamp is switched on the white light from xenon starts to
illuminate the Ruby crystal.

⇒ As a result Cr3+ ions starts to absorb the radiation which is falling on it.

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Figure 3.10: Energy level diagram of Ruby laser (Three Level laser system)

⇒ Hence, the optical pumping excites the Cr3+ ions from ground state E0 to the
higher energy level E2 and E3 by absorbing the radiation of wavelength 0.42µ m
and 0.5µ m respectively.

⇒ The excited Cr3+ ions makes transitions from these energy levels.

⇒ Now the transition from E3 → E1 and E2 → E1 both are non-radiative transi-

tions.

⇒ The energy level E1 is the metastable state.

⇒ Upon continuous excitation, population inversion of Cr3+ ions achieved at energy

level E1 .

⇒ Any of the spontaneously emitted photon will make the excited Cr3+ ion to
undergo transition between E1 → E0 .

⇒ During this transition stimulated photons are generated.

⇒ The photons traveling parallel to the resonator axis experiences multiple reflec-
tions at the mirrors.

⇒ As a result, transition E1 → E0 yields an intense coherent beam of wavelength

6943Å

⇒ Only a part of the radiation emitted by lamp is used to excite the Cr3+ ions
while rest heats up the crystal.

⇒ Thus the system can be cooled by either air or water circulation.

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3.9 Holography

3.9.1 Introduction

Holography is a Greek term where "Holos" means "Whole" and "Graphos" means
"Writing". Hence, Holography is considered as a Complete Recording of an object.
In conventional photography a negative is made first and using it a positive print
is produced later. A produced print will give a two dimensional image of three
dimensional object, because conventional camera records only intensities of light
received from three dimensional object. It contains information about square of the
amplitude of the light wave that produce the image but there is no record of the phase
of the light wave.

In the year 1947 Dennis Gabor an English Physicist outlined a radically new tech-
nique of photographing objects. He called this technique this technique Wavefront
Construction.According to this technique, both Phase and intensity attributes of the
wave are recorded and when viewed the photograph shows a 3D image of the object.
The recorded photograph is called Hologram and technique is Holography. Gabor
awarded in 1971 a Noble Prize in Physics for this invention.

3.9.1.1 Principle of Holography

The principle of holography can be explained in two steps

1. Recording or Construction of Hologram. The Recording of Hologram is based

on the Interference of coherent light waves.

2. Reconstruction of Hologram. The reconstruction of Hologram is based on the

Diffraction of coherent light waves.

3.9.2 Recording or Construction of Hologram

The process of making of hologram is referred as recording of hologram or construction

of hologram. This is based on the principle of Interference of light. A weak but broad
beam of laser is split on to two beams namely Reference Beam (R) and Object Beam
or Signal Beam (S). The reference beam is allowed to reach to the photographic plate
directly while object beam illuminates the object. The part of the light scattered by
the object travels towards the photographic plate and interfere with the reference

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beam and produces the interference pattern on the photographic plate as shown in
Figure (3.11).

Figure 3.11: Schematic diagram for construction of Hologram

A hologram does not contain any distinct image of the objects. It is only record of
the interference pattern formed by the superposition of two coherent light beams.
The interference pattern on the photographic plate consists of a complex pattern of
alternate dark and bright fringes. Hologram is also know as Gabor Zone Plate.

3.9.3 Reconstruction of Hologram

Reconstruction of hologram refers to the method of retrieving the original image from
the hologram. This is based on the principle of Diffraction of light waves. Figure
(3.12) shows the method of reproducing the real and virtual image of the object.

The laser beam identical to the reference beam is used for the reconstruction of the
object. The reconstruction beam (laser beam)illuminates the hologram at the same
angle as the reference beam. The hologram acts as a diffraction grating and secondary
waves from the hologram interfere constructive in certain directions and interfere
destructively in other directions. They form a Real Image in front of the hologram
and Virtual Image behind the hologram at the original site of the object. An observer
sees light wave diverging from the virtual image. An image of the object appears
where the object once stood and that image is identical to what our eyes would have
perceived in all its detail.

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Figure 3.12: Schematic diagram for reconstruction of Hologram

3.9.3.1 Applications of Hologram

• It is used in data storing system.

• It is used in producing 3D image of an object.

• it is used in studying the distribution of strain in an object subjected to stress.

• it is used in scanners.

• It is used in studying 3D images.

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Sr.No Stimulate Emission Spontaneous Emission
1 Emission of a light photon take place through an in- Emission of a light photon take place immediately
ducement i.e., by an external Photon. without any inducement.
2 It is not a random process. It is a random process.
3 The photon’s get multiplied through chain reaction. The photons do not get multiplied through chain reac-

130
tion.
4 It is a controllable process. It is an uncontrollable process.
5 More Intense. less intense.
6 Monochromatic radiation Poly chromatic radiation.

Table 3.1: Difference between Stimulated and Spontaneous Emission

B.V.M. Engineering College

104BS
 Sr.No Conventional Photography Holography
1 Works on the principle of Reflection of light. Works on the principle of Interference and Diffraction
of coherent light.
2 Laser light is not required. Laser is imperative to use for this method.
Semiconductor Physics

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat

3 Gives 2D image of 3D object. Gives 3D image of 3D object.
4 It records only intensities of light being reflected from It records Intensities as well as phase of the light wave
the surface of the object. reflected from the surface of the object..
5 Records the distinct image of an object on photo- Records the information about object in the form of
graphic film. complex pattern of light and dark fringes.
6 Object can be identified by viewing the negative/ pho- Object cannot be identified by viewing the photo-
tographic film even without developing it graphic film.

131
7 One photographic film can store only one page of infor- Several pages of information can be stored on a single
mation. photographic film.
8 Display medium is required to view the developed Display medium is not required as image will be
image. formed in space (air).
9 Cannot reproduce the image of an object if the photo- Entire 3D image of an object can be obtain from a
graphic film is damaged. small piece of the photographic film with reduced
sharpness.
10 Not a secure way to store the highly classified informa- Most secure way to store the highly classified informa-
tion. tion.

Table 3.2: Difference between Conventional Photography and Holography

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3.10 Lasers in Material Processing

Laser has widespread nature of material processing. In this section few important
examples of laser in material processing are discussed in brief.

⇒ Laser in material processing represents a small fraction of growing list of appli-

cations that take advantages of unique properties of light produced from many
different types of laser.

⇒ The different types of laser that are used in material processing depends on the
following factors:

∗ Their active medium (solid, liquid, and gas).

∗ Wavelength, power and energy.
∗ Mode of operation (Continuous wave mode or pulsed mode).
∗ The variety of materials to be treated. Like metals, alloys, ceramics, glasses,
polymers and composites.
∗ The mechanism of thermal processing. Like heating, melting, and vaporiza-
tion.
∗ The material interaction. Like, thermal (induced by heat transfer) and
athermal (induced by changes in the atomic scales.)

3.10.1 Laser instrumentation for Material Processing

The assembly of instruments for laser material processing is shown in figure 3.13 The
laser setup is used for welding, cutting, drilling and surface modification.

Instrument Description

⇒ The assembly consists of a laser source to produce laser beam, a shutter to

control its intensity and there is a focusing assembly (assembly of lenses) to
get a fine beam and there is a window to effectively focus the laser on to the
specimen.

⇒ In addition to the above components, there is a shielding gas jet and a powder
feeder.

⇒ The shielding gas jet is used to;

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Figure 3.13: Schematic diagram of laser instrumentation for material processing

(i) remove the molten material.

(ii) provide cooling effect.

(iii) protect the focusing optical arrangements against smoke and fumes and

(iv) increase the absorption of energy by the specimen and to favor vapouriza-
tion.

⇒ For different materials, different gases are used.

⇒ Including air, N2 , O2 , Ar, etc.

⇒ The powder feeder is used to feed the metal powder whenever necessary.

working

⇒ When the laser source is switched on, the light reflected by the plane mirror
passes through the shutter.

⇒ The shutter controls the intensity of the laser beam and allows it to fall on the
focussing lens assembly.

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⇒ This lens assembly focusses the light effectively onto the window and is made to
incident on the specimen.

⇒ When the specimen gets exposed to the laser beam, it gets heated up giving rise
to smokes and fumes and also gets melted.

⇒ By blowing the gas from the shielding gas jet, the smokes, fumes and molten
materials are removed.

⇒ But as the laser beam is continuously falling onto the specimen the material can
be drilled, cut or welded.

⇒ Powder spray is used to spray the metal powder on to the substrate for alloying
or cladding.

⇒ There are various other arrangements to monitor and to control the flow of
powder and shielding gas.

Advantages

1. Time consumption is less.

2. There is no damage to the materials.

3. There is no need of machining after the processing.

4. Compared to electron beam of material processing there is no need of vacuum.

3.10.2 Lasers in Microelectronics

In electronics industry lasers are widely used in processing microelectronics components

and integrated circuits. Few applications of laser in the field of microelectronics are
listed below.

1. It is used for trimming of components of the IC’s with higher accuracy.

2. Lasers are used in cutting touch pads for cell phones.

3. Using laser, battery cathodes can be cut from aluminum foil and also to cut
dielectric from paper for use in cardiac pacemaker implants.

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4. Other applications of lasers in the microelectronics field include; high speed

printing (laser printers), laser pointers (an eye catching pointing device used in
presentations and visual demonstration), all thin film circuit fabrication as a
source in LAN’s (Local Area Network), laser evaporation, bar code scanners etc.

3.10.3 Laser Welding

Welding is the process of joining two or more process (of same type or different type)
into a single unit. In laser welding process laser beam is focused on to the spot to be
welded as shown in figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14: Schematic diagram of laser welding process

⇒ Due to high heat generated by the laser, the material melts over a tiny area on
which the beam is focused.

⇒ Since the heat produced by the beam is so intense, the impurities in the materials
such as oxides float upon the surface, and upon cooling the material within
becomes homogeneous solid structure which makes it as a strong joint.

⇒ The N d : Y AG and CO2 lasers are the two important kinds of lasers that find
wide range of applications in welding.

Applications of Laser in Welding

1. CO2 lasers are used for welding thin sheets and foils where the weld region is
wider than its depth.

2. In laser welding of two wires, one may be have an effective weld even without
the removal of the insulator.

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3. Using laser, welding of two two dissimilar metals can also be performed. for
example, measuring probes can be attached to transistors, turbine blades, etc.

4. Laser welding can be done in otherwise inaccessible areas like inside a glass
envelop.

Advantages of Laser Welding

Laser welding offers many supremacy advantages over traditional welding techniques.
Advantages of laser welding over traditional welding are;

1. Laser welding is a contact less process and thus no foreign material has a chance
to get into the welded joint.

2. The result of welding is consistent and reliable.

3. Narrow welds with the controlled bead size are possible, because only a small
area of metal is melted.

4. Distortion is minimum because less material is melted in a shorter time and the
heat affected zone (HAZ) is smaller.

5. Faster welding and high production rates can be achieved.

The above features allow welding near heat sensitive or distortion critical parts.

3.10.4 Laser Heat Treatment

⇒ Laser heat treatment is the process which consists of heating metals and certain
other materials for some time to harden them.

⇒ The high heat energy produced by a laser beam is ideal for surface modification.

⇒ Laser heating produces local changes at the surface of material while leaving
the properties of the material component unchanged.

⇒ The laser heat treatment process can be divided into three broad areas.

1. Heating without melting: This is generally known as heat treating. In

this process, surface of the metal is not melted, but it involves a solid sate
transformation. As a result of the metallurgical reactions produced during

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these heating and cooling cycle both mechanical (resistance, hardness, etc.) and
chemical properties (corrosion resistance, etc.) greatly enhanced.

2. Heating with melting: (laser glazing, surface homogenization and remelting

). this method involves very rapid heating, melting, and cooling to modify the
surface properties.

3. Melting with addition of material: This method involves melting of the

surface plus addition of another materials to form a modified surface layer.
In general CO2 , N D : Y AG lasers are used for laser processing.

Advantages of Laser Heat Treatment

1. Surface hardening increases wear resistance and fatigue life through micro
structural changes in the metal surface during processing.

2. As the efficiency of laser processing is very high it results in low distortion.

3. As the output beam can easily be shaped by optical components into square
circle, lines or into complex axi symmetric shapes it make it easy to heat treat
machine parts such as bearing races, gears, shafts, cylinders, camshaft, etc.

4. Heat treatment over a very small portion of a larger system is also possible.

3.10.5 Laser Cutting

Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut materials. The most popular
lasers for cutting materials are CO2 and N d : Y AG.

Process

⇒ Laser cutting of metals is generally done with the help of gas, like air, oxygen,
nitrogen, or argon. Which is directed into the cut through a nozzle.

⇒ When a high power laser beam is focused at the surface of the material to be
cut it melts the material.

⇒ The melted material can be removed by making use of a gas jet coaxial with the
laser as shown in figure 3.15

⇒ The laser focusing part is surrounded by a nozzle into which oxygen gas is passed.

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Figure 3.15: Schematic diagram of laser cutting process

⇒ When laser heats up the material, it interacts with the gas and the gas gets
combustion.

⇒ The combustion of the gas burns the metal thus reducing the laser power
requirement for cutting.

⇒ The tiny splinters along with the molten part of the metal will be blown away
by the oxygen jet.

⇒ The gas jet also help in removing the molten material.

⇒ It is the laser not the burning gas which controls the accuracy of cutting.

⇒ Thus the cut edges will be of very high quality.

⇒ Oxygen is used in cases where oxidation of the edges is allowable.

⇒ The cutting rate gets increased when oxygen is used for cutting metals due to
the reaction between the oxygen and molten metal.

⇒ TO cut materials that are oxide free, like wood, paper, plastic, etc., instead of
oxygen, inert gases like nitrogen or argon is used.

Applications of Laser in Cutting

1. Laser cutting is used to cut all types of metals including carbon, stainless and
zinc coated steel, super alloys, aluminum, titanium etc.

2. Laser cutting is also used for cutting plastics and ceramics.

3. Laser cutting can also be used to cut materials coated with enamel, porcelain or
ceramics without causing any damage to the outer coating.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

4. Lasers are also used in garment industry to cut dozens to hundreds of thickness
of clothes.

5. Laser cutting of stainless steel, nickel alloys and other metals find widespread
applications in the aircraft and automobile industries.

Advantages of Laser Cutting

The advantages of laser cutting are;

1. Flexibility: The range of materials to which laser cutting can be applied.

2. Edge quality: The laser cutting results in high quality edges which can be
painted without additional finishing.

3. Easy Automation: Can easily automated to limited operator involvement and

even "light out" operation.

4. Distortion Free: There is no physical contact between the workpiece and the
cutting tool.

5. High precision.

3.11 Fermi’s Golden Rule

In quantum Physics, Fermi’s Golden Rule which is also known as the Golden Rule
of Time - dependent Perturbation Theory is a formula that describes the transition
rate (Probability of transition per unit time) from one energy eigenstate of a quantum
system into another energy eigenstate in a continuum, effected by a weak perturbation.
This rate is effectively constant.

The result is obtained by applying the time - dependent perturbation theory to a

system that undergoes a transition from an initial state to a final state that is part of
continuum of states.

One of the prominent failures of the Bohr model for atomic spectra was that it couldn’t
predict that one spectral line would be brighter than another. From the quantum
theory came an explanation in terms of wavefunctions, and for situations where the
transition probability is constant in time, it is usually expressed in a relationship
called Fermi’s golden rule.

