Computer Science Year 1

SECTION

1 COMPUTER
SYSTEMS A – DATA
REPRESENTATION
AND COMPUTER
STRUCTURE

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Computer Architecture and Organisation

Data Storage and Manipulation

INTRODUCTION
Inside today’s computers, all information is encoded (represented) in the form of 0s
and 1s data. These digits are called bits, which are short for binary digits. Bits are the
basic building blocks of computers (just like letters are the building blocks for words),
telling the computers what to do and how to represent data. Patterns of bits combine
to represent text, numbers, images and sound. This topic is fundamental to computer
science because, at the end of the day, computers are machines that manipulate digital
signals, which are either on or off, either 1 or 0. So, regardless of whether you are
programming, doing machine learning, just using a computer or engaging in more
advanced topics like robotics, you are also ultimately manipulating bits.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Describe information as bit patterns.

• Apply knowledge of browser cache to solve runtime issues (e.g. opening browsers).
• Describe the functions of the parts of the CPU: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control
Unit (CU) and registers.
• Understand and explain the control bus, address bus, data bus and the internal clock,
Machine Cycle, Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store Cycle, instruction set for a CPU and
describe embedded systems.

Key Ideas
• A bit is the smallest unit of data.
• 8 bits make a byte (8 bits = 1 byte).
• Different types of information (numbers, text, images, etc.) are encoded into binary
in different ways. This means the raw data/binary representation needs to be decoded
according to its type to make sense as useful information.
• Boolean logic is a type of algebra in which results are calculated as either True or False.
• Buses are used to connect these components, allowing data and signals to pass between
them.
• The buses that form the system bus play a key role in the machine cycle, because it is
they who ferry around the necessary addresses, data and control signals.

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HOW DATA IS REPRESENTED IN A COMPUTER

SYSTEM

Data as Bit Pattern Representations

A bit is the smallest unit of data in computing or the digital world. A bit can only be
in one of two ‘binary’ states: ‘0’ or ‘1. The ‘0’ often signifies ‘Off’ or ‘False’ and the ‘1’
signifies ‘On’ or ‘True’ as in Figure 1.1.
Fun fact: Did you know that the word binary comes from the late Latin word ‘bini’ for
‘two together’, and before computers and bits were invented, it meant ‘dual’ or ‘pair’,
which is quite fitting since it now means two things that are opposite (‘On’ and ‘Off’
/1 and 0).

Fig 1.1 Switch illustrating the two binary states

Eight contiguous bits make one byte (8 bits = 1 byte).

A series of 0s and 1s is known as a bit pattern.
Representing data as bit patterns involves using sequences of 0s and 1s (bits) to encode
different types of data. For example, a wall socket switch, which can be ‘On’ or ‘Off’
could be represented by one bit (0 or 1).
Bits can often be found in the real world as labels for switches indicating which
direction/state is ‘On’ (1) and which is ‘Off’ (0). For example, see the switch of the
extension cable shown in Figure 1.2.

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Fig 1.2 Extension cable with switch labelled with bits

We will learn how the following types of data are represented in binary (as bits): Integers
(numbers), Text, Images, Audio, Videos, Files, and Data for Transmission. We will
discuss each in turn below.

1. Integer Representation
At the basic level, you were taught how to convert an integer (whole number)
from one base to another.
When encoding numbers in binary, we are converting from base-10 (decimal) to
base-2 (binary). In binary/base-2, the place values for each digit go up in 2s, going
from right to left.
For example, the first five place values are:

Fig 1.3 Binary representation

a. Decimal to Binary
The process of converting decimal numbers to binary (base-2) notation is shown
through two examples. Figure 1.4 converts 13 to binary and Figure 1.5 converts 25
to binary.

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Step 1: Divide 13 repeatedly by 2 until you get ‘0’ as the quotient

13 ÷ 2 = 6 (Remainder 1)

6 ÷ 2 = 3 (Remainder 0)

3 ÷ 2 = 1 (Remainder 1)

1 ÷ 2 = 0 (Remainder 1)

(Decimal)
1101

Step 2: Write the remainders in the reverse order (Binary)

Fig 1.4 Converting 13 to binary

Step 1: Divide 25 repeatedly by 2 until you get ‘0’ as the quotient

25 ÷ 2 = 12 (Remainder 1)

12 ÷ 2 = 6 (Remainder 0)

6 ÷ 2 = 3 (Remainder 0)

3 ÷ 2 = 1 (Remainder 1)