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In general conceptual terms, a transition rate depends upon the strength of the
coupling between the initial and final state of a system and upon the number of ways
the transition can happen (i.e., the density of the final states). In many physical
situations the transition probability is of the form

2π 2
λif = Mif ρf (3.17)
ℏ
Here λif is the transition probability or
ℏ is the reduced Plank Constant
Mif is the Matrix element for the interaction
ρf is Density of final states

The transition probability λis also called the Decay probability and is related to the
mean lifetime τ of the state by λ = 1/τ

The general form of Fermi’s Golden Rule can apply to atomic transitions, Nuclear
decay, Scattering .....a large variety of physical transitions.

A transition will proceed more rapidly if the coupling between the initial and final
states is stronger.

This coupling term is traditionally called the Matrix Element for the transition.

The transition probability is also proportional to the density of final states ρf . It is

reasonably common for the final state to be composed of several states with the same
energy - such states are said to be degenerate states. This degeneracy is sometimes
expressed as a "statistical weight" which will appear as a factor in the transition
probability. In many cases there will be a continuum of final states, so that this
density of final states is expressed as a function of energy.

3.12 Exciton

⇒ An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are

attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force.

⇒ It is formed by the combination of an electron and an electron gap (i.e. hole)

in certain semiconductor and insulating solids and sometimes in some liquids,
which is free to move through a material.

⇒ Because the electron and the positive hole have equal but opposite electrical

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charges, the exciton as a whole has no net electrical charge. This makes excitons
difficult to detect, but detection is possible by indirect means.

⇒ When a photon is absorbed in a semiconductor, excitations can occur. At this

point, the photon can excite electrons from the valence band into the conduction
band, leaving behind positively charged electron gap (i.e. hole). The excited
electron in the conduction band is then effectively attracted to this localized
hole.

⇒ The effective attraction between an electron and the hole also affected by the
repulsive Coulomb forces due to the shielding effect appeared from large numbers
of electrons surrounding the hole and excited electron.

⇒ Between the electron and the hole, a weak bond is formed, which results in
the bound electron being able to get a little lower energy than a non-binding
electron in the conduction band.

⇒ Consequently, the exciton has slightly less energy than the unbound electron
and hole.

Figure 3.16: Schematic diagram of Exciton

3.13 Examples

Example 1 Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of a laser beam of

wavelength 6328Å(Given: Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light
= 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant kβ = 1.38 × 10−23 J/k).

Solution:

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Given :λ = 6328Å = 6328 × 10−10 m The energy of Photons is given by;

E = hν
hc
=
λ
(6.62 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
E=
(6328 × 10−10 )
= 3.14 × 10−19 Joule
3.14 × 10−19
E= eV
1.6 × 10−19
E = 1.96 eV

Now, the momentum of the photon;

h
p=
λ
6.62 × 10−34
=
6.328 × 10−7
p = 1.05 × 10−27 kg m/s

Example 2 Find the ratio of population of the two energy states ( N2

N1
) in a laser the
transition between which is responsible for the emission of photons of wavelength
698.3×10−9 m. Assume the Temperature is 300 K.(Given: Plank’s Constant = 6.625×
10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant kβ = 1.38 × 10−23 J/k).

Solution:

Given : T = 300 K, λ = 698.3 × 10−9 m, and ( N

N1
2
) =?
Let ∆ E be the energy between the two energy states.

N2 −∆ E
= e kβ T
N1
hc
∆E =
λ 
6.625×10−34 ×3×108
N2 −
=e 698.3×10−9 ×1.38×10−23 ×300

N1
 
1.9875×10−25
−
=e 2.89096×10−27

= e−68.748
N2
= 1.3892 × 10−30
N1

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 3 The first line of the principle series of sodium is the D line at 590 nm.
This corresponds to a transition from the first excited state (3p) to the ground state
(3s). What is the energy in electron volts of the first excited state? ( Given:Plank’s
Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s)

Solution:

Given :Wavelength of the sodium D line: λ = 590 nm = 5900 × 10−10 m,

E = hν
hc
E=
λ
6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
5.9 × 10−7
= 3.369 × 10−19 J
3.369 × 10−19
E=
1.602 × 10−19
E = 2.102 eV

Example 4 What fraction of sodium atom is in the first excited state in a sodium
vapour lamp at a temperature 250 C ?( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s,
Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant kβ = 1.38 × 10−23 J/k, Wavelength
= 5.9 × 10−7 )

Solution:

Given :The temperature T = 250 C = 250 + 273 = 523 K Let N2 be the population of
the first excited state and N1 be the population of the ground state, then;

N2 e−E2 /kT
= −E1 /kT
N1 e
= e−(E2 −E1 )/kT
= e−(hν)/kT
6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
" #
= exp −
1.38 × 10−23 × 523 × 5.9 × 10−7
= exp[−46.68]
N2
= 5.335 × 10−21
N1

Hence the ratio between the atoms in the first excited state and the ground state is

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

5.33 × 10−21 .

Example 5 What is the ratio of the stimulated emission to spontaneous emission at

a temperature of 250 C for the sodium D line?( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 ×
10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant kβ = 1.38 × 10−23 J/k,
Wavelength = 5.9 × 10−7 )

Solution:

Given :The temperature T = 250 C = 250 + 273 = 523 K

Stimulated emission 1
= hν
spontaneous emission e /kT − 1
1
= hc
e /kT λ − 1
1
= h
6.626×10−34 ×3×108
i
exp 1.38×10−23 ×523×5.9×10−7
−1
1
= h
1.9875×10−25
i
exp 4.2582×10−27
−1
1
=
−1
e46.67
1
=
1.855 × 1020
Stimulated emission
= 5.390 × 10−21
spontaneous emission

Hence the ratio between the stimulated and spontaneous emission is 5.390 × 10−21 .

Example 6 Using Einstein’s theory, show that in the optical region say at λ = 5000Å
and T = 300 K, the amplification is not possible.( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 ×
10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant kβ = 1.38 × 10−23 J/k)

Solution:

Given :The temperature T = 300 K, The wavelength of the incident light λ = 5000Å.
The frequency of the incident light is

c
ν=
λ
3 × 108
=
5000 × 10−10
ν = 6 × 1014 Hz

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Stimulated emission 1
= hν
spontaneous emission e /kT − 1
1
= −34 ×6×1014
exp[ 6.626×10
300×1.38×10−23
] −1
1
= h −19
i
exp 3.9756×10
4.14×10−21
−1
1
= 96
e −1
Stimulated emission
= 2.03 × 10−42
spontaneous emission

This shows that the spontaneous emission is more predominant than that of the
stimulated emission. For stimulated emission, N2 >> N1 should exists. Therefore
there is no amplification possibility. But subsequent development in maintaining
population inversion by pumping at the atoms from lower level to higher level optically
or electrically led to discovery of laser.

Example 7 A He - Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an

output power of 2.3 mW . How many photons are emitted in each minute by laser
when operating? (Given: Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light
= 3 × 108 m/s)

Solution:

Given :The wavelength of the laser beam λ = 632.8 nm = 6328 × 1010 m, The output
power, P = 2.3 mW . The frequency of the photons emitted by the laser beam.

c
ν=
λ
3 × 108
=
6328 × 10−10
ν = 4.74 × 1014 Hz
the energy of a photon
hν = 6.626 × 10−34 × 4.74 × 1014
= 3.14 × 10−19 J
Energy emitted by the laser = 2.3 mW
= 2.3 × 10−3 J s−1
= 2.3 × 10−3 × 60 J min−1

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Energy emitted by laser

The number of Photons emitted =
The energy of Photon
2.3 × 10−3 × 60
=
3.14 × 10−19
The number of Photons emitted = 4.3949 × 1017 photons per min.

Example 8 In Ruby laser, total number of Cr3+ ions is 2.8 × 1019 . If the laser
beam emits the radiation of wavelength 7000Å, calculate the energy of laser pulse.(
Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s)

Solution:

Given : n = 2.8 × 1019 , λ = 7000Å

The energy of the laser pulse is given by ;

E = Number of ions × Energy of one Photon

E = n(h ν)
!
hc
E=n
λ
(6.62 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
= (2.8 × 1019 ) × joule
7000 × 10−10
E = 7.94 Joule

Example 9 Find the intensity of a laser beam of 10 mW power and having a diameter
of 1.3 mm. Assume the intensity to be uniform.

Solution:

Given : P = 10 mW = 10 × 10−3 W , d = 1.3 mm = 1.3 × 10−3 m

Power
Intensity =
Area
P
=
π r2
4P
=
π d2
4 × (10 × 10−3 )
=
3.14 × (1.3 × 10−3 )2
Intensity = 7.5 kW/m2

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 10 A certain laser emits 1.00 J pulse of light whose wavelength is 6940Å.
What is the minimum number of Cr3+ ions in the Ruby?( Given:Plank’s Constant
= 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s)

Solution:

Given : P = 1.00 J, λ = 6940Å

P = Number of Ions × Energy of one Photon

!
hc
P =n
λ
n × (6.62 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
1.00 =
6940 × 10−10
1.00 × (6940 × 10−10 )
n=
(6.62 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
n = 3.49 × 1018 ions

Example 11 Calculate the population ratio of two states in He - Ne laser that produces
light of wavelength 6000Å at 300 K.( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s,
Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant = 8.6 × 10−5 eV )

Solution:

Given : T = 300 K, λ = 6000Å

We know that population ratio of two states in He-Ne laser is given by;

N2
= e−(E2 −E1 )/kT
N1
hc
(E1 − E1 ) =
λ
(6.62 × 10−34 ) × (3 × 108 )
=
6.0 × 10−7
= 3.31 × 10−19 J
3.31 × 10−19
=
1.6 × 10−19
= 2.07 eV
k = 8.6 × 10−5 eV /K and T = 300K

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

k T = (8.6 × 10−5 ) × 300

= 2.58 × 10−2 eV
N2 −2
= e−(2.07/2.58×10 )
N1
N2
= e−(80)
N1
N2
= 1.80485 × 10−35
N1

Example 12 A laser beam can be focused on an area equal to the square of its
wavelength (λ2 ). For a He − N e laser, λ = 632.8 nm. If the laser radiation energy at
the rate of 1 mW , Find out the intensity of focused beam.

Solution: Given : λ = 632.8 nm, Here Area is the square of the wavelength hence;

Area = λ2
= (6328 × 10−10 )2
= 4.00435 × 10−15
Area = 4.00435 × 10−15
P ower
Intensity =
Area
1 × 10−3 W
=
4 × 10−15 m2
I = 2.5 × 1015 W/m2

Example 13 Fine the ratio of population ( N

N1
2
) of the two states in a He - Ne
laser that produces light of wavelength 632.8 nm at 27◦ C. ( Given:Plank’s Constant
= 6.625×10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3×108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant = 8.6×10−5 eV )

Solution:

Given : T = 27 + 273 = 300 K, λ = 632.8 × 10−9 m

We know that population ratio of two states in He-Ne laser is given by;

N2 −(E2 −E1 )
= e kT
N1
Now

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

hc
(E2 − E1) =
λ
6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
632.8 × 10−9
6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
632.8 × 10−9 × 1.6 × 10−19
(E2 − E1) = 1.96 eV
k T = 8.6 × 10−5 × 300
k T = 0.026
N2 0.196
 
= exp −
N1 0.026
= exp[−7.538]
N2
= 5.3 × 10−4
N1

Example 14 For InP laser diode, the wavelength of light emission is 1.55 µm.. What
is its band gap in eV ? ( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of
Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant = 8.6 × 10−5 eV , Charge of electron =
1.6 × 10−19 C)

Solution:

Given : λ = 1.55 × 10−6 m, Eg =?

hc
Eg =
λ
6.625 × 1 −−34 ×3 × 108
=
1.55 × 10−6 × 1.6 × 10−19
1.9875 × 10−25
=
2.48 × 10−25
Eg = 0.8014 eV

Example 15 Calculate the long wavelength limit of an extrinsic semiconductor if

the ionisation energy is 0.02 eV ( Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed
of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann Constant = 8.6 × 10−5 eV ,Charge of electron =
1.6 × 10−19 C)

Solution:

Given : E = 0.02 eV = 0.02 × 1.6 × 10−19 J

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

hc
λ=
E
6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
0.02 × 1.6 × 10−19
1.9875 × 10−25
=
3.2 × 10−21
λ = 6.2109 × 10−5 m

Example 16 A laser source emits light of wavelength 0.621µ m and has an output of
3.5 mW . Calculate how many photons are emitted per minute by this laser source. (
Given:Plank’s Constant = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s, Speed of Light = 3 × 108 m/s, Boltzmann
Constant = 8.6 × 10−5 eV ,Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C)

Solution:

Given : The power output i.e., the total energy

E = 3.5 mW
= 3.5 × 10−3 Js−1
= 3.5 × 10−3 × 60 J/minute
λ = 0.621µ m
The frequency of the photons emitted is given by
c
ν=
λ
3 × 108
=
0.621 × 10−6
ν = 4.8309 × 10−19 J
but we know that
E = hν
= 6.625 × 10−34 × 4.8309 × 1014
E = 3.200 × 10−19 J
This is the energy emitted by one photon.
The number of photons emitted per minute is

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

total energy emitted per minute

n=
energy of one photon
3.5 × 10−3 × 60
n=
3.200 × 10−19
0.21
=
3.2 × 10−19
n = 6.562 × 1017 photons/minute

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 152 B.V.M. Engineering College

Chapter No 4

Measurement Techniques

4.1 Hall Effect

Hall Effect was first discovered by scientist H.G. Hall in 1879.

⇒ If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I is placed in a trans-

verse magnetic field B an electric field E is induced in a direction perpendicular
to both I and B.

⇒ This Phenomenon is called Hall Effect and generated voltage is known as Hall
Voltage VH .

Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of Hall Effect

⇒ It is used to detect whether a semiconductor is of n - type or p -type.

⇒ Here, under the application of some potential difference, let current I flow
through it along the positive x - direction.

153
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ let, the magnetic field B along the positive z - direction (⊥ to the plane of the
paper).

⇒ Hence, electric field E is generated along the positive y - direction.

⇒ and force F acts on the charge carriers along negative y - direction.

⇒ Let us consider a n - type semiconductor.

⇒ As semiconductor is on n - type, majority charge carriers are electrons.

⇒ On application of magnetic field B, the electron experiences a side way deflection

due to magnetic force.

⇒ This force due to the magnetic field has a magnitude,

FL = B e v (4.1)

Here, FL is the Lorentz Force

B is the Magnetic Field
e is the charge of electrons
v is the drift velocity of electrons

⇒ Thus the electron will be force to move downwards towards the side 1.

⇒ It means that in absence of (⊥) perpendicular magnetic field, electrons will

travel in a straight path,

⇒ but under the application of the magnetic field the path of the electron will
become curve.

⇒ Due to this separation of charges will take place on both the sides 1 and 2.

⇒ Separation of charges establishes the electric field that opposes the magnitude
of the charges.

⇒ Means, field will oppose the further piling up of the electrons on surface 1.

⇒ In an equilibrium condition, the force due to the electric field balances the force
due to the magnetic field.

⇒ Hence, electrons do not move along the y - direction.

⇒ At these stage a steady potential is developed across the surface 1 and 2.

⇒ This steady potential (Voltage) is called Hall Voltage VH .

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Let E be the electric field intensity due to Hall voltage VH .

⇒ Then, the force due to the electric field balances the force due to the magnetic
field.
F = eE (4.2)

⇒ Now substitute the value of F from equation (4.1) in to equation (4.2) we get;

eE = Bev
E =Bv (4.3)

⇒ But, we know that E is the Potential difference per unit length.

VH
E= (4.4)
d

⇒ Here, VH is the Hall Voltage and d is the distance between two surfaces 1 and 2.