1 ÷ 2 = 0 (Remainder 1)

Step 2: Write the remainders in the reverse order

11001

(Decimal) (Binary)

Fig 1.5 Converting 25 to binary

Activity 1.1

1. Count the number of chairs in your class and convert this number to binary.
2. Convert your age to binary.
Leading zeros can be added to make a byte (8 bits), as shown in Table 1.1

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Decimal Binary (8 bits)

0 00000000

1 00000001

2 00000010

3 00000011

4 00000100

5 00000101

6 00000110

7 00000111

8 00001000

9 00001001

Table 1.1: Table representing the 8-bit representation of numbers 0 to 9.

b. Binary to Decimal
Now that we are done with the conversion from decimal to binary, let us look at
how to convert from binary to decimal. To convert from binary to decimal, you
can use the positional notation system. Each digit in a binary number represents
a power of 2, starting from the rightmost digit , then , , and so on.
Note: When counting the binary numbers, you start counting from 0, from the
right to the left.
Let us follow the steps below to convert binary numbers to decimals.
Firstly, assign powers of 2 to each digit, starting from the rightmost digit. For
example, if you have the binary number 10110, the rightmost digit is 0, followed
by 1, then 1, in that order.

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101102 = (1×24 ) + (0×23 ) + (1×22 ) + (1×21 ) + (0×20 )

= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0

= 22

101102 = 2210
(Binary) (Decimal
)
Fig 1.6 Converting 10110 to decimal

Another example is finding the decimal number 11010102

11010102 = (1×26 ) + (1×25 ) + (0×24 ) + (1×23 ) + (0×22 ) + (1×21 ) + (0×20 )

= 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0

= 106

11010102 = 10610
(Binary) (Decimal)

Fig 1.7 Converting 1101010 to decimal

Activity 1.2

1. The timekeeper of the 2023 African Games tournament held in Ghana

recorded the binary number 111010 as the number of seconds run by an
athlete. Calculate the time spent by the athlete, in decimal.
2. Agya Yao’s mark in an eating competition was recorded as 101111 in binary.
What is the mark in decimal?

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2. Text Representation
In the numeric representation we learnt earlier, we saw that numbers can be
represented as binary numbers the computer understands. In the same way, text
characters also have their own binary representation. These are done using ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and Unicode.
Standard ASCII uses a 7-bit code to represent 128 characters. These include 95
printable characters, like letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9), and symbols, along with 33
non-printable characters for things like formatting and control (example carriage
return, line feed).
The extended ASCII character set utilises an 8-bit code to represent a wider range
of characters. With 8 bits, extended ASCII can accommodate an additional 128
characters and symbols. Extended ASCII is assumed when ASCII is mentioned
for the remainder of these notes.
ASCII is a standard that allows computers to understand and communicate with
each other. In ASCII, each character (letter, number, and symbol) has its unique
code. For example, the letter ‘A’ is represented by the binary number 01000001
(65), while ‘a’ is represented by the binary number 1100001 (97). This system helps
computers know what characters to display on the screen or how to store them
in memory. So, when you type a letter on your keyboard, the computer translates
it into its corresponding ASCII code to understand what you are saying. ASCII
makes it possible for computers to communicate with each other and makes it
easy for us to also interact with them through the text we type. Another encoding
scheme is Unicode, which is a more recent standard, developed to overcome
the limitations of how many characters ASCII can represent by assigning 16
bits per character. Extended ASCII is a subset of Unicode (comprising its first
256 characters). Unicode aims to provide a unique number for every character,
regardless of the platform, programme, or language, creating a global standard for
text representation.
Sometimes, an ASCII table can also show the hexadecimal (base-16) and octal
(base-8) equivalent of the binary ASCII code as shown in the ASCII table extract
in Table 1.2.

Decimal Hexadecimal Binary Octal Char

48 30 110000 60 0

49 31 110001 61 1

50 32 110010 62 2

51 33 110011 63 3

52 34 110100 64 4

53 35 110101 65 5

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Decimal Hexadecimal Binary Octal Char

54 36 110110 66 6

55 37 110111 67 7

56 38 111000 70 8

57 39 111001 71 9

58 3A 111010 72 :

59 3B 111011 73 ;

60 3C 111100 74 <

61 3D 111101 75 =

62 3E 111110 76 >

63 3F 111111 77 ?

64 40 1000000 100 @

65 41 1000001 101 A

66 42 1000010 102 B

67 43 1000011 103 C

68 44 1000100 104 D
Table 1.2: Extract from an ASCII table

The ASCII binary codes for letters are shown in Table 1.3.

Letter ASCII Code ASCII Code Letter ASCII Code Binary

(in decimal (Binary)
form)

a 097 01100001 A 065 01000001

b 098 01100010 B 066 01000010
c 099 01100011 C 067 01000011
d 100 01100100 D 068 01000100
e 101 01100101 E 069 01000101
f 102 01100101 F 070 01000110
g 103 01100101 G 071 01000111
h 104 01100101 H 072 01001000
i 105 01101001 I 073 01001001

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Letter ASCII Code ASCII Code Letter ASCII Code Binary

(in decimal (Binary)
form)

j 106 01101010 J 074 01001010

k 107 01101011 K 075 01001011
l 108 01101100 L 076 01001100
m 109 01101101 M 077 01001101
n 110 01101110 N 078 01001110
o 111 01101111 O 079 01001111
p 112 01110000 P 080 01010000
q 113 01110001 Q 081 01010001
r 114 01110010 R 082 01010010
s 115 01110011 S 083 01010011

t 116 01110100 T 084 01010100

u 117 01110101 U 085 01010101
v 118 01110110 V 086 01010110
w 119 01110111 W 087 01010111
x 120 01111000 X 088 01011000
y 121 01111001 Y 089 01011001

z 122 01111010 Z 090 01011010

Table 1.3: ASCII-Binary character code set

Activity 1.3

Encode your first name using the ASCII-Binary character code set and show the
result to your study mate.

Activity 1.4

What name does this sequence of ASCII-Binary characters encode?

01001010 01101111 01110011 01100101 01110000 01101000 00100000 01000001
01101101 01101111 01100001 01101000

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3. Image Representation
When images are represented using bits, we use pixels. A pixel is the smallest
unit of a digital image or display. One way of thinking of an image to be displayed
and stored by a computer is as lots of pixels. We then give each pixel a binary code
to show its colour. When we put all these binary codes together, we get what is
called a bitmap, which is an array/grid of binary data representing the colour
values of pixels in an image or display. We call this method of representing images
on a computer bitmapped graphics. With bitmapped graphics, if only 1 bit is
used to represent each pixel, the binary code for each pixel is 1 or 0, giving 2
possible colours (such as black and white).

Fig 1.8 Black and white bitmap

From Figure 1.8, ‘1’ is for ‘white’ and ‘0’ is for ‘black’. If more bits are used to
represent each pixel, then there are more combinations of binary numbers so
more colours can be represented. For example, if two bits are assigned to each
pixel, then four colours can be represented using the binary codes 00, 01, 10, and
11.

Activity 1.5

For each of the bitmaps in Figure 1.9, produce the pixel array that encode them
as a bitmapped graphics with white represented by ‘0’ and black represented by
‘1’. In other words, you are producing the array on the left of Figure 1.8, but for
the images in Figure 1.9.

  

Fig 1.9 Word ‘BIT’ represented as a bitmap

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4. Audio Representation
One method of representing sound on a computer is digital audio. Digital audio
is where sound is recorded as a sequence of samples, with each sample encoding
the amplitude of the sound wave at a specific time as seen in Figure 1.9. The
amplitude value is represented using a series of bits.

Fig 1.10 Sample audio of bit representation.

Here are examples of how audio can be represented using different bit depths:
a. 8-bit audio: Each sample is represented by an 8-bit binary number, which can
range from 0 to 255 ( - 1). This provides relatively low resolution and dynamic
range, suitable for some basic audio applications like early video games or
simple sound effects.
b. 16-bit audio: Each sample is represented by a 16-bit binary number, which
can range from 0 to 65,535 ( - 1). This is the standard format for CD-quality
audio and offers higher resolution and dynamic range compared to 8-bit audio.
c. 24-bit audio: Each sample is represented by a 24-bit binary number, which can
range from 0 to 16,777,215 ( - 1). 24-bit audio provides even greater resolution
and dynamic range, suitable for professional audio recording and mastering,
as well as high-fidelity audio playback.
These examples illustrate how the number of bits used to represent each sample affects
the quality and fidelity of the digital audio signal.

Activity 1.6

Share, with your study mate, how sound quality would be affected by adjusting
the rate at which samples are taken. For example, how would an audio file, where
samples are recorded every second, compare to one with samples taken every
0.1s.