⇒ now substitute the equation (4.4) in equation (4.3)we get

VH
=Bv
d
∴ VH = B v d (4.5)

⇒ Now the current flowing through the semiconductor is given by;

I = nevA (4.6)

Here, n is the concentration of electrons

e is the charge of electrons
v is the drift velocity of electrons
A is the crossectional area of the semiconducting specimen.
So, the equation (4.6) can be written as

I
v= (4.7)
neA

⇒ Now substitute the value of equation (4.7) in equation (4.5)we get

BId
VH = (4.8)
neA

Here, n is the carrier concentration

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

A is the cross-sectional area of the semiconductor strip

⇒ Now consider that;

I
J= (4.9)
A
Here J is the current density which is the current per unit area.

⇒ Hence, the Hall Voltage is given by

1
VH = BJd (4.10)
ne

⇒ Charge density ρ is the charge per unit volume;

ρ = ne (4.11)

⇒ and Area A is given as

A = d.W (4.12)

Where, W is the width of the specimen in the direction of applied magnetic

field.
d is the distance between two surfaces

⇒ Now substitute the values from equation(4.11) and equation (4.12) in equation
4.8 we get;

BId
VH =
ρdw
BI
VH = (4.13)
ρW

⇒ If the polarity of VH is positive at the surface 2, then, majority carriers must

electrons and semiconductor is of n - type.

⇒ But if surface 1 has a positive polarity with respect to surface 2, then carriers
are positively charged holes and semiconductor is of p - type.

⇒ The measurements of Hall Voltage VH helps us to determine whether the semi-

conductor is of n - type or p -type.

⇒ From equation (4.13)it is clear that Hall Voltage VH is proportional to both

Magnetic field B and J.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 156 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ Here the proportionality constant 1

ne
is known as Hall Coefficient RH .

⇒ Now from equation (4.11) carrier concentration and charge density can be
determined.

⇒ Now the Hall Coefficient RH is defined as ;

1
RH =
ne
1
=
ρ
1
RH = (4.14)
ρ

⇒ Substitute the values equation (4.14) in equation (4.13). we get;

BI
VH = RH
W

Now make RH as a subject

VH W
RH = (4.15)
BI

⇒ Here we know that E = VH

d
so VH = E d and Area A = d W hence equation
(4.15) can be written as;

E dW
RH =
BI
EA
RH =
BI

We also know that J =I/A, Hence, A/I = 1/J

E
RH = (4.16)
BJ

⇒ Hence the Hall coefficient RH is defined as Electric field strength per unit surface
current density due to unit transverse magnetic field.

⇒ Conductivity of the semiconducting material is given by;

σ = n e, µ (4.17)

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 157 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Where µ is the mobility of the charge carriers.

1
σ= µ
RH

∵ (n e = ρ, RH = 1/ρ, ρ = 1/RH ) Hence µ can be written as

µ = RH σ (4.18)

⇒ This equation (4.18) gives the mobility of the charge carriers.

4.2 UV - VIS Spectroscopy

⇒ Ultraviolet and Visible (UV - VIS) absorption spectroscopy is the measurement

of the attenuation of a beam of light after it passes through a sample or after
reflection from a sample surface.

⇒ An absorption measurement can be at a single wavelength or over an extended

spectral range.

⇒ In this method, Ultraviolet and Visible radiation interacts with matter which
causes electronic transitions (Promotes the electrons from the ground state to
the excited energy state.)

⇒ The Ultraviolet region falls in the range between 190 − 380 nm and Visible region
falls between 380 − 75 nm.

⇒ The UV - VIS spectroscopy is used for the analysis of various compounds to find
out the absorbance value and wavelength maxima in UV - VIS region.

⇒ The optical band gap Eg of material is one of the crucial optical parameter.

⇒ The energy band gap in semiconductor is usually classified in Direct Band Gap
and Indirect Band Gap with allowed and forbidden transitions.

⇒ Direct and Indirect band gap of semiconducting material will be determined

using following methods.

1. Absorption Spectra

2. Reflectance Spectra

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 158 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The optical absorption technique is an important technique for finding out the
nature of transition of carriers and band gap of a material by investigating
measurement of the absorption edge of the material.

⇒ In this technique, photons of selected wavelength are directed at normal incidence

on the sample and their relative transmittance is observed.

⇒ Since the photons with energies greater than the band gap energy are absorbed.

⇒ While, photons with energies less than band gap are transmitted.

⇒ This technique provides an accurate measurement of the energy gap.

⇒ The absorption of light from ultraviolet and visible region of the spectrum, sets
valence electrons into oscillations and produces an excitation of the molecule
from the ground electronic state to the excited electronic state.

⇒ On the other hand, the absorption of energy from the far infrared region of the
spectrum produces the molecular rotation and absorption near infrared radiation
produces the rotation plus atomic vibrations.

⇒ Thus the light absorption produces changes in the internal energy of molecule
from which much can be learnt about molecular structure and inter-molecular
forces.

⇒ When a photon beam of intensity I0 (P hoton/cm2 sec) transmits through a slab

of a medium of thickness x.

⇒ The beam of Photon attenuates in accordance with the exponential law

I = I0 e−α x (4.19)

⇒ Here α is the absorption coefficient and unit is cm−1

x is the thickness of the sample.

⇒ This absorption coefficient can simply be obtain by measuring I/I0 of the

intensities impinging.

4.3 Hot - Probe Method

⇒ The Hot - Probe experiment provides a very simple way to distinguish between
n - type and p -type semiconductor using a soldering iron and a standard
multimeter.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ An experiment is performed by contacting a semiconductor wafer with a hot

probe, such as a heated soldering iron and a cold probe.

⇒ Both probes are wired to a sensitive current meter.

⇒ The hot probe is connected to a positive terminal of the meter.

⇒ While, cold probe is connected to the negative terminal.

⇒ The experimental set up is shown below in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of Hot Point Probe Method

⇒ When applying the probes to n - type material, one obtains a positive current
reading on the meter.

⇒ While p - type yields a negative current on the meter.

⇒ A simple explanation of this experiment is that thermally excited majority free

mobile charge carriers are translated within the semiconductor from the hot
probe to the cold probe.

⇒ The mechanism for this motion within the semiconductor is the diffusion type.

⇒ Since the material is uniformly doped due to the constant heating in the hot
probe contact.

⇒ These translated majority carriers define the electrical potential sign of the
measured current in the multimeter.

⇒ if the semiconductor is of n - type, electrons will move away from the hot probe.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 160 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ leaving behind the charge carriers of donors and the hot probe becomes positive
with respect to cold probe.

⇒ In p - type semiconductor, the direction of current flow is reversed.

⇒ Thus the polarity of the hot probe indicates whether the semiconductor is of n
-type or p - type.

4.4 Four Probe Method

4.4.1 Introduction

⇒ Four Probe Method is usually used to determine the band gap of a semiconducting
material.

⇒ The electrical properties of material is one of the most important properties.

⇒ These properties helps us to classify the material in terms of Metal, Semicon-

ductors and Insulator.

⇒ The electrical resistivity is an intrinsic property of solid material.

⇒ It qualifies how strongly a given material opposes the flow of electrical current.

⇒ Electrical resistivity can be measured using several ways depending on the

magnitude of the resistance involved in the material.

⇒ Two general methods involved for measuring the resistance of the material are;

1. Two Probe Method

2. Four Probe Method

Resistivity (ρ):
At a given constant temperature, the resistance (R) of the conductor is propor-
tional to its length (L) and inversely proportional to it area of cross - section
(A).

L
R∝
A
L
R=ρ (4.20)
A

Here, ρ is the constant of proportionality and known as resisitivity of metal /

material

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 161 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ It is also defined as Resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross
sectional area.

⇒ Unit of resistance is (Ω).

⇒ Unit of resistivity is (Ω m.)

4.5 Four Probe Method

⇒ many conventional methods for measuring the resistivity are unsatisfactory for
semiconductors.

⇒ The main reason is that metal - semiconductor contacts are usually rectifying in
nature.

⇒ Also, there is generally minority carrier injection by one of the current carrying
contact.

⇒ This excess concentration of minority carriers will affect the potential of the
other contacts and modulate the resistance of the material.

⇒ The four probe method is the method to overcome the difficulties mentioned
above.

⇒ This method offers many advantages i.e.

⇒ It permits the measurement of resistivity in samples having a wide variety of

shapes.

⇒ Including the resistivity of small volumes within a bigger pieces of semiconductor.

⇒ In this method, four probes are utilized to measure the resistance of the sample.

⇒ Four sharp probes are placed on the flat surface of the material which is to be
tested.

⇒ The current is passed through the two outer electrodes and the floating potential
(Voltage)is measured across the inner pair.

⇒ The typical set up of four probe method is shown in below figure 4.3.

⇒ There are four equally spaced tungsten metal tips supported by the springs at
one end to mount on the sample surface without any damage.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 162 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 4.3: Schematic diagram of Four Probe Method

⇒ A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer
two probes, which sets up an electric field in the sample.

⇒ The potential difference developed is measured through two inner probes.

In order to use this four probe method in semiconductor crystal or slides,

it is necessary to assume that..

1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of the measurement.

2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current

carrying electrodes, most of the carrier recombination take place near the
electrode, so that their effect on the conductivity is negligible.

3. The surface on which probe rest is flat with mo surface leakage.

4. The four probes used for the resistivity measurements, contact the surface at
points that lie in a straight line.

5. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor
should be small compared to the distance between probes.

6. The boundary between the current carrying electrode and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.

7. The surface of the semiconductor crystal may be either conducting or non -

conducting.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

8. A conducting boundary is one on which a material of much lower resistivity

than semiconductor has been plated.

9. A non - conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the crystal is in

contact with an insulator.

⇒ Let us assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness
is greater than the distance between the probes.

V
ρ0 = 2π S (4.21)
I

⇒ Here ρ0 is the resistivity

V is the applied voltage
I is the applied current
S is the distance between the probes.

⇒ Since the thickness of the crystal is small compared to the probe distance.

⇒ A correction factor G7 has to be applied

ρ0
ρ= (4.22)
W/S

⇒ The function G7 (W/S) can be obtain from the standard values.

⇒ Thus the ρ can be calculated for various temperatures.

⇒ Now Plot the graph of log ρ Vs 1

T
× 10−3 . Using the equation;

Eg
loge ρ = − loge k (4.23)
2kT

⇒ Thus the slope of the equation is given by;

loge ρ Eg
= (4.24)
1/T 2k

⇒ Thus Eg may be obtained from the slope of the curve. (Note that loge =
2.3036 log10 ).

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 164 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 4.4: Plot to measure the band gap using Four Probe Method

4.6 Capacitance - Voltage (C-V) Measurements

⇒ In the year 1960, two scientists J. Hilibrand and R. D. Gold developed a

formula for capacitance - voltage measurement of the impurity/ doping profile
of semiconductor.

⇒ This is the technique for characterizing Semiconductor material and devices.

⇒ In this method the applied voltage is varied and the capacitance is measured
and plotted as a function of voltaqe.

⇒ This technique uses a metal semiconductor junction (Schottky barrier) or a p - n

junction or a MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)to
create a depletion region.

⇒ Depletion region is a region which is empty of conducting electrons and holes.

⇒ But depletion region may contain ionized donor and electrically active defects.

⇒ The depletion region with its ionized charges inside behaves like a capacitor.

⇒ By varying the voltage applied to the junction it is possible to vary the depletion
width.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 165 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The dependence of the depletion width upon the applied voltage provides the
information on the semiconductor’s internal characteristics, such as doping
profile and electrically active defects densities.

⇒ Physically, capacitance (C) is determined from the variables in the following

equation:
C = A(k/d)

⇒ where: A = area of the capacitor,

k = dielectric constant of the insulator,
d = separation of the two plates.

⇒ As a result, the larger A and k are and the thinner the insulator, higher will be
the capacitance .

⇒ Typically, semiconductor capacitance values range from nanofarads to picofarads

or smaller.

⇒ The procedure for taking C-V measurements involves the application of DC bias
voltages across the capacitor,

⇒ to understand the different bias modes of an MOS capacitor we now consider

three different bias voltages.

⇒ One below the flatband voltage (VF B ), a second between the flatband voltage
(VF B ) and the threshold voltage (VT ), and finally one larger than the threshold
voltage.

⇒ These bias regimes are called the accumulation, depletion and inversion mode of
operation.

⇒ Accumulation:Accumulation occurs when one applies a voltage less than the

flatband voltage.

⇒ Accumulation occurs typically for negative voltages where the negative charge on
the gate attracts holes from the substrate to the oxide-semiconductor interface.

⇒ Since they can’t get through the insulating layer, capacitance is at a maximum
in the accumulation region as the charges stack up near that interface because d
is at a minimum

⇒ Depletion: Depletion occurs for positive voltages when the bias voltage is
reversed.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

⇒ The Electric field created from gate toward the substrate, so the positive charge
on the gate pushes the mobile holes into the substrate.

⇒ Therefore, the semiconductor is depleted of mobile carriers (holes) at the interface

and a negative charge is left in the space charge region (near oxide-semiconductor
interface).

⇒ When the bias voltage is reversed, charge carriers move the greatest distance from
the oxide layer, and capacitance is at a minimum because d is at a maximum.

⇒ The voltage separating the accumulation and depletion regime is referred to as

the flatband voltage (VF B ).

⇒ Inversion:Inversion occurs at voltages beyond the threshold voltage. In inver-

sion, there exists a negatively charged inversion layer at the oxide-semiconductor
interface in addition to the depletion-layer.

⇒ This inversion layer is due to the minority carriers that are attracted to the
interface by the positive gate voltage.

⇒ From this inversion region capacitance, the number of majority carriers can be
derived.

⇒ Different AC signal frequencies can reveal additional details.

⇒ Low frequencies uncover what are called quasi static characteristics where high-
frequency testing is more indicative of dynamic performance. Both types of C-V
testing often are required.

4.6.1 Advantage of C - V Technique

⇒ Compared with the other semiconductor profiling techniques like Hall Effect,
Differential Conductance etc....

⇒ The C -V Method is an electric non - destructive measurement technique for

the measurement of barrier capacitance of semiconductor junction like p - n
junction and even MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor)structure.

⇒ The non - destructive character and large applicability gave this method a wide
spread almost universal usage in semiconductor industry.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 167 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

4.7 Examples

Example 1 The conductivity and the Hall coefficient of a n-type silicon specimen
are 112 Ω −1 m−1 and 1.25 × 10−13 m3 C −1 respectively. Calculate the charge carrier
density and electron mobility. (Given: Charge of electron is 1.6 × 10−19 , ).

Solution:

Given: σe = 112 × Ω −1 m−1 , RH = 1.25 × 10−13 m3 C −1 , ne =? and µe =?.

µe = σe RH
= 112 × 1.25 × 10−4
µe = 0.14 m2 V −1 s−1
we know that
σe
µe =
ne e
Therefore
σe
ne =
µe e
112
=
0.14 × 1.6 × 10−19
112
=
2.24 × 10−20
ne = 5 × 1021 electron/m3

Example 2 A semiconducting crystal 12mm long, 1mm wide and 1mm thick has
a magnetic flux density of 0.5 W b/m2 applied from front to back perpendicular to
largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows lengthwise through the specimen, the
voltage measured across its width is found to be 37µv. What is the hall coefficient of
semiconductor and the density of charge carrier.

Solution:

Given: l = 12mm = 12 × 10−3 m, t = 1mm = 1 × 10−3 m, b = 1mm = 1 × 10−3 m,

I = 20mA = 20×10−3 A, vH = 37µV = 37×10−6 V , B = 0.5 W b/m2 , RH =? and n =?.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 168 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

VH t
RH =
IB
37 × 10−6 × 1 × 10−3
=
20 × 10−3 × 0.5
3.7 × 108
=
0.01
RH = 3.7 × 10−6 C −1 m3

Example 3 A silicon plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10mm and length 100mm is
placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 W B/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness.If 10−2 A
current flows along its length, calculate the Hall coefficient, if Hall voltage developed
is 1.83 mV .