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Activity 1.7

Find out, using the internet, what sample rate CDs are typically recorded at,
exploring what unit of measurement is used and how that corresponds to samples
per second. As an extension, you can also find out why that is the standard rate in
relation to faithfully recording sound and how humans hear.

5. Video Representation
Digital videos are represented as a series of images (frames), where each frame is
encoded using bit patterns to store the colour of each pixel in the frame. Videos
are essentially a sequence of images played in rapid succession.

6. File Representation
Files, such as documents, images, videos, and executables are represented as
collections of bits. The arrangement of these bits follows specific file formats,
which dictate how the data should be interpreted and displayed.
Examples of file formats: JPEG for pictures, DOC or DOCX for Word documents
and XLS or XLSX for Excel spread sheets.

7. Data for Transmission

When data is transmitted over networks, the binary representation of the data
is broken into same-sized pieces called packets for transmission and then
reassembled back into its original form at the destination.

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BIT PATTERNS
Representing data as bit patterns allows computers to process, store, and transmit data
efficiently. These representations conquer the binary nature of computing, enabling
the use of simple electronic circuits that can distinguish between two states (0 and 1) to
have the great utility of modern computers. These bit patterns serve as the foundation
of modern computing systems, enabling the vast array of applications and services we
use in our digital world.

Application of bit patterns in everyday life

All the apps on your smartphone, be it for social media, navigation or productivity, rely
on bit patterns for their functionality and data representation. Every time you use a
smartphone, tablet, or computer, you are interacting with bit patterns. From browsing
the web to sending text messages, the digital data that powers these devices is stored
and processed as bit patterns.
Bit patterns are at the core of the digital world, facilitating the efficient storage,
processing, and communication of information in numerous aspects of our daily lives.

BOOLEAN LOGIC AND BINARY

Boolean logic is a type of algebra in which results are calculated as either true or false.
Boolean logic drives modern digital devices, such as computers. It is used to describe
electromagnetically charged memory locations or circuit states in a computer that are
either charged (1 or true) or not charged (0 or false).

Bit and their storage

To understand how individual bits are stored and manipulated inside a computer, it is
convenient to imagine that the bit 0 represents the value false and the bit 1 represents
the value true.

Logic operations
These operations are based on the Boolean logic, which was developed by mathematician
George Boole and is widely used in computer science and digital electronics, including
applications in programming, digital circuit design, and data processing.
There are three main logic operations. These are: AND, OR and NOT.
Now, let’s look at the meaning of these logical operations.

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1. AND operation
The AND operation takes two input values, often represented as A and B, and
produces an output based on the following rules:
a. If both A and B are 1 (true), the output is 1 (true).
b. Otherwise, if either A or B (or both) is 0 (false), the output is 0 (false).
In simple terms, the AND operation checks whether both input values are true,
and if they are, the result is also true; otherwise, the result is false.
The behaviour of logical operation can be summarised into a truth table. A
truth table is a breakdown of all the possible truth values returned by a logical
expression. Let us consider the truth table for the AND operation in Table 1.5.

Truth table for AND operation:

A (INPUT) B (INPUT) A AND B (OUTPUT)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Table 1.5 AND logic truth table

Activity 1.8

Complete the truth table below.

A (Input) B (Input) A AND B (Output)

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

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Activity 1.9

Based on the output (A AND B) of input A and input B, provide the corresponding
inputs A and B that satisfy the output.
A (Input) B (Input) A AND B (Output)
1
0
0
1

2. OR Operation
The OR operation takes two input values, also often represented as A and B, and
produces an output based on the following rules:
a. If either A or B (or both) is 1 (true), the output is 1 (true).
b. If both A and B are 0 (false), then the output is 0 (false).
In simple terms, the OR operation checks if at least one of the input values is true
and if it is, the result is true; otherwise, the result is false.
Table 1.6 shows the truth table for the OR operation.

Truth Table for OR operation:

A (INPUT) B (INPUT) A OR B (OUTPUT)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
Table 1.6 OR logic truth table

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Activity 1.10

Use the truth table of table 1.6 to complete the truth table below.

A (Input) B (Input) A OR B
(Output)

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

Activity 1.11

Complete the truth table below such that each row of inputs is different.

A (Input) B (Input) A OR B (Output)

1
1
1
0

3. NOT Operation
The NOT operator takes a single input value (often referred to as A) and produces
the opposite value as the output.
a. If A is 0 (false), the output is 1 (true).
b. If A is 1 (true), the output is 0 (false).
In simple terms, the NOT operator negates or flips the input value.

Truth Table for NOT operation:

A (Input) A-NOT / NOT A (Output)

0 1

1 0
Table 1.7 NOT Logic truth table

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Activity 1.12

Use the truth table in table 1.7 to complete the table below.

A (Input) A-NOT (Output)

Activity 1.13

Use the truth table in table 1.7 to complete the table below.

A (Input) A-NOT (Output)

Understanding logic operations is important for programming and working with digital
circuits, as they form the basis for making decisions, comparisons, and computations
in computer systems. By using truth tables and practical examples, you can gain an
understanding of logic operations and their significance in digital computing.
One example is a truth table for analysing the statement ‘The dog is black, and you are
the dog’s owner’. This is a statement with two inputs or propositions, where the logic
operator is the AND. Therefore ‘the dog is black’ (labelled as A) and ‘you are the dog’s
owner’ (labelled as B) can be combined into the truth table of table 1.8 to summarise
the statement.

A (Input) B (Input) A AND B (Output)

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Table 1.8 Truth table for the given statement above

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COMPUTER MEMORY: UNITS OF MEMORY

Units of memory in computing are typically measured in bytes.
Below is a breakdown of some common memory units:
1. Bit (b): the smallest unit of memory, representing a binary digit (0 or 1).
2. Byte (B): a group of 8 bits.
3. Kilobyte (KB): 1 KB is equal to 1024 bytes.
4. Megabyte (MB): 1 MB is equal to 1024 KB or 1,048,576 bytes.
5. Gigabyte (GB): 1 GB is equal to 1024 MB or 1,073,741,824 bytes.

Activity 1.14

Discuss, with your study mates, why 1KB is 1024 bytes and not 1000 bytes.

Activity 1.15

Convert 3MB into both KBs and bytes.

Activity 1.16

Explore how much storage is needed for different types of data by conducting
online research or using available storage calculators to investigate the storage
requirements for a movie, a mobile phone photo, and a popular video game.

Structure of a computer system

A computer system is structured and comprises a processor/CPU (Central Processing
Unit) and memory, input, output, and storage devices. The CPU is the part of the
computer where all the calculating, sorting, searching, and decision-making happens.
The CPU is discussed in more detail later in this material.
Main or working memory stores data that is currently being used by the CPU. Secondary
or backing storage is where saved computer data is stored.

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Secondary Storage

RAM or ROM

Input device Processor Output Device

Fig 1.11 Basic block diagram of the structure of a computer system

Input devices are pieces of equipment used to provide data and control signals to the
computer. The keyboard and mouse are examples of input devices. Output devices
provide data and control signals from the computer to the user. Screens and printers
are examples of output devices.

Flip-flop
Having understood what bits are, ‘the smallest pieces of data’ (either 0 or 1), the question
is, how are bits stored in the computer’s memory? A flip-flop is a basic electronic circuit
used for storing bits. A flip-flop can store only one bit of data. Some types of memory
(for example, a type of RAM called SRAM) use flip-flop circuits.

TYPES OF MEMORY: RAM AND ROM AS BIT

STORAGE
Below are some types of memory:

1. Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) serves as the primary storage location for data
that the CPU is actively working on or requires for quick access. This type of
working memory holds data and instructions that are currently being processed
by the CPU. RAM is directly accessible by the CPU.

Fig 1.12 A RAM module

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RAM has a limited capacity compared to secondary storage devices which will
be studied in the next section. The capacity of RAM is typically measured in
gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB). The amount of RAM in a computer affects its
ability to run multiple programmes simultaneously and handle large amounts of
data efficiently.
Binary numbers, called memory addresses, are used to identify storage locations
in RAM. RAM is described as volatile, meaning it requires power to retain data.
When the computer is turned off, the data stored in a RAM is lost.

2. ROM - Read Only Memory

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is another type of working memory in a computer
system. Unlike RAM, which is volatile and loses its contents when the power
is turned off, ROM is non-volatile, meaning it retains its data even when the
power is switched off. ROM is generally read-only, meaning that while data can
be read from ROM, it cannot be written to or modified by normal programme
execution. ROM is used to store instructions that tell the computer how to perform
housekeeping functions such as initialising hardware components or loading the
operating system.

Fig 1.13 A ROM module

3. Secondary Memory/Storage
Secondary memory is external, non-volatile memory where data can be stored
permanently. Examples include internal/external hard disk drives (HDDs), Pen
drives (Flash drives), CDs, and solid-state drives (SSDs). Secondary storage has a
much larger capacity than main memory but is slower in terms of access times.
Secondary storage is also sometimes termed auxiliary storage.