Solution:

Given: t = 1mm = 1×10−3 m, b = 10mm, 10×10−3 m, l = 100mm = 100×10−3 m, B =

0.5W b/m2 , I = 10−2 A, VH = 1.83mV = 1.83 × 10−3 V, RH =?.

VH t
RH =
IB
1.83 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3
=
10−2 × 0.5
1.83 × 10−6
=
10−2 × 0.5
RH = 3.66 × 10−4 m3 C −1

Example 4 The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be −7.35 ×
10−5 m2 C −1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor if the
conductivity was found to be 200Ω −1 m−1 . Calculate the density and mobility of the
charge carrier. (Given: Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given: RH = −7.35 × 10−5 m3 C −1 , σ = 200Ω −1 m−1 , ne =? and µe =?.

The negative sign of the Hall coefficient indicates that the nature of the semiconductor
is n-type.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 169 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

1
ne =
RH e
1
=
7.35 × 10−5 × 1.6 × 10−19
ne = 8.503 × 1022 electrons/m3
Mobility
σ
µe =
ne e
200
=
8.503 × 1022
× 1.6 × 10−19
µe = 14.7006 × 10−3 m2 V −1 s−1
OR
µe = σRH
= 200 × 7.35 × 10−5
µe = 14.7 × 10−3 m2 V −1 s−1

Example 5 A rectangular plane sheet of doped silicon has dimensions of 1 cm along

y- direction, and 0.5mmlong along z-direction. Hall probes are attached on its two
surfaces parallel to X − Z plane and a magnetic field flux density 0.7 W b/m2 is applied
along Z- direction. A current of 1mA is flowing in it in the X-direction. Calculate
the Hall voltage measured by the probes if the Hall coefficient of the material is
1.25 × 103 m3 C −1 .(Given: Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given: B = 0.7W b/m2 , I = 1×10−3 A, RH = 1.25×10−3 m3 C −1 , b = 1cm = 1×10−2 m,

t = 0.5mm = 0.5 × 10−3 m, VH =?.

RH IB
VH =
t
1.25 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3 × 0.7
=
0.5 × 10−3
= 1.75 × 10−3 V
VH = 1.75 mV

Example 6 The Hall coefficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

3.66 × 10−4 m3 C −1 . The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 × 10−3 Ωm. Find the
mobility and density of the charge carrier.(Given: Charge of electron = 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given: RH = 3.66 × 10−4 m3 C −1 , ρ = 8.93 × 10−3 Ωm, µ =? and n =?

1
RH =
ne
1
n=
RH e
1
=
3.66 × 10−4× 1.6 × 10−19
n = 1.7076 × 1022 /m3
Mobility
µ = σRH
RH
µ=
ρ
3.66 × 10−4
=
8.93 × 10−3
µ = 0.0409 m2 V −1 s−1

Example 5 An electric field of 100 V /m is applied to a sample of n-type semicon-

ductorwhode Hall coefficient is −0.0125 m3 C −1 . Determine the current density in the
sample, assuming electron mobility to be 0.36 m2 V −1 s−1 .(Given: Charge of electron
= 1.6 × 10−19 ).

Solution:

Given: RH = −0.0125 m3 C −1 , µe = 0.36 m2 V −1 s−1 , EH = 100 V /m, J =?

1
RH =
ne
1
ne =
RH e
1
=
0.0125 × 1.6 × 10−19
ne = 5 × 1020 /m3

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 171 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

σe = ne eµe
= 5 × 1020 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.36
σe = 28.8 Ω −1 m−1
we also know
J = σe E
= 28.8 × 100
J = 2880 A/m2

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 172 B.V.M. Engineering College

Chapter No 5

Crystal Physics

5.1 Introduction
→ The matter which surround us is found to exist in three states Viz, solids, liquids,
and gases.

→ All these materials are composed of atoms and molecules. The constituent
particles, atoms or molecules of matter are held together through forces of
attraction.

→ The attractive forces which hold the constituent particles of a substance together
are called bonds.

→ We know that, some solids are brittle, some are ductile, and some are malleable,
some are strong, some are weak, some are good conductors of heat and electricity,
some are bad conductors of heat and electricity, some are magnetic, some are
non-magnetic and so on.

→ The reason for these different properties of the solids are due to their structure.

→ That is the behaviour of the solid materials is closely related ot the structure of
the material.

5.2 Classification of Solids

→ If we examine the solid materials with which we daily come across, we shall find
that most of them do not have any characteristic difference in their outward
appearance.

173
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ But, if we examine them under the microscope we shall find these materials
have different internal atomic structures.

→ Based on the internal atomic structure, the solids can be classified into two
categories namely, (i) Crystalline (ii) Non-crystalline or Amorphous solids.

5.2.1 Crystalline Solids (Crystals)

Definition: Crystalline solids or crystals are those, in which the constituent atoms
or molecules are arranged in an orderly fashion throughout in a three dimensional
pattern.

→ Each atom or molecules is fixed at a definite points in a space at a definite

distance from and in a definite angular orientation to all other atoms or molecules
surrounding it.

→ Therefore, crystalline solids have well defined geometrical form (pattern), i.e.,
they have well defined faces and angles between them.

→ Further when crystal breaks, the broken pieces are all having regualr shape.

→ The crystalline solids have directional properties and therefore they are called
anisotropic substances.

→ A crystalline material may be either in the form of a single crystal, (where the
solid contains only one crystal) or an aggregate of many small crystals or grains
separated by well defined grain boundaries also known as Polycrstalline solids.

→ Few examples: Copper, Silver, Aluminum, iron etc..

Crystallography: The study of the geometric form and other physical proper-
ties of crystalline solids by using X-rays, electron beams, and neutron beams
etc, is termed as the science of Crystallography.

Note

Grains: The crystals are also known as Grains.

Grain Boundary: The boundary separating the two adjacent grains is called
Grain boundary.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Whisker: Whiskers are nothing but artificially produced crystals. They are
produced under some special condition so that, they do not have any structural
defects.
e.g of Single Crystal: Sugar, common salt (NaCl), diamond etc, These single
crystals are produced artificially form vapour or liquid.

5.2.2 Amorphous Solid (Non-Crystalline Solids)

"Amorphous" means "without form".

→ In amorphous solids, the constituent particles, atoms or molecules are not

arranged in an orderly fashion. i.e., The same atomic groups are arranged more
randomly.

→ These solids have no directional properties and therefore they are called isotropic
substances. These amorphous solids do not have a sharp melting point. E.g.
Plastic, Rubber, and Glass

5.2.3 Difference between crystalline and non-crystalline ma-

terials

Sr.No Crystalline Material Sr.No Non-Crystalline Material

They have a definite and regular
They do not have a definite geometrical
1 geometrical shapes which extended 1
shape
through the crystal
2 They are anisotropic 2 They are isotropic
3 They are most stable 3 They are less stable
4 They have sharp melting point 4 They do not have sharp melting point.
5 e.g. Diamond, NaCl, KCl 5 e.g. Glasses, plastic, rubber

Table 5.1: Difference between crystalline and non-crystalline materials

5.3 Crystal Structure

→ The crystal structure gives the arrangement and position of atoms within a
crystal.

→ Determination of crystal structure with the help of X-rays is known as X-ray

crystallography.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ X-rays are widely used to study the crystal structure because the wavelength of
X-rays (10−12 to 10−10 m) are most comparable with the inter atomic distances.

5.3.1 Fundamental crystallographic terms

5.3.1.1 Lattice

lattice is defined as an array of points such that every lattice point has got the same
environment or every point is indistinguishable from the other lattice point. It is an
imaginary concept.

5.3.1.2 Space Lattice or Crystal Lattice

Definition 1: A three dimensional collection of points in space is called a space lattice

or crystal lattice.
The environment about any particular point is in every way the same.

Definition 2: A geometrical representation of the crystal structure in terms of lattice

points is called space lattice.

Provided, the environment about every point is identical to that of every other point.

The space lattice is an idealized geometrical (imaginary) concept by which crystal

structure can be described.

5.3.1.3 Explanation

→ We know that, a metal consists of a number of crystals, and each crystal in turn,
consists of a large number of atoms.

→ Consider the cross-section of a crystal in which, let the atoms be arranged in a

rectangular pattern as shown in figure 5.1.

→ From the figure it may be noted that, each atom present in the crystal has its
surroundings identical to that of every other atom.

→ Now, if we replace all the atoms in this cross-section by points (corresponding

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Figure 5.1: Arrangement of atoms [cross-section of a metal crystal]

to the centers of all atoms), then the resulting collection of points sown in figure
5.2 is called lattice.

Figure 5.2: Plane lattice

→ This is the case of a two dimensional lattice or Plane Lattice.

→ Similarly, the group of lattice points in the three dimensional pattern is known
as crystal lattice or space lattice.

→ It may be noted that, in a crystal lattice each point has its surrounding identical
to that of every other point.

5.3.1.4 lattice Points

Definition 1: Lattice points denote the position of atoms or molecules in the crystal.

Definition 2: The points in the space lattice are called lattice points.

5.3.1.5 Basis or Motif

→ A crystal structure is formed by associating every lattice point with a unit

assembly of atoms or molecules (i.e., one or more atoms or molecules) identical
in composition, arrangement and orientation.

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→ This unit assembly is called the basis or motif as shown in figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Crystal Structure - formed by the addition of basis with every lattice
points.

→ The number of atoms in the basis may be as low as one.

→ e.g., Aluminum, Barium.

→ In NaCl and KCl the basis is two atoms and in CaF2 the basis is three atoms.

→ However, there are structures for which the basis exceeds 1000 atoms.

5.3.1.6 Lattice Planes

A set of parallel and equally spaced planes in a space lattice which include all lattice
points are called as lattice planes.

The different ways of drawing the lattice planes for the array is shown in figure 5.4.

5.3.1.7 Unit Cell

→ The unit cell is the smallest block or geometric figure from which the entire
crystal is build up by repetition in three dimensions.

→ Consider a two dimensional crystal lattice as shown in figure 5.5(a).

→ When a parallelogram such as ABCD is rotated repeatedly by any integral

multiple of vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, then corresponding to AB and AD whole pattern or
array may be obtained.

→ The whole crystal may thus be reproduced.

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Figure 5.4: The different ways of drawing the lattice planes.

→ The region ABCD is called a unit cell and ⃗a, ⃗b the basis vectors.

→ The choice of the unit cell is not unique. But it can be constructed into number
of ways like A1 B1 C1 D1 or A2 B2 C2 D2 without affecting the symmetry of the
crystal.

Definition 1: The unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric figure, the repetition
of which gives the actual crystal structure.

Definition 2: It may also be defined as the fundamental elementary pattern of

minimum number of atoms, molecules o group of molecules which represents fully all
characteristics of the unit cell.

→ we can extend the same procedure for three dimensional case also. The figure
5.5(b) shows the unit cell in three dimension.

3D Unit cell: A unit cell in three dimension is defined as that volume of the solid
from which the entire crystal can be formed by the translational repetition in three
dimension.

Note:

Unit cell: The unit cell may be considered as the brick of a wall where the latter
represents the crystal.

We know that, the shape of the wall depends upon the shape and arrangement of the
brick.

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Figure 5.5: The schematic diagram of Unit Cell.

Similarly, the shape of the crystal will depend upon the shape of the unit cell and the
arrangement of atoms within the unit cell.

The unit cell is also known as basic cell or basic unit or fundamental unit or fundamental
elementary pattern or building block or lattice unit.

Translation: A motion of a body in which all the points in the body follow parallel
paths.

5.3.1.8 Lattice Parameters

→ The dimension of the unit cell is represented by 6 parameters are called lattice
parameters.

→ The figure 5.6 shows the unit cell of a three dimensional crystal lattice.

→ The lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces of the unit
cell which do not lie in the same plane are called crystallographic axes.

→ The intercepts a, b and c are nothing but the edges of the unit cell, (i.e., the
distance between two lattice points) which defines the dimensions of a unit cell.

→ These intercepts are known as primitives or characteristic intercepts along the

axes.

→ These three quantities a, b and c are also called fundamental translational vectors.

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Figure 5.6: Lattice Parameters.

→ The angle between (a, b), (b, c) and(c, a) are denoted by γ, α and β respectively.

→ The three angles α, β and γ are called interfacial angles.

→ Both, the intercepts and interfacial angles constitute the lattice parameters of
the unit cell.

→ The form and actual size of the unit cell can be determined if the values of
intercepts and interfacial angles are known.

5.3.1.9 Primitive cell P

A primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which contains one lattice point per
unit cell (contains lattice points at its corners only).
Example: Cubic cell

5.3.1.10 Non-Primitive cell

If there are more than one lattice point it is called non-primitive cell.

Example: BCC and FCC contains more than one lattice point per unit cell.

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If the number of lattice points per unit cell is two (BCC), three and four (FCC) the
unit cell is called Doubly Primitive, Triply Primitive, and Quadruply Primitive respectively.

5.4 The Crystal System and Bravais Lattice

5.4.1 Crystal System

Crystal are classified into 7 systems on the basis of

1. axial lengths a, b, c

2. interfacial angles α, β, γ

3. direction of axis of symmetry.

The seven crystal systems are;

1. Cubic

2. Tetragonal

3. Orthrhombic

4. Monoclinic

5. Triclinic

6. Trigonal or Rhombohedral

7. Hexagonal

The seven Crystal systems are shown in figure 5.7.

5.4.2 Bravais Lattice

→ Bravais in 1880 showed that there are 14 possible types of space lattice in the 7
crystal systems of crystal.

→ According to Bravais, there are only 14 possible ways of arranging points in

space lattice such that, all the lattice points have exactly the same surroundings.

→ That is these 14 lattices are called the Bravais lattices.

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Figure 5.7: The Seven Crystal Systems

→ The possible type of Bravais lattices of the 7 crystal systems is explained in brief
in this section and is also listed in Table 5.2.

7 crystal systems shows only shape of the unit cell, while Bravais lattice shows the
arrangement of atoms in the unit cell.

5.4.2.1 Cubic Crystal System

In cubic crystal system, the three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other and
the axial lengths (repetitive unit) is the same along all the three axis are shown in
figure 5.8 
a = b = c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = γ = 90◦ 

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Crystal System Bravais Lattice

Cubic 3 SC or P, BCC, FCC
Tetragonal 4 SC or P, BCC
Orthorhombic 4 SC or P, BCC, FCC, and Base Centered (C)
Monoclinic 2 SC or P, Base Centered (C)
Triclinic 1 SC or P
Trigonal 1 SC or P
Hexagonal 1 SC or P
Total 14
Table 5.2

Figure 5.8: Cubic Crystal Systems

Bravais lattice

In cubic crystal system, the cubic lattices are of three types. (i) Simple Cubic (SC)
(ii) Body Centered Cubic (BCC) and (iii) Face Centered Cubic (FCC) as shown in
figure 5.8.

5.4.2.2 Tetragonal Crystal System

In Tetragonal syste„ the three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other. Two of
the three axial lengths are the same, but the third length is different as shown in
figure 5.9. 
a = b ̸= c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = γ = 90◦ 

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Figure 5.9: Tetragonal Crystal Systems

Bravais Lattice

In Tetragonal system, two types of Bravais Lattices are possible. They are (i) Simple
and (ii) Body Centered as shown in figure 9.

5.4.2.3 Orthorhombic Crystal System

In Orthorhombic crystal system, the three crystal axes are perpendicular to each other.
In this system, all the three axial lengths are of unequal lengths (different) as shown
in figure 5.10. 
a ̸= b ̸= c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = γ = 90◦ 

Figure 5.10: Orthorhombic Crystal System

Bravais Lattice

In Orthorhombic crystal system four different types of Bravais Lattice are possible.
They are (i) Simple (ii) Body Centered (iii) Face Centered (FCC) (iv) Base Centered

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and are shown in figure 5.11.