Fig 1.14 Secondary storage devices/media

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4. Cache Memory
Cache memory or CPU cache is a small, high-speed memory for temporary data
storage. It is located directly on the CPU or close to it. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and RAM, holding frequently used data and instructions that the processor
may require next. This reduces the need for frequent slower memory retrievals
from RAM which may otherwise keep the CPU waiting.

5. Registers
Registers are the fastest access and smallest capacity storage units. They are located
within the CPU itself. They serve as temporary storage areas that store the data,
instructions and memory addresses that the CPU is currently processing.

Memory Hierarchy
Memory hierarchy is a hierarchical arrangement of different types of memory in a
computer system, organised in levels according to their speed, capacity and cost. The
memory hierarchy is designed to optimise data access and storage, ensuring that the
computer can efficiently process and retrieve data at various speeds. It consists of
several levels, each with different characteristics, purpose and proximity to the CPU.
The levels in the memory hierarchy go from the fastest and smallest access time to the
slowest and largest capacity.

Fig 1.15 Memory hierarchy

Since CPU registers are the fastest to read and write, they are placed at the top of the
hierarchy. On the other hand, secondary storage devices like optical drives (CDs and
DVDs) are the slowest and largest and therefore occupy the last level in the pyramid.
A significant way to increase system performance is minimising how far down the
memory hierarchy data needs to be retrieved.

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Activity 1.17

Use Figure 1.15 and any search engine of your choice to complete the task below.
a. Expand figure 1.15 into a poster that gives more details about each level.
b. Go online and find out detailed explanation of each level.
c. Prepare PowerPoint slides of your finding.
d. Share your finding with your colleagues.

CACHING
CPU cache is just an example of the more general concept of caching. In computing,
a cache is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests
for that data can be served faster. Another example of caching is browser cache, also
known as web cache.

Browser cache/Web cache

Browser cache is a temporary storage area in RAM or on disk that holds the most
recently downloaded web pages. As you jump from web page to web page, the caching
of those pages in memory lets you quickly go back to a page without it having to be
downloaded again. To ensure that the latest page is displayed, the browser compares
the dates of the cached page with the current web page. If the web page has not
changed, the cached page is displayed immediately. If the web page has changed, it is
downloaded, displayed and cached. When you quit the browser session, the cached
pages are stored on disk.

Errors and clearing browser cache

If a user gets a run-time error message when trying to access a particular webpage, this
can indicate a corrupt browser cache. The user may also be unable to load the webpage
if the website owner has made updates, and the user’s browser programme tries to use
an old file stored in its cache. A possible solution to these issues is to clear the browser
cache.
Below are the instructions for clearing the browser cache in Chrome.
1. Open Chrome and click on the three dots (top right of the window)
2. Click / hover over ‘History’ to display a submenu.

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3. In the submenu, select ‘History’.

4. On the left of the ‘History’ screen, click ‘Clear browsing data’.

Activity 1.18

With the aid of the internet, use the steps above to clear the browser cache of the
device you are using.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The part of a computer that manages all the work with data is called the Central
Processing Unit or CPU. It is often just called the ‘processor’. The CPU is often referred
to as the ‘brain’ of the computer, as it is responsible for executing instructions and
performing calculations that enable various computing tasks. It is also the part of the
computer system where data is processed into information. CPUs in computers are
small flat chips that can fit in your hand.
They have connecting pins that go into a socket on the motherboard (a large circuit
board that hosts all the essential components of a computer, including the CPU). In
smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices, CPUs are even smaller; about half the
size of a postage stamp. So, there are different types of CPUs and CPU specifications vary.
CPUs in washing machines and smart televisions, for example, will have considerably
less processor speed than in a brand new desktop computer.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

Below is a picture of a CPU on a motherboard.

Fig 1.16 A picture of a CPU on a motherboard.

Activity 1.19

Write the names of other devices that have CPU in them in your jotter and share
with your friends in class.

Components of a CPU
A CPU consists of three main parts: the Control Unit (CU), the Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), and registers. We will look at each in turn, along with other components
of the CPU including its cache, clock and bus.