5.4.2.4 Monoclinic Crystal System

in Monoclinic crystal system, two of the crystal axes are perpendicular to each other,
but the third is obliquely inclined. The three axial lengths are different along three
axes as shown in figure 11.

a ̸= b ̸= c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = 90◦ ̸= γ 

Figure 5.11: Monoclinic Crystal System

Bravais Lattice

In monoclinic crystal system only two type of Bravais Lattice are possible. They are
(i) Simple and (ii) Base centered as shown in figure 5.11.

5.4.2.5 Triclinic Crystal System

In Triclinic crystal system, none of the crystal axes is perpendicular to any of the
others. The axial lengths are different along the three axes as shown in figure 5.12.

a ̸= b ̸= c,
Lattice Parameters
α ̸= β ̸= γ ̸= 90◦ 

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Figure 5.12: Triclinic Crystal System

Bravais lattice

Only one type of Bravais Lattice is possible in this Triclinic crystal system as shown
in figure 5.12.

5.4.2.6 Trigonal or Rhombohedral Crystal System

In Trigonal crystal system, the three axes are inclined to each other at an angle other
than 90◦ . The three axial lengths are equal along three axes as shown in figure 5.13.

a = b = c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = γ ̸= 90◦ 

Figure 5.13: Trigonal or Rhombohedral Crystal System

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Bravais Lattice

Only a simple lattice type is said to exit for this Trigonal crystal system as shown in
figure 5.13.

5.4.2.7 Hexagonal Crystal System

In Hexagonal crystal system, two of the crystal axes are 90◦ apart while, the third is
perpendicular to both of them.
The axial length are the same along the axes that are 90◦ apart, but the axial length
along the third axis is different as shown in figure 5.14.

a = b ̸= c,
Lattice Parameters
α = β = 90◦ and γ = 120◦ 

Figure 5.14: Hexagonal Crystal System

Bravais Lattice

For Hexagonal system also only a simple lattice type is said to exist.

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 System Bravais Lattice Unit Cell Characteristics Characteristic Symmetry Elements Example
Simple
a=b=c Four 3 - fold rotation axes (along
Cubic Body - Centered NaCl, CaF2 , NaClO3
α = β = γ = 90◦ cube diagonal)
Face - Centered
Simple a = b ̸= c
Tetragonal One 4-fold rotation axis NiSO4 . SnO2
Body - Centered α = β = γ = 90◦
Semiconductor Physics

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat

Simple
Body - Centered a ̸= b ̸= c Three mutually orthogonal 2-fold
Orthorhombic KNO3 , BaSO4 , MgSO4
Face - Centered α = β = γ = 90◦ rotation axes
Base - Centered
Simple a ̸= b ̸= c
Monoclinic One 2-fold rotation axis Na2 SO4 , FeSO4
Base - Centered α = β = 90◦ ̸= γ
a ̸= b ̸= c
Triclinic Simple None CuSO4 , K2 Cr2 O7

189
α ̸= β ̸= γ ̸= 90◦
Trigonal a=b=c
Simple One 3-fold rotation axis CaSO4 , Calcite
(Rhombohedral) α = β = γ ̸= 90◦
a = b ̸= c
Hexagonal Simple One 3-fold rotation axis SiO2 , Agl, Quartz
α = β = 90◦ γ = 120◦

Table 5.3: The Seven Crystal Systems, divided into 14 Bravais lattices.

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5.5 Space Lattice of Cubic System

We know that, the cubic structure is the simplest type of array in which, the atoms
take positions at the corners of the cube. However, there are three types of lattices
possible in this system depending on the position of the lattice points in the unit cell.

1. Simple Cubic or Primitive (SC or P)

2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC)

3. Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Simple Cubic In simple cubic lattice, there is one lattice point at each of the eight
corners of the unit cell. The atoms touch along the cube edges as shown in figure
5.15(a).

Figure 5.15: Space Lattice of a Cubic Crystal System

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) A body centered cubic (BCC) lattice consists of
eight corner atoms one at each corner and in addition, one atom at the center of the
unit cell, as shown in figure 5.15(b).

Face Centered Cubic (FCC) A face centered cubic lattice consists of eight corner
atoms one at each corner and in addition, six atoms one in each face of the unit cell
at the center of their faces as shown in figure 5.15(c).

5.6 Miller Indices

Definition

Miller Indices is defined as the Reciprocal of the fractional intercepts made by the plane
with three crystallographic axes.

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→ In a crystal, there exists direction and planes which contain a large concentration
of atoms.

→ Therefore, it is necessary to locate these directions and planes for a crystal to

analyze.

→ The problem is that, how to identify the direction and to designate (to choose)
a plane in a crystal.

→ Here, let us discuss briefly the method of designating a plane in crystal.

→ This method was suggested by Miller.

Figure 5.16: Miller Indices

→ Miller introduced a set of three numbers to designate a plane in a crystal. This

set of three numbers is know as Miller Indices of the concerned plane.

5.6.1 Procedure for finding Miller Indices

OR
Steps in the determination of Miller Indices

→ The steps in the determination of Miller Indices of a plane are illustrated with
the aid of figure 5.16.

→ Consider the plane ABC which cuts 1 unit along X-axis, 2 units along Y-axis
and 3 units along Z-axis.

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Step 1:

→ Find the intercept of the plane ABC along the three axes X, Y and Z.

→ Let it be OA, OB and OC.

→ Express the intercepts in terms of multiples of axial lengths, i.e., lattice parame-
ters.

→ Let them be OA = pa, OB = qb and OC = rc, where p, q, r are the numerical

values of intercepts along the three axes.

→ In this example shown, p = 1, q = 2 and r = 3

→ Hence,

OA : OB : OC = pa : qb : rc
= 1a : 2b : 3c

→ Therefore, the intercepts are 1a, 2b, and 3c along the three axes.

Step 2:

→ Find the reciprocal of the numerical intercepts values. i.e.,

111
pq r

→ For the given example, the reciprocal of the numerical intercept values are ;

111
123

Step 3:

→ Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by multiplying each with their
least common multiple (LCM).

→ In this example the LCM is 6. Therefore,

1 1 1
6× 6× 6×
1 2 3

→ which results into 6 3 2.

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Step 4:

→ Enclose these numbers in bracket.

→ This represents the indices of the given plane, and is called the Miller Indices of
the plane.

→ For the example shown, the Miller Indices are (632).

→ It is generally denoted (hkl).

→ It can also be noticed that

1 1 1
h:k:l= : :
p q r

Definition-1

Thus, Miller indices may be defined as the reciprocal of the intercepts made by the
plane along the three crystallographic axes which are reduced to smallest numbers.

Definition-2

Miller indices are the three smallest possible integers, which have the same ration as
the reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane concerned along the 3 axes.

Note:

The indices of a plane is represented by a small bracket (hkl), sometimes, the notation
< > and [ ] or { } are also used.
Negative indices are represented by putting a bar over the digit.
 
Example: 11̄0 , (1̄01̄) (5.1)

Miller indices describes the angular position of planes with respect to crystallographic
axes but not their actual distance from origin.

5.6.1.1 Important features of Miller Indices of crystal plane

→ For the cubic crystal especially, the important features of Miller indices are;

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→ For an intercept at infinity, the corresponding index is zero.

→ i.e., If a plane is parallel to any one of the coordinate axis, then its intercept is
at infinity. Hence, the Miller Index for that axis is zero.

→ All equally spaced parallel planes have the same Miller indices (hkl) or vice
versa.

→ i.e., If the miller indices of two planes have same ratio like (844), (422), (211)
then the planes are parallel to each other.

→ The indices (hkl) do not define a particular plane, but a set of parallel planes.

→ It is only the ratio of the indices which is important in this notation.

→ if a plane cuts the axis on the negative side of the origin, corresponding index is
negative.

5.7 Crystal Planes

For the figures 5.17 (a), (b), (c) shown, the miller indices of the plane are (100), (010)
and (001) respectively. For an intercept along the negative axis, the indices of the

(a) Plane (100) (b) Plane (010) (c) Plane (001)

Figure 5.17: Crystal Planes

plane are represented by taking the reciprocals of the intercept and placing a bar(-)
over the integer (intercept value).

For the figure 5.18 (a), (b) and (c), the miller indices are (1̄ 0 0), (0 1̄ 0) and (0 0 1̄)

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5.7.0.1 Procedure for sketching the plane from the given Miller Indices

→ The following procedure is adopted for sketching any plane when its miller
indices are given.

→ As a first step, take the reciprocals of the given Miller Indices .

→ These reciprocals represents the intercepts interms of the axial units along the
X, Y and Z axes respectively.

Figure 5.18: (221) Plane

→ For example, let the Miller Indices be (221). Therefore, its reciprocals of
intercepts will be 12 , 12 , 11 or 0.5, 0.5, 1 respectively.

→ Now sketch the plane with intercepts of 0.5, 0.5, 1 along X, Y and Z axes
respectively as shown in figure 5.18.

5.7.0.2 Common planes in a simple cubic structure

Eventhough, there are a number of lanes that can be drawn, the most common planes
in a simple cubic structure are (100), (110) and (111).

The three most important planes in a simple cubic structure are shown in figure 5.19
and the way of drawing all the above are explained one by one.

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(a) Plane (100) (b) Plane (110) (c) Plane (111)

Figure 5.19: Crystal’s Common Planes in cubic structure

Plane (100)

In this case h = 1, k = 0 and l = 0. The reciprocals of h,k,l are;

111
=1∞∞
100

Now sketch the plane with intercepts (1 ∞ ∞) along the X, Y and Z axes respectively,
as shown in figure 5.19(a).

Plane (110)

In this case h = 1, k = 1 l = 0. The reciprocal of h k l are

111
=11∞
110
Now sketch the plane with intercepts (1 1 ∞) along the X, Y and Z axes respectively,
as shown in figure 5.19(b).

Plane (111)

In this case h = 1, k = 1 l = 1. The reciprocal of h k l are

111
=111
111
Now sketch the plane with intercepts (1 1 1) along the X, Y and Z axes respectively,
as shown in figure 5.19(c).

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Family of Planes

Depending on the crystal system, two or more planes may belong to the same family
of planes.

(a) Plane (110) (b) Plane (101) (c) Plane (011)

(d) Plane (1̄00) (f) Plane (001̄)

(e) Plane (01̄0)

Figure 5.20: Crystal Planes

For a cubic unit cell, we know that all the planes or six faces are of the same form. An
example of multiple planes in a cubic system is shown in figure 5.20. The following
planes constitute a family of planes.

 
(100) (010) (001)
 = {100}
(1̄00) (01̄0) (001̄)
The collective notation for a family of planes {hkl}. Each plane is identical except for
the consequences of our arbitrary choices of axis labels and directions.

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5.7.1 Few Crystal Planes

(a) Plane (200) (b) Plane (020) (c) Plane (002)

(e) Plane (101̄)

(d) Plane (202) (f) Plane (011)

(h) Plane (011̄) (i) Plane (1̄10)

(g) Plane (01̄1)

Figure 5.21: Crystal Planes

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(a) Plane (11̄0) (b) Plane (01̄1̄)

(c) Plane (1̄01̄)

(e) Plane (1̄11)

(d) Plane (221) (f) Plane (11̄1)1̄

(h) Plane (1̄1̄1)

(g) Plane (111̄) (i) Plane (11̄1̄)

Figure 5.22: Crystal Planes

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(a) Plane (1̄11̄) (b) Plane (112) (c) Plane (211), (844), (422)

(d) Plane (121)

Figure 5.23: Crystal Planes

5.8 Relation between Interplaner distance and Cu-

bic Edge

→ Interplaner distance is the distance between two adjacent parallel planes having
Miller Indices (hkl).

→ In the figure shown, the Interplaner distance between two planes ABC and
A′ B ′ C ′ is N M .

→ Consider the plane ABC as shown in figure 5.24.

→ The plane ABC belongs to a family of planes whose Miller indices are (hkl).

→ The perpendicular ON from the origin to the planes represents the Interplaner
distance.

→ Let this distance be d = ON .

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Figure 5.24: Interplaner Spacing

→ The distance ′ d′ of this normal from the origin to the plane will also be the
distance between adjacent planes.

→ That is, the Interplaner distance.

→ Let ON make an angle α′ , β ′ and γ ′ (different from interfacial angles) with the
X, Y and Z axis respectively.

→ The intercepts of the plane on the three axis are; OA = pa, OB = qa, and
OC = ra

as,
1 1 1
h:k:l= : :
p q r
1 1 1
p= , q= , r=
h k l
a a a
OA = , OB = , OC = ,
h k l
Where a is the length of the cube edge. Therefore,
′ ′

a a a
OA : OB : OC = : , : ,
h k l

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Figure 5.25: Schematic representation of the interplaner spacing

From figure 5.25 we have

From Triangle N OA
d d dh
cosα′ = = a =
OA h
a
From Triangle N OB
d d dk
cosβ ′ = = a =
OB k
a
From Triangle N OC
d d dl
cosγ ′ = = a =
OC l
a
But, from the direction of cosine’s law

cos2 α′ + cos2 β ′ + cos2 γ ′ = 1

Hence, substituting for cosα′ , cosβ ′ , cosγ ′ in above equation,

d2 h2 d2 k 2 d2 l2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 a a

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d2 2
(h + k 2 + l2 ) = 1
a2
a2
d2 =
h2 + k 2 + l2
a
dhkl =√ 2
h + k 2 + l2
The equation gives the relation between interplaner distance ′ d′ and cubic edge ′ a′ .

5.9 Crystal Structure of Materials

Number of atoms per unit cell or Effective Number The total number of atoms
present in an unit cell is known as number of atoms per unit cell.

Co-ordination Number Co-ordination number is the number of nearest neighbouring

atoms to a particular atom.

Atomic Radius It is defined as half of the distance between two nearest neighbours
in a crystal of a pure element.

It is usually expressed in terms of cube edge ′ a′ . Any two nearest neighbouring atoms
touch each other.

Atomic Packing Factor / Packing Density or Density of Packing It is defined

as the ratio of the volume of atoms per unit cell to the total volume occupied by the
unit cell. (How much space occupied by atoms per unit cell).

Volume of atoms per unit cell

APF =
Volume of the unit cell

Volume of atoms per unit cell × Volume of one atom

APF =
Volume of the unit cell
All above parameters are briefly explained one by one for a simple cubic structure.

5.9.1 Number of atoms per unit cell

This number varies from structure to structure. We shall evaluate the number of
atoms per unit cell for the three cubic systems.

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5.9.1.1 Simple Cubic Structure

Figure 5.26: Simple Cubic Structure

→ The figure 5.26 shows the unit cell of a simple cubic structure.

→ In this case there are only 8 atoms, one at each corner of the cube or unit cell.

→ In actual crystals, each and every corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells.

→ Therefore, each and every corner atom contributes 1

8
of its part to one unit cell.

→ Total number of corner atoms = 8.

→ The total share of all the corner atoms/unit cell = 8 × 1/8 = 1.

→ ∴ number of atoms/unit cell = 1.

5.9.1.2 Body Centered Cubic Structure

Figure 5.27: Body Centered Cubic Structure

→ In this, these are 8 atoms at each corner if the unit cell plus one atom at the
center of the unit cell, as shown in figure 5.27.

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→ Each and every corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells.

→ ∴ The total share of all the corner atoms per unit cell is 8 × 1/8 = 1.

→ The atom at the center of the cell is not shared by any other unit cell.

→ ∴ Number of unshared atom per unit cell = 1.

→ Hence, total number of atoms per unit cell 1 + 1 = 2

5.9.1.3 Face Centered Cubic Structure

Figure 5.28: Body Centered Cubic Structure

→ In this case, there are 8 atoms, one at each corner of the unit cell and 6 atoms
at the centers of six faces of unit cell as shown in figure 5.28.