1. Control Unit (CU)

This is the part of the CPU that manages the operations within the CPU. Some of
its functions includes:
a. Controls the order in which instructions are executed.
b. Manages the other CPU components, such as the ALU and registers. The CU
communicates with these parts using the CPU internal buses (we’ll come to
those later).
c. Fetches instructions from memory.
d. Decodes those instructions.
e. Fetches the data required by the instructions from memory.
f. Sends the data and instructions to ALU for processing.
g. Outputs the data after processing.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

Activity 1.20

Table 1.9 shows real life examples of processing, breaking processes down into
their input, processor and output. For example, the first line demonstrates how
the process of washing clothes can be broken down into the input of dirty clothes,
the processor of a washing machine, and the output of clean clothes. Complete the
rest of the table individually, asking your teacher for feedback on your completed
table.

Input Processor Output

Dirty clothes Washing machine Clean clothes
Garage
Fire
A person with long hair

Table 1.9: Task on processing in real life

Possible solution to the activity 1.20

A valid completion of table 1.9 is seen in Table 1.10. Notice how each output is
the result of some processing being done, by the processor, to the input. Consider
whether this also holds for your solution.

Input Processor Output

Dirty clothes Washing machine Clean clothes
Broken car Garage Fixed car
Raw chicken Fire Roast chicken
A person with long hair Hairdressers A person with short hair

Table 1.10: Valid solution to activity on processing real life

2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic operations manipulate numbers and include addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division (/). The logic operations involve
performing comparisons and making decisions, including the logical operations
we learnt about the last topic (AND, OR, and NOT), and comparison operations
including equal to (=), not equal to (≠), less than (<), greater than (>), less or
equal to (≤), and greater or equal to ( ≥ ).
Functions:
a. Performs arithmetic operations to process numbers.
b. Performs logical operations to make decisions.

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3. Registers
We have already touched on this part of the CPU in the last topic, where we
learned the details of computer memory. Recall that registers are the fastest
access and smallest capacity storage units, and that they are located within the
CPU itself. They serve as temporary storage areas that store the data, instructions
and memory addresses that the CPU is currently processing. Different types of
registers perform different functions. The names and functions of three of the
CPU registers include the following:
a. The Memory Address Register (MAR) stores the address in memory
currently being read from/written to.
b. The Program Counter (PC) stores the memory address of the next instruction
to be executed.
c. The Memory Data Register (MDR) holds data being transferred to and from
the processor.

4. Cache
Cache memory is a fast random-access memory that temporarily stores a small
amount of data and instructions that the CPU is likely to use, so that it can run
more efficiently.
Functions:
a. Temporarily store data and instructions for later.
b. Allows faster processing, as the CPU can get the data and instructions directly
from the cache instead of having to wait to retrieve them from RAM.

Activity 1.21

1. Use one of your school’s computers to find out:

a. The name and manufacturer of the processor it has.
b. The quantity of RAM installed.
Possible Solution to the activity 1.21
For a Windows device: click on the Windows Start button, then click on Settings
(the gear icon). In the Settings menu, click on ‘System’, scroll down and click on
‘About’. The information you are looking for will be here, e.g. processor = Intel
Xeon 6, RAM = 16GB.

5. Clock
The clock is the part of the CPU that sends out regular pulses that keep the CPU
and its related components in step with one another. The CPU clock speed, also

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known as clock rate or clock frequency, is measured in Gigahertz (GHz) and

indicates the number of cycles per second that the CPU’s clock executes.
Each cycle of the CPU clock represents one basic unit of work that the CPU
can perform, such as fetching, decoding, or executing an instruction. A higher
clock speed means the CPU can execute more cycles per second, leading to faster
processing of instructions and improved performance.
Function: Generates electrical pulses at a specific frequency that determines how
quickly the CPU can process.

6. System Bus
A bus is a communication channel/series of lines that connect the processor to
another part of the computer’s architecture.

Fig 1.17 CPU is linked to main memory via buses

The processor also has a set of internal buses that allow signals and data to pass
between its different components.
The three types of buses are address bus, data bus and control bus. These buses are
collectively called the system bus. Functions include:
a. The address bus sends memory addresses to other components.
b. The data bus sends the actual data to/from other components.
c. The control bus sends control signals to other devices.
Out of all the components looked at, the control unit, arithmetic and logic
unit, and registers are considered to be the three main parts of the CPU.

Activity 1.22

Together with one or more of your study mates, create an informative display
communicating all that you have learnt about the CPU. For example, you might

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

want to create a labelled model of the CPU including all the relevant parts (CU,
ALU, registers, etc.).