→ The total share of all the corners atoms per unit cell is 8 × 1/8 = 1.

→ Now, consider the atoms at the face center of the unit cell.

→ Each such atoms is shared by only two unit cells.

→ Which lie on either side of the plane in which the atom is located.

→ ∴ The total share of all the face centered atoms per unit cell = 6 × 1/2 = 3.

→ Hence, total number of atoms per unit cell 1 + 3 = 4.

5.9.2 Co-ordination Number

The coordination number for the three types of cubic crystal structure can be calculated
as follows;

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 205 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

5.9.2.1 Simple Cubic Structure

Figure 5.29: Simple Cubic Structure

→ Simple cubic unit cell consists of 8 corner atoms.

→ Let us consider ant one corner atom, as shown in figure 5.29.

→ For this particular atoms ′ C ′ there are 4 nearest neighbours (shown as 1,2,3 and
4)in its own plane (horizontal plane). and there are 2 more nearest atoms, one
directly above and the other one directly below (as shown 5 and 6).

→ Except these six atoms all the other atoms lie at greater distances from ′ C ′ .

→ Thus, the coordination number for an atom in simple cubic is 6.

5.9.2.2 Body Centered Cubic Structure

Figure 5.30: Body Centered Cubic Structure

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ In this structure, there will be one atom at the center of the unit cell and eight
atoms at the 8 corners of the unit cell as shown in figure 5.30.

→ Thus, for an atom ′ C ′ at the center of the unit cell are having 8 nearest neighbours
(corner atoms).

→ Hence, the co-ordination number of an atom in body centered cubic structure is

8.

→ The corner atoms do not touch each other. But, each corner atom touches the
body center along the body diagonal.

Alternative Method

The coordination number can also be determined in another way as follows.

We know that in a BCC structure, each corner atom is surrounded by 8 other body
centered unit cells. Therefore, the nearest adjacent neighbours are the body centered
atoms of the eight surrounding unit cell.

Thus, the coordination number is 8.

5.9.2.3 Face Centered Cubic Structure

→ in this system, there are 8 corner atoms and six face centered atoms one at the
center of each face.

→ To calculate the coordination number, consider any corner atom ′ C ′ .

→ In its own plane it has 4 face centered atoms as nearest neighbour.

→ In a plane which lie just above this corner atom, it has 4 more centered atoms
as nearest neighbours and similarly, in a plane which lie just below this corner
atom it has 4 more face centered atoms as nearest neighbours.

→ ∴ The total number of nearest atoms to any corner atoms is 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.

→ Hence, the coordination number is 12.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 207 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 5.31: Face Centered Cubic Structure

Alternative Method

The coordination number can also be determined in another way as follows.

Let us consider 3 planes as shown in figure 5.31. Consider the face centered atom ′ P ′
in the middle plane. It is seen that all the corner atoms irrespective of the 3 plane. It
is seen that all the corner atoms irrespective of the 3 planes to which it belong to lie
at the same distance from P. There are 4 such atoms in each plane. Thus, the number
of nearest atoms to P = 3 × 4 = 12.

Hence, the coordination number is 12.

5.9.3 Relation between Atomic radius and Lattice Constant

It is possible to express the lattice constant ′ a′ in terms of the atomic radius ′ r′ . All
the atoms are assumed to be spherical in shape. FOr the three cubic structures it can
calculated as follows;

5.9.3.1 Simple cubic Structure

Let us consider on face of the simple cubic structure, as shown in figure 5.32. In this
structure the atoms touch each other along the edges.

Hence, the nearest neighbour distance is 2r = a

∴ r = a/2

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 5.32: Simple Cubic Structure

5.9.3.2 Body Centered Cubic Structure

In this structure, the center atoms do not touch each other. But, each corner atom
touches the body centered atom along the body diagonally, shown in figure 5.33.

Thus, the diagonal of the cube AD is 4r. But from the geometry of the cube,

(AD)2 = (AC)2 + (CD)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2 + (CD)2

[∵ (AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2 ]
(AD)2 = a2 + a2 + a2 = 3a2
[∵ AB = BC = CD = a]
√
AD = a 3;
But, AD = 4r
√
∴ 4r = a 3
√
3
Hence, r =
4

Figure 5.33: Body Centered Cubic Structure

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

5.9.3.3 Face Centered Cubic Structure

In face centered cubic structure, the atoms touch each other along the diagonal of any
face of the cube. The diagonal of the cube AC is 4r.

But, from the geometry of the figure 5.34

Figure 5.34: Face Centered Cubic Structure

(AC)2 = (AB 2 ) + (BC)2

= a2 + a2 = 2a2
√
∴ AC = a 2;
But, AC = 4r
√
Hence, 4r = a 2
√
2
r=a
4
4r
a= √
2

5.10 Atomic Packing Factor of the Cubic System

The packing factor or packing density of the three cubic systems can be calculated as
follows
No of atoms per unit cell × Volume of one atom
APF =
Volume of the unit cell

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Simple Cubic Structure

In simple Cubic,
The number of atoms per unit cell = 1,

4
Volume of 1 atoms = πr2
3
4
 3
a
= π
3 2

[∵ r = a/2]
Volume of the unit cell = a3
Therefore, density of packing or packing factor as per equation above
 2
1 × 43 π a
2
APF =
a3
π
∴ APF = = 0.52
6

∴ 52% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 48% volume is vacant.

Body Centered Cubic Structure

In body centered cubic structure,

The number of atoms per unit cell = 2.

4
∴ Volume of 2 atoms = 2 × πr3
3
" √ #3
8π a 3
=
3 4
√ √
3 3 a 3
= πa [∵ r = ]
8 4

Volume of the unit cell = a3

√
πa3 83
∴ AP F =
a3
√
3
=π
8
AP F = 0.68

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

T heref ore 68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 32% volume is
vacant.
Thus, the packing density is 68%.

Face centered Cubic Structure

In face centered cubic structure,

The number of atoms per unit cell = 4

4
Volume of 4 atoms = 4 × πr3
3
" √ #3
16π 2 2
=
3 4
√ √ #
πa3 2 a 2
"
= ∵r=
6 4

Volume of the unit cell = a3 .

√
πa3 62
APF =
√a3
2
=π = 0.74
6

∴ 74% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 26% volume is vacant. Thus,
the packing density is 74%.

5.11 Relation between Lattice Constant and Den-

sity

Consider a Cubic System,

Let the lattice constant = a
The number of atoms per unit cell = n
The atomic weight of the crystalline substance or compound = A
The density of the unit cell = ρ
The Avogadro’s Number = N
Avogadro’s number gives the number of molecules per kilogram mole of the substance.
∴ Mass of the each molecule = N A

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Hence, Mass of n molecules (i.e., Mass in each unit cell) = A

N
n ∴ Density a unit cell is

Mass of a unit cell

ρ=
Volume of a unit cell
An
ρ= [∵ Volume of the unit cell = a3 ]
N a3
An
a3 =
Nρ
Atomic Weight × Number of atoms per unit cell
a3 =
Avogadro’s Number × Density

Therefore, using the above equation, we can calculate the lattice constant.

5.12 Example

Example 1 Calculate the interplaner spacing for a (311) plane in a simple cubic
lattice whose lattice constant is 2.109 × 10−10 m.

Solution:

Given : Miller Indices (hkl) = (311)

Lattice Constant (a) = 2.109 × 10−10 m
The interplaner distance is given by,

a
d=
(h2 + k 2 + l2 )1/2
2.109 × 10−10
= 2
(3 + 12 + 12 )1/2
d = 6.358 × 10−11 m

Example 2 The distance between the Miller Indices (110) is 2.86Å. Calculate the
lattice constant.

Solution:

Given : Miller Indices (hkl) = (110)

Distance between the Miller Indices (d) = 2.86Å

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

We know,

a
d= q
(h2 + k 2 + l2 )
q
∴a=d× (h2 + k 2 + l2 )
q
a = 2.86 × 10−10 × (12 + 12 + 02 )
a = 4.044 × 10−10 m

Example 3 Show that d101 : d100 : d001 :: √a

2
: √1
1
: √a .
1
We know,

a
d= q
(h2 + k 2 + l2 )
a a
∴, d101 = q =√
(12 + 02 + 12 ) 2
a a
and, d100 =q =√
(12 + 02 + 02 ) 1
a a
and, d001 =q =√
(02 + 02 + 12 ) 1
a 1 a
Therefore, d101 : d100 : d001 :: √ : √ : √
2 1 1

Example 4 Calculate the interplaner spacing between (111), (200) and (220) planes
in FCC crystal. Given the atomic radius 1.246Å.

Solution:

Given : r = 1.246Å, 1.246 × 10−10 m, a =? and d =?

In FCC crystal, the lattice constant is

4r
a= √
2
4 × 1.246 × 1010
a= √ m
2
Therefore, a = 3.52 × 10−10 m

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

To find d:

a
∵ dhkl = √
h2 + k 2 + l2
3.52 × 10−10
d111 =√ 2
1 + 12 + 12
3.52 × 10−10
d111 = √
3
d111 = 2.034 × 10−10 m

Similarly,

3.52 × 10−10
d200 = √ 2
2 + 0 2 + 02
3.52 × 10−10
d200 = √
2
d200 = 1.7621 × 10−10 m

and

3.52 × 10−10
d220 = √
22 + 22 + 02
3.52 × 10−10
d220 = √
8
d220 = 1.246 × 10−10 m

Example 5 Calculate the interplaner distance of three important planes (100),(110)

and (111) of a simple cubic system. Solution: The formula is

a
d= √
h2 + k 2 + l2
a a
∴ d100 =√ 2 = √
1 + 02 + 0 2 1
a a
d110 =√ 2 =√
1 + 12 + 0 2 2
a a
d111 =√ 2 =√
1 + 12 + 1 2 3

Therefore, d100 : d110 : d111 = √a

1
: √a
2
: √a
3
Example 6 Find the Miller indices of a
plane which intercepts ar a, b/2 and 3c along X, Y and Z axes respectively in a simple
cubic unit cell.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Solution: Given Numerical intercept values are p = 1, q = 1.2 and r = 3

1 1 1
∴h:k:l= : :
p q r
1 1
h= = =1
p 1
1 1
k= = =2
q 1/2
1 1
l = = = 1/3
r 3
Hence, (hkl) = 1 2 1/3
The least common multiple is 3
(hkl) = (361)

Example 6 Calculate the value of d-spacing for (100) planes in a rock salt crystal of
a = 2.814Å.

Solution: Given a = 2.814Å; h = 1; k = 0, l = 0; d =?

a
dhkl = √
h2 + k 2 + l2
2.814 × 10−10
= √
12 + 02 + 02
d = 2.814Å

Example 7 The unit cell edges, a, b and c of an orthorhombic crystal are 0.05 nm,
0.04 nm and 0.03 nm respectively. If a family of parallel, equidistant planes, the one
that is closest to the origin of the unit cell makes intercepts on the a, b and c edges
at 0.025 nm, 0.02 nm and 0.01 nm respectively. Find the Miller indices of the set of
parallel planes.

Solution: Given OA = 0.025 nm, OB = 0.02 nm and OC = 0.01 nm

The unit cell edges are a = 0.05 nm, b = 0.04 nm and c = 0.03 nm
We know that, OA = pa, OB = qb and OC = rc

OA OB OC
p= , q= , r= (5.2)
a b c
The intercept along X-axis isp = 0.025 nm
0.05 nm
= 0.5 = 1/2
The intercept along Y-axis isq = 0.04
0.02 nm
nm
= 0.5 = 1/2
The intercept along Z-axis isr = 0.03 nm = 1/3
0.01 nm

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 5.35: Figure 5.35

The reciprocal of (p q r) = (2 2 3)
Hence, the miller indices is (2 2 3)

Example 8 A certain orthorhombic crystal has axial units a : b : c of 0.424 : 1 : 0.367.

Find the miller indices of crystal face whose intercepts are (i) 0.212 : 1 : 0.183,
(ii) 0.848 : 1 : 0.732 and (iii) 0.424 : ∞ : 0.123

Solution: Given a : b : c = 0.424 : 1 : 0.367, (hkl) = ?

(i) Miller Indices for intercepts 0.212 : 1 : 0.183
We know that, OA : OB : OC = pa : qb : rc
0.212 : 1 : 0.183 = pa : qb : rc

∴ pa = 0.212
0.212
or p =
a
0.212
= [∵ a = 0.424]
0.424
1
=
2
Similarly, qb = 1
1 1
∴ q = = = 1 [∵ b = 1]
b 1
and, rc = 0.183
0.183 0.183
r= =
c 0.367
1
r= [∵ c = 0.367]
2

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS
 
Hence, Numerical parameter value are 1
2
1 21
 
Therefore, Miller indices are 1 1 1
1 1 1 = (2 1 2)
2 2
(ii) Miller Indices for intercepts 0.848 : 1 : 0.732

OA 0.848
p= = =2
a 0.424
OB 1
q= = =1
b 1
OC 0.732
r= = =2
c 0.367

Hence, numerical parameters are (212)

Therefore, the miller indices are ( 12 11 21 ) = (121)

(iii) Miller Indices for intercepts 0.424 : ∞ : 0.123

OA 0.424
p= = =1
a 0.424
OB ∞
q= = =∞
b 1
OC 0.123 1
r= = =
c 0.367 3

Hence, numerical parameters are(1 ∞ 1/3)


Therefore, the miller indices are 1 1 1
1 ∞ 13
= (1 0 3)

Example 9 Find the miller indices of a set of parallel planes which make intercepts
in the ratio 2b : 7c and are parallel to x-axis; a, b and c being primitive vectors of the
lattice.

Solution: Given OB = 2b and OC = 7c and OA = ∞ (hkl) = ?

The numerical value of intercepts along the three axis are (∞ 2 7)

Therefore, Miller Indices are ( ∞
1 1 1
2 7
) = (0 7 2)

Example 10 Copper has FCC structure and its lattice parameter is 3.6Å. Find the
atomic radius.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Solution: Given: The lattice parameter of Copper a = 3.6Å

We know, Atomic radius of copper
√
a 2
r=
4
because copper has FCC type crystal structure
√
3.6 × 10−10 × 2
r= m
4
r = 1.273 × 10−10 m

Example 11 Calculate the interplaner distance for (321) plane in simple cubic lattice
with interplaner spacing equal to 4.12Å.

Solution:

Given, h = 3, k = 2, l = 1 and a = 4.12 × 10−10 m, d =?

a
d= √ 2
h + k 2 + l2
4.12 × 10−10
=√ 2
3 + 2 2 + 12
4.12 × 10−10
= √
14
d = 1.1011 × 10−10 m
d = 1.1011Å

Example 12 What will be the density of copper (FCC structure) if its atomic radius
is 1.278Å. Given atomic weight of copper 63.54.

Solution:

Given, n = 4, A = 63.54, r = 1.278Å = 1.278 × 10−10 m

An
ρ=
N a3

To find lattice constant a, we know the relation

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

√
2a
r=
4
4r
a= √
2
4 × 1.278 × 10−10
a= √
2
a = 3.614 × 10−10 m
Now,
An
ρ=
N a3
4 × 63.54
ρ=
6.023 × 1026 × (3.614 × 10−10 )3
ρ = 8939 kg/m3

Example 13 Show that in a simple cubic lattice the separation between successive
lattice planes (100), (110) and (111) are in the ratio 1 : 0.71 : 0.58.

Solution:

The interplaner spacing for a cubic lattice is

a
dhkl = √
+ k 2 + l2
h2
a a
d100 = √ =√
1 +0 +0
2 2 2 1
a a
d110 = √ =√
12 + 12 + 02 2
a a
d111 = √ =√
12 + 12 + 12 3
1 1 1
Therefore, d100 : d110 : d111 = √ : √ : √ = 1 : 0.707 : 0.577
1 2 3

Example 14 Calculate the distance between two adjacent atoms of a NaCl crystal of
FCC structure which has density of 2.818 gm/cm3 . [The atomic weight of Na = 23
and Cl = 35.45].

Solution: Given, A = 23 + 35.45; A = 58.45; n = 4; ρ = 2.18 gm/cm3 ; a =?

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

nA
ρ=
na3
4 × 58.45
a3 =
6.023 × 1023 × 2.18
a3 = 1.7806 × 10−22 cm3
a = 5.63 × 10−8 cm
a = 5.63 × 10−10 m

Distance between two adjacent atoms is r = a

2

5.63 × 10−10
r=
2
r = 2.82 × 10−10 m

Example 15 Calculate the atomic radius of Fe which has BCC structure. Given the
density of iron 7.86 gm/cm3 and atomic weight 55.85.

Solution:

Given, n = 2; ρ = 7.86 gm/cm3 ; A = 55.85; a =?, r =?

The formula is;

nA
a3 =
Nρ
2 × 55.85
a3 =
6.023 × 1023 × 7.86
2 × 55.85
 1/3
a=
6.023 × 1023 × 7.86
a = 2.87 × 10−8 cm
a = 2.87 × 10−10 m

But Fe has BCC structure,

√
a 3
r=
4 √
2.87 × 10−10 × 3
r=
4
r = 1.242Å

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 16 potassium bromide has FCC structure and its density is 2.7 × 103 kg/m3 .
Calculate the lattice constant [Molecular weight of Potassium bromide is 119 and the
Avogadro’s constant is 6.023 × 1026 per kg. mol.]

Solution:

Given,
Density of potassium bromide ρ = 2.7 × 103 kg/m3
Molecular weight of KBr A = 119
Avogadro’s Constant N = 6.023 × 1026
We know the lattice constant;
!1/3
nA nA
 
a= ∵, ρ =
ρN N a3
4 × 119
 1/3
a=
2.7 × 103 × 6.023 × 1026
a = (2.927)1/3
a = 6.639 × 10−10 m
a = 6.6Å

Example 17 The lattice constant of the crystal is 4Å. Calculate the planer atomic
density on the (100) plane of the crystal of simple cubic lattice in atoms per square
millimeter

Solution:

Figure 5.36: Figure 5.36

The lattice constant of the crystal

a = 4Å = 4 × 10−10 m

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Miller Indices (hkl) = (1 0 0)

We know the planer atomic density

Number of atoms
=
Area of the plane
Consider (100) plane in a simple cubic structure. Referring the figure 5.36 shown the
number of atoms contained in plane ABCD per unit cell is;

1
=4×
4
=1

Area of the plane = AB × BC = a × a = a2

from this

1
Planer density =
a2
1
=
(4 × 10−10 )2
= 6.25 1018 atoms/m2
Planer density = 6.25 1012 atoms/mm2

Example 18 A crystal with face centered cubic lattice has density 6250 kg/m3 and
molecular weight 60.2. Calculate the lattice constant.

Solution:

Given , ρ = 6250 kg/m3 ; A = 60.2; n = 4; a =?

nA
ρ=
N a3
nA
a3 =
nρ
4 × 60.2
=
6.023 × 1026 × 6250
240.8
=
3.764375 × 1030
a3 = 6.3968 × 10−29 m3
a = 4.007 × 10−10 m.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 19 Metallic iron changes from BCC to FCC from at 910◦ C. At this
temperature, the atomic radii of the iron atoms in the two structures are 0.1258 nm
and 0.1292 nm respectively. Calculate the volume change in percentage during this
structural change.

Solution:

Given, Atomic radii of the iron atom in BCC structure r = 0.1258 × 10−9 m.
Atomic radii of the iron atom in FCC structure r = 0.1292 × 10−9 m.
4r
(i) The lattice constant for BCC in terms of atomic radius is a = √
3

4 × 0.1258 × 10−9
a= √
3
a = 2.9052 × 10−10 m
a = 2.9052Å

We know that, the number of atoms per unit cell for BCC = 2.
a3
Hence, the volume occupied by one BCC atom is =
2
(2.9052 × 10−10 )3
= = 1.226055 × 10−29 m3
2

4r
(ii) The lattice constant for FCC in terms of atomic radius is a = √
2

4 × 0.1292 × 10−9
a= √
2
a = 3.6542 × 10−10 m
a = 3.6542Å

We know that, the number of atoms per unit cell for FCC = 4.
a3
Hence, the volume occupied by one FCC atom is =
4

(3.654 × 10−10 )3
= = 1.22000 × 10−29 m3
4

(1.226055 − 1.22000) × 10−29

Therefore, change in volume percentage is = × 100
1.226055 × 10−29

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

= 4.80345 × 10−3 × 100

0.48034

Hence, during structural change the percentage change in volume is 0.48034.

Example 20 The unit cell of aluminum is face centered cubic with lattice constant
a = 0.405 nm. How many unit cell are there in an aluminum foil of 0.005 cm thick
and side 25 cm?

Solution:

Given, Lattice constant a = 0.405 × 10−9 m

Side of aluminum foil = 25 cm = 25 × 10−2 m
Thickness of aluminum foil = 0.005 cm = 0.005 × 10−2 m
Number of unit cells = ?

Volume of the aluminum foil = Area × thickness

= (25 × 10−2 )2 × 0.005 × 10−2 = 3.125 × 10−6 m3

We know, volume of the unit cell = a3 = (0.405 × 10−9 )3 = 6.6430 × 10−29 m3

Therefore,

Volume of the Al foil

Number of unit cells =
Volume of the unit cell
3.125 × 10−6
=
6.6430 × 10−29
= 4.7041 × 1022

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 226 B.V.M. Engineering College

Chapter No 6

Quantum Physics

6.1 Introduction

→ Towards the end of 17th Century, Newton proposed his corpuscular theory of
light.

→ According to this theory, light consists of minute fast moving elastic particles
known as corpuscles.

→ The phenomenon of interference, diffraction, polarization, etc. could not be

explained on the basis of corpuscular theory.

→ To explain these phenomena, Huygen proposed the wave theory of light.

→ According to wave theory, the light travels in the form of waves in a hypothetical
medium ether.

→ Wave theory of light successfully explained the phenomenon of interference,

diffraction, polarization, etc.

→ The wave theory was followed in 1864 by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.

→ There are certain other experimentally observed phenomenon, e.g., photoelectric

effect, Compton Effect, emission and absorption of light, etc, which could not
be explained on the basis of above mentioned theories.

→ These phenomenon gave the birth of the Quantum theory of light.

→ In order to explain the shape of the blackbody radiation curves, Max Plank in
1900 proposed the quantum theory.

227
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ According to this theory, matter is composed of a large number of oscillating

particles which vibrate with different frequencies while according to classical
theory the particles can have any value of frequency (or vibrational energy).

→ Moreover, in quantum theory, the energy of oscillating particle is quantized.

→ The oscillating particle cannot have any energy but only those energies given by;

E = nhν

→ Where, h = 6.625 × 10−34 J/sec is the Plank’s Constant, ν is frequency, and n a

number which can take only integer values (1, 2, 3......etc)

→ In this theory, it also assumed that the vibrating particles does not radiate
energy continuously but discontinuously in terms of discrete quanta or Photon.

→ So as long as oscillator remains in one quantized states, it neither emits nor

absorbs any energy.

→ When the oscillator moves form one quantized state to another quantized state
it emits energy.

→ Thus when n changes by one, i.e., ∆n = 1, the amount of energy radiated is ;

∆E = ∆n × hν = hν

→ This shows that, although the oscillator may posses any amount of energy but
it can radiate only in terms of quanta of magnitude hν.

→ While studying black body radiations, Max Plank in 1901 concluded that the
emission and absorption of thermal energy is not a continuous process but it
takes place in discrete amounts, i.e., an integral multiple of a certain energy unit
hν.

→ According to this postulate, the exchange of energy between light and matter is
not continuous, but it is small bundles or packets or quanta of defined energy
proportional to the frequency of light.

→ These small packets of energy are called Photons.

→ The photons propagate like particles with the speed of light.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

6.2 Wave and Particle Duality

→ To understand the wave and particle duality, it necessary to know what is a
particle and what is a wave.

→ The concept of a particle is very easy to understand.

→ It has mass, it is located at some definite point, it can move from one place to
another place, it gives energy when slowed down or stopped.

→ Thus, the particle is specified by (i) mass m, (ii) velocity ν, (iii) momentum
p and (iv) energy E.

→ The concept of wave is a bit more difficult than that of a particle.

→ A wave is spread out over a relatively large region of space, it cannot be said to
be located just here and there, it is hard to think of mass being associated with
a wave.

→ Actually, a wave is nothing but rather a spread out disturbance.

→ A wave is specified by it (i) frequency, (ii) wavelength, (iii) phase of wave

velocity, (iv) amplitude, and (v) intensity. ,

→ Considering the above facts, it appears difficult to accept the conflicting ideas
that radiation has a dual nature, i.e., radiation is a wave which is spread out
over space and also a particle which is localized at a point in space.

→ However, this acceptance is essential because radiation sometimes behaves as a

wave and at other times as a particle as explained below;

(i) Radiations including visible light, infra-red, ultraviolet, X-rays, etc. behave
as wave in experiments based on interference, diffraction, etc. This is due
to the fact that these phenomena require the presence of two waves at
the same position at the same time. Obviously, it is difficult for the two
particles to occupy the same position at the same time. Thus we conclude
that radiation behaves like wave.
(ii) Plank’s quantum theory was successful in explaining black body radiation,
the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, etc and had clearly established
that the radiant energy, in its interaction with matter, behaves as though
it consists of corpuscles. Here radiation interacts with matter in the form
of photons or quanta. Thus we conclude that the radiation behaves like a
particle.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ Radiation thus, sometimes behaves as a wave and at some other time as a

particle, i.e., it has a wave particle dualism.

→ Here it should also be remembered that radiation cannot exhibit its particle and
wave properties simultaneously.

6.3 de-Broglie’s Hypothesis for Matter Waves

→ Louis de-Broglie in 1924 extended that wave particle parallelism of light radiation
to all the fundamental entities of physics such as electrons, protons, neutrons,
atoms, and molecules,. etc.

→ He put a bold suggestion that the correspondence between wave and particle
should not be confined to electromagnetic radiation, but it should also be valid
for material particles like radiation, matter also has a dual characteristic.

→ He also made the following observations;

(a) The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiations,

Since both are forms of energy so can be transformed into each other.

(b) The nature loves symmetry, as the radiation has a dual nature, matter
should also posses dual character.

Matter Waves

According to de-Broglie’s hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave

which is known as de-Broglie wave. The wavelength of the matter is given by;

h h
λ= =
mν p

Where m is the mass of the material particle, ν its velocity and p is its momentum.

6.4 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength

The expression of the wavelength associated with a material particle be derived on

the analogy of radiation as follows:

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 230 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ Considering the Plank’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon is given by

hc
E = hν = (6.1)
λ

→ Here, c is the speed of light in vacuum and λ is its wavelength.

→ Id a photon possesses mass (rest mass is zero), then according to Einstein’s

energy-mass relation;
E = mc2 (6.2)

→ From equation 6.1 and 6.2, we get

hc
mc2 =
λ
hc
λ=
mc2
h
λ= (6.3)
mc

→ Where mc = p (momentum associated with photon).

→ If we consider the case of a material particle of mass m and moving with a

velocity ν, i.e., momentum mν, then the wavelength associated with the particle
is given by;
h h
λ= = (6.4)
mν p

→ This wavelength is called De-Broglie wavelength.

→ If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle of mass m moving with velocity
ν, then

1
E = mν 2
2
1 m2 ν 2
=
2 m
p2
=
2m
√
p = 2mE (6.5)

→ Therefore, de-Broglie wavelength

h
λ= q (6.6)
(2mE)

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ When a charged particle carrying a charge q is accelerated by a potential

difference V volts, then its K.E., E is given by

E = qV

→ Hence, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with this particle is given by

h
λ= q (6.7)
(2mqV )

→ When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then

3
E = kT (6.8)
2

→ Where, k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K Boltzmann Constant

→ So, the de-Broglie wavelength of a material particle at temperature T is given by

h
λ= q
[2m(3/2kT )]
h
λ= q (6.9)
(3mkT )

→ Suppose an electron accelerates through a potential difference of V volt. The

work done by electric field on the electron appears as the gain in its kinetic
energy. So, we have
1
eV = mν 2 (6.10)
2

→ Where, e is the charge on the electron, m is the mass of electron and ν is the
velcoty of electron, then

m2 ν 2 = 2meV
√
mν = 2meV (6.11)

→ Therefore, the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron is given by

h
λ=
mν

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

h
λ= √
2meV
6.63 × 10−34
=√
2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 V
12.27
λ= √ Å (6.12)
V

→ This is the de-Broglie wavelength for electron moving in a potential difference of

V volt.

6.5 properties of Matter Waves

Following are the properties of matter waves;

→ Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

→ Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with
it.

→ When ν = 0 then λ = ∞, i.e., waves becomes indeterminate and if ν = ∞ then

λ = 0. This shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles
are in motion.

→ These waves are produced whether the particles are charged or they are uncharged
h
(λ = is independent of charge.)
mν
→ This fact reveals that these waves are not electromagnetic waves but they are
a new kind of waves (electromagnetic waves are produced only by motion of
charged particles).

→ The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of matter particle, i.e, it is
not a constant while the velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant.

→ The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.

→ The velocity of matter waves ( de-Broglie wave velocity) is greater than the
velocity of light.

→ The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear together in
the same experiment.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ What we can say is that waves have particle like properties and particles have
wave like properties and the concepts are separately linked.

→ Matter wave representation is only a symbolic presentation.

→ The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the

position of the particle because a wave cannot be said exactly at this point or
exactly at that point.

→ However, where the wave is large (strong) there is a good chance of finding the
particle.

→ While, where the wave is small (weak) there is very small chance of finding the
particle.

6.6 Davisson and Germer’s Electron Diffraction

Experiment

6.6.1 Principle

→ The first experimental evidence of matter wave was given by two American
physicists, Davisson and Germer in 1927.

→ They also succeeded in measuring the de-Broglie wavelength associated with

slow electrons.

→ Davisson and Germer were studying the reflection of electrons from nickel target.

→ Accidentally the nickel target was subjected to such a heat treatment that the
reflection became anomalous.

→ Now the reflected intensity showed striking maxima and minima.

→ Thus, they suspected that electrons are diffracted like X-rays, i.e., they behave
like waves under certain conditions.

6.6.2 Experimental Arrangement

→ The experimental arrangement is shown in figure 6.1

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Figure 6.1: Experimental arrangement of Davisson and Germer’s device

→ The apparatus consists of an electron gun G where the electrons are produced
and obtained in a fine pencil of electron beam of known velocity.

→ The electron gun consists of a tungsten filament F heated to dull red so that
electrons are emitted due to thermionic emission.

→ Now electrons are accelerated in the electric field of known potential difference.

→ After this the electrons are colimatted by suitable slit to obtain a fine beam.

→ The beam of electrons is directed to fall on a large single crystal of nickel, known
as target T .

→ The electrons, acting as the waves, are diffracted in different directions.

→ The angular distribution is measured by an electron detector (Faraday Cylinder

C) which is connected to a galvanometer.

→ The Faraday cylinder can move on a circular graduated scale S between 29◦ to
90◦ to receive the reflected electrons.

→ The Faraday cylinder consists two walls which are insulated from each other.

→ A retarding potential is maintained between them so that only fast moving

electrons coming from electron gun may enter inside it.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ The secondary electrons (slow electrons) produced by collisions with atoms from
nickel target are reflected by Faraday cylinder.

→ In this way the galvanometer deflection is only due to electrons coming from
electron gun.

→ First of all, the accelerating potential V is given a low value and the crystal is
set at any arbitrary azimuth (θ) .

→ Now, the Faraday cylinder is moved to various positions on the scale S and
galvanometer current is noted for each position.

→ Here, it should be remembered that galvanometer current is a measure of intensity

of diffracted beam.

→ A graph is then plotted between galvanometer current against angle θ between

incident beam and beam entering the cylinder.

→ Thew observations are repeated for different accelerating potentials.

→ The corresponding curves are show in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Different Accelerating potentials

6.6.3 Evidence

it is observed that a ’bump’ begins to appear in the curve for 44 volts electrons.
Following points are also observed.

1. With increasing potential, the bump moves upwards.

2. The ’bump’ becomes most prominent in the curve for 54 volt electron at θ = 50◦ .

3. At higher potentials, the bumps gradually disappear.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 236 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

The bump in its most prominent state verifies the existence of electron waves. Ac-
cording to de-Broglie, the wavelength associated with electron accelerated through a
potential V is given by;
12.26
λ= √ Å
V
Hence, the wavelength associated with 54 volt electron is

12.26
λ= √ = 1.67Å
54

From X-ray analysis, it is known that a nickel crystal acts as a plane diffraction
grating with gating space d = 0.91Å (see figure 6.3). According to experiment, we

Figure 6.3

have diffracted electron beam at θ = 50◦ . The corresponding angle of incidence relative
to the family of Bragg plane

′ 180 − 50
θ = = 65◦
2

Using Bragg’s equation (taking n = 1), we have

′
λ = 2dsinθ = 2(0.91Å)sin65◦ = 1.65Å

This is in good agreement with the wavelength computed from de-Broglie hypothesis.
As the two values are in good agreement, hence, confirms the de-Broglie concept of
matter waves.

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 237 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

6.6.4 Significance

Although the dual nature of matter is applicable to all the material objects but it is
significant only for microscopic bodies such as electron, proton, atoms or molecules,
etc. For larger bodies such as a big ball, earth etc., the associated waves are of very
small wavelengths and cannot be measured.

This will be cleared by the following example;

1. Consider an electron of mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg moving with the velocity 106 m/s.
The de-Broglie wavelength associated with electron is given by

h
λ=
mν
6.63 × 10−34
=
(9.11 × 10−31 ) × 106
λ = 7.28 × 10−10 m

The wavelength is of the order of magnitude of X-rays. So this wavelength can

be measured.

2. Consider a ball of 10 gram moving with the velocity 106 m/s. The de-Broglie
wavelength associated with the ball is given by;

h
λ=
mν
6.63 × 10−34
=
(10 × 10−3 ) × 106
λ = 6.63 × 10−38 m

This is shorter than any electromagnetic radiation. This cannot be measured by

any method. SO, the ball does not have waves associated with it.

6.7 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

→ in 1927, Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle, which is a direct

consequence of the dual nature of matter, known as uncertainty principle.

→ In classical mechanics, moving particle at any instant has a fixed position in

space and a definite momentum which can be determined if the initial values

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

are known.

→ However, in wave mechanics the particle is described in terms of a wave-packet.

→ When we represent a particle in a wave packet, its dimension and position loose
their precise meanings.

→ The particle may be anywhere inside the wave packet.

→ The position of the particle becomes more definite as the wave-packet becomes
smaller and smaller.

→ but the average value of wavelength in a smaller wave-packet becomes less

defined because smaller wave-packet contains less number of waves.
h
→ In this case the momentum (p = ) is not well defined.
λ
→ So, when the position of particle is well defined then its momentum becomes
less defined and vice-versa.

→ As shown in figure, the wave packet is narrow.

→ In this case, the position of the particle can be determined with accuracy
but wavelength (and hence momentum) of the particle cannot be measured
accurately.

→ As shown in figure ..., the wave packet is large.

→ In this case, the position of particle becomes uncertain while the wavelength
(and hence momentum) can be determined fairly accurately.

→ The reason is that the wave-packet contains enough of waves.

Figure 6.4

→ According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, It is impossible to measure both

the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously to any desired degree of
accuracy.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

→ In general, this principle status that " It is impossible to specify precisely and
simultaneously the values of both members of particular pairs of physical variables
that describe the behaviour of an atomic system."

→ Heisenberg showed that even if we design an ideal experiment to measure

simultaneously the position x and corresponding component of momentum px of
the particle, there is always an uncertainty of ∆x in position and an uncertainty
of ∆px in momentum such that,

∆x∆px ≈ h
∆E∆t ≈ h
∆J∆θ ≈ h

→ Where ∆E and ∆t are uncertainties in determining the energy and time while
∆J and ∆θ are uncertainties in determining the angular momentum and angle.

6.8 Examples

Example 1 Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the following. (i)
A golf ball of 50 g moving with a velocity of 20 m/sec. (ii) A proton moving with a
velocity of 2200 m/sec. (iii) An electron moving with a kinetic energy of 10 eV.

Solution:
h
(i) We know that λ =
mν

6.625 × 10−34 joule-sec

λ=
0.05 kg × 20 m/sec
λ = 6.625 × 10−34 m

This is too small to be detected

(ii) In case of a proton having mass 1.67 × 10−27 kg we have;

6.625 × 10−34 joule-sec

λ= = λ = 1.80 × 10−10 m = 1.80 Å
1.67 × 10−27 kg × 2200 m/sec

This wavelength is of the order of X-ray wavelength.

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

(iii) In case of an electron with kinetic energy 10 eV, we have

h
λ= q
(2mE)
Where E = Kinetic energy
6.625 × 10−34 Js
λ= q
[2 × (9.11 × 10−31 kg)(10 × 1.602 × 10−19 )]
λ = 3.9 × 10−10 m
λ = 3.9 Å

Here it should be remembered that if the kinetic energy of the electron becomes
comparable to its rest mass, we must use the relativistic expression for momentum
mν.

Example 2 Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving

with a velocity equal to 1/20 th of the velocity of light.

Solution: Velocity of Proton,

1
ν= × velocity of light
20
1
= × 3 × 108
20
ν = 1.5 × 107 m/sec
Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
h
λ=
mν
6.62 × 10−34
=
1.67 × 10−27 × 1.5 × 107
λ = 2.64 × 10−14 m

Example 3 Find the energy of the neutron in units of electron volt whose de-
Broglie wavelength is 1Å.(Mass of Neutron = 1.674 × 10−27 kg, Plank’s Constant
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec)

Solution: Given: Mass of Neutron = 1.674 × 10−27 kg,

Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 241 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

We know that,

h
λ=
mν
h
=√
2mE
h2
E=
2mλ

In given problem m = 1.674 × 10−27 kg, λ = 1Å = 10−10 m and h = 6.625 × 10−34 J −

sec

(6.625 × 10−34 )2
E=
2 × 1.674 × 10−27 × (10−10 )2
4.3890625 × 10−67
=
3.348 × 10−27 × 1 × 10−18
4.3890625 × 10−67
=
3.348 × 10−45
= 13.10 × 10−21 J
13.10 × 10−21
E=
1.6 × 10−19
E = 8.19 × 10−2 eV

Example 4 Calculated the energy in electron volt of an electron wave λ = 3 × 10−12 m

(Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg,
and λ = 3 × 10−12 m)

Solution: We know that energy is given by;

h2
E=
2mλ2
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec,
m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, and λ = 3 × 10−12 m
(6.625 × 10−34 )2
E=
2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 10−12 )2
E = 3.370 × 10−19 J
3.370 × 10−19
E= eV
1.6 × 10−19
E = 2.107 eV

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Example 5 What will be the kinetic energy of an electron if its de-Broglie wavelength
equals the wavelength of the yellow line of sodium (5896Å)? (Plank’s Constant
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: de-Broglie wavelength λ is given by

h
λ=
mν
h
ν=
mλ
If K be the kinetic energy, then
1
K = mν 2
2
From above equation, we get
1
!
h2
K= m
2 m2 λ2
h2
=
2mλ2
(6.625 × 10−34 )2
=
2 × (9.1 × 10−31 ) × (5896 × 10−10 )2
= 6.95 × 10−25 J
6.95 × 10−25 J
=
1.6 × 10−19 J/eV
K = 4.34 × 10−6 eV

Example 6 What voltage must be applied to an electron microscope to produce

electrons of wavelength 0.40Å (Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of
electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: de-Broglie wavelength λ is given by,

h h
λ= =q
p (2mE)
h
λ= q ∵ E = eV
(2meV )
Where V is in volt

Here, h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, and λ = 0.40 × 10−10 m

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 243 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

6.625 × 10−34
0.4 × 10−10 = √
2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 V
V = 960 V

Example 7 Determine the velocity and kinetic energy of a neutron having de-
Broglie wavelength 1Å. Mass of neutron is 1.67 × 10−27 kg. (Plank’s Constant
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: de-Broglie wavelength λ is given by,

h h
λ= or ν =
mν mλ

Substituting the given values in the equation above, we get

6.625 × 10−34
ν=
1.67 × 10−27 × 1 × 10−10
ν = 3.97 × 103 m/sec

The kinetic energy of the particle is given by,

1
E = mν 2
2
1
= × (1.67 × 10−27 )(3.97 × 103 )2
2
= 1.32 × 10−20 J
1.32 × 10−20
= eV
1.6 × 10−19
E = 0.0825 eV

Example 8 Each of a photon and an electron has an energy of 1 keV . Calculate

the corresponding wavelength. (Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of
electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: The energy of a photon is given by

hc
E = hν =
λ
hc
λ=
E

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Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Substituting the given values, we get

(6.6 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )

λ=
(1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 J)
∵ 1keV = 1000eV = 1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
= 12.4 × 10−10 m
λ = 12.4Å

If E be the kinetic energy, then

1
mν 2 = E
2
mν 2 = 2E
q
(ν = (2E/m))
h h h
λ= = q =q
mν m 2E/m (2mE)

Substituting the given values, we have

6.625 × 10−34
λ= q
[2 × (9.1 × 10−31 kg) × (1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 J)]
6.6 × 10−34 J − s
=
17 × 10−24 kg m/sec
= 0.39 × 10−10
λ = 0.39Å

Example 9 What would be the wavelength of quantum of radiant energy emitted,

if an electron transmitted into radiation and converted into one quantum? (Plank’s
Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: According to Plank, the energy E associated with one quantum 1 = hν,
where ν is the frequency of radiation.
When the energy of an electron is transmitted into radiation, we have

E = mc2 (mass − energyrelation)

hc
hν = mc2 = = mc2
λ

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 245 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

h
λ=
mc
6.625 × 10−34
=
9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108
= 0.0244 × 10−10 m
λ = 0.0244Å

Example 10 Compute the de-Broglie wavelength of 1011 keV neutron. Mass of neutron
may be taken as 1.675 × 10−27 kg. (Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass
of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: Here, kinetic energy of neutron

= 1011 keV
= 1014 eV
= 1014 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
= 1.6 × 10−5 J
1
Now, mν 2 = 1.6 × 10−5
2
!1/2
2 × 1.6 × 10−5
ν= m/s
1.675 × 10−27
h
Again, λ =
mν
!1/2
6.625 × 10−34 1.675 × 10−27
= ×
1.675 × 10−27 2 × 1.6 × 10−5
λ = 2.86 × 10−18 m

Example 11 Find the de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron of energy 12.8M eV . Given

mass of neutron 1.675 × 10−27 kg. (Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass
of electron m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: Given that, K.E. = 12.8 M eV = 12.8 × 106 eV = 12.8 × 106 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) J

1
mν 2 = 12.8 × 106 × (1.6 × 10−19 )
2
= 12.8 × 1.6 × 10−13
#1/2
2 × 12.8 × 1.6 × 10−13
"
ν=
1.675 × 10−27
= 1.564 × 107 m/sec

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 246 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

h
λ=
mν
6.625 × 10−34
=
(1.675 × 10−27 ) × (1.564 × 107 )
λ = 2.529 × 10−29 m

Example 12 Compute the de-Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic energy

is equal to the rest energy of an electron. Mass of a proton id 1836 times that
of the electron. (Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron
m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

Solution: According to Einstein’s Energy-mass relation, we have

E = mc2 = 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2 = 81.9 × 10−15 J

Mass of the proton = 1836 × 9.1 × 10−15

1
mν 2 = 81.9 × 10−15
2
!1/2
2 × 81.9 × 10−15
ν=
1836 × 9.1 × 10−31
h
λ=
mν
!1/2
6.625 × 10−34 1836 × 9.1 × 10−31
= ×
1836 × 9.1 × 10−31 2 × 81.9 × 10−15
= 4 × 10−14 m
= 4 × 10−4 Å
λ = 0.004 Å

Example 13 Energy of a particle at absolute temperature T is of the order of KT.

Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 27◦ C. Given (mass of neutron
= 1.67 × 10−27 kg, Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10−34 J − sec, mass of electron
m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg, Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 × 10−5 eV deg−1 ).

Solution: We know that,

h h
λ= =√
mν 2mE

According to the problem E =kT

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 247 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

h
λ= q
(2mkT )
6.625 × 10−34
λ= q
[(2 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 1.376 × 10−23 × 300)]
λ = 1.777 × 10−10 m
λ = 1.777 Å

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 248 B.V.M. Engineering College

Appendix A

Units of Measurements and

Converastion Tables

S.I.Base Unit
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of matter mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

Some useful Physical Constants

249
Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Physical Quantity Symbol Computational Value

Avagadro’s Constant NA 6.022 × 1023 mol−1
Boltzmann’s Constant k(kβ ) 1.38 × 10−23 JK −1 , 8.614 × 10−5 eV K −1
Elementary Charge q 1.602 × 10−19 C
Plank’s Constant h 6.626 × 10−34 Js, 4.134 × 10−15 eV s
Electron Rest Mass m0 9.11 × 10−31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.673 × 10−27 kg
Neutron Mass mn 1.675 × 10−27 kg
Permitivity of free space ε0 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1
Permiability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 Hm−1
Velocity of Light c 2.998 × 108 ms−1
Compton Wavelength of electron λp 2.43 × 10−12 m

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 250 B.V.M. Engineering College

Semiconductor Physics 104BS

Derived Units

Equivalence in
Quantity Name Symbol
Derived Units Base Units
Frequency hertz Hz — s−1
Force newton N — kgms−2
Stress, Strength
pascal Pa N m−2 kgm−1 s−2
Pressure
Energy,Work,
joule J Nm kgm2 s−2
Quantity of Heat
Power watt W Js−1 kgm2 s−3
Electric Charge coulomb C As As
Electric Potential volt V W A−1 kgm2 s−3 A−1
Resistance ohm Ω V A−1 kgm2 s−3 A−2
Capacitance farad F CV −1 kg −1 m−2 s4 A2
Electrical Conductance siemens S AV −1 m−2 kgs−2 A2
Magnetic Flux weber Wb Vs kgm2 s−2 A−1
Magnetic Flux Density tesla T W bm−2 kgs−2 A−1
Inductance henry H W bA−1 kgm2 s−2 A−2

Temperature Conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit

◦
C = (◦ F − 32) − 1.8
◦
F = (◦ C × 1.8) + 32

1 micron = 10−6 m
1 nm = 10−9 m
1Å = 10−10 m
1◦ = 1/57.3 rad
Some useful Conversion factors 1eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
1 calorie = 4.18J
1bar = 105 N m−2 = 10−1 M P a
T ◦ C = (T + 273.15)K
1tesla = 1W bm−2

Dr. Sandip R Unadkat 251 B.V.M. Engineering College