Activity 1.23

In pairs, pick one of the following processors and research it: Intel Core i5-
14600K, Intel Core i9-14900K, Intel Core i7-14700K, AMD Ryzen 7 5800X3D and
AMD Ryzen 97950X. Create a report of your findings that could be presented to
the class.

COMPUTER BUSES – OUTSIDE OF THE CPU

We have already learnt that the system bus (the collective name for the control, address
and data buses) is used within the CPU to connect its components, transporting control
signals, addresses and data around, but that is not where their job ends. Buses on the
motherboard are also used to connect the CPU to other components and main memory
(see Figure 1.18) allowing the CPU to transfer instructions and data to and from the
main memory.

Fig 1.18 Buses connecting the processor and main memory

Activity 1.24

1. How do system buses contribute to the functioning of a computer system?

2. When the processor is at work, what are the three types of buses that are
crucial for its operation? Explain your response.
Next, as we go through the machine cycle, we will highlight how the buses are
used.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

Machine Cycle
The CPU does its work by following a specific process called the machine cycle, which
consists of four main steps: fetch, decode, execute and store. For this reason, the
machine cycle is also known as the Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store cycle. This process is
a routine that the CPU repeats to run a programme/set of instructions. Figure 1.19
shows stages of the machine cycle and what parts of the computer are involved.

Fig 1.20 The stages involved in the machine cycle.

1. Fetch
During the fetch stage, the CPU retrieves an instruction from memory. This is
achieved by the address bus providing the location (or address) of the instruction
in the RAM, and the data bus transferring this instruction to the processor. The
programme counter is a register that keeps track of the memory address of the
next instruction. This is where the address bus finds the address, and after it has
passed the address of the current location, the programme counter is incremented
to point to the next instruction (by storing its address). The fetched instruction is
then stored in a designated register within the CPU for further processing.

2. Decode
In the decode stage, the CPU interprets the fetched instruction. It identifies the
operation to be performed and determines the operands involved. The instruction
is decoded into a format that the CPU can understand and execute.

3. Execute
Once the instruction has been decoded, the CPU executes the instruction; that
is, carrying out the necessary operations specified by the instruction. This stage
may involve arithmetic or logical calculations, data manipulation, or control flow
modifications.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

4. Store
The final stage of the machine cycle is the store stage. Here the results of the
executed instruction are stored back in memory or designated registers. This stage
ensures that the changes made during the execution are preserved going forward
for future operations or the overall programme’s functioning. The four main
processes are shown in Figure 1.20.
The FDES cycle repeats continuously, with each cycle processing one instruction at a
time. By following this cycle, a computer system can execute complex programmes by
sequentially fetching, decoding, and executing instructions, storing any results. The
CPU clock, with its regular electronic pulses, synchronises the various stages of the
cycle, ensuring each step happens at the right time.

Activity 1.25

1. With reference to the machine cycle, explain how a computer runs a

programme.
2. What are the steps involved in the machine cycle? Use your own words to
explain them in turn.
3. How would you describe what occurs during the decode stage of the machine
cycle? Taking the task of playing the song ‘Putuu’ by Stonebwoy as a case
study.
4. Explain the fetch stage of the machine cycle, with specific reference to the
buses involved.

CPU INSTRUCTION SET

A CPU’s instruction set, also known as instruction set architecture (ISA), is a set of
commands the CPU can understand and execute. It defines the operations that can
be performed, the data types that can be manipulated, and the addressing modes for
accessing memory. The ISA is the CPU’s programming language. It is how we tell
the CPU to perform certain tasks. Some instructions are simple read, write and move
commands that direct data to different hardware elements. Programmes written in
programming languages are compiled (translated) down to these instructions so they
can be run. Whatever task you get a computer to do boils down to a sequence of ISA
instructions that the CPU executes using the machine cycle.

Embedded systems
An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system, which is completely
encapsulated by the device it controls. Its purpose is to control the device and to allow
a user to interact with it.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

An embedded system has specific requirements and performs pre-defined tasks,

unlike a general-purpose personal computer. Embedded systems are a combination of
hardware and software which facilitates mass production and a variety of applications.
Embedded devices are not usually programmable by a user – the programming is
usually done beforehand by the manufacturer. However, it is often possible to upgrade
the software on an embedded device. For example, fitness trackers are embedded
systems whose software can be upgraded. However, the upgrade can only be done by
connecting the tracker to a computer/smartphone (wirelessly or wired) and installing
the new software.

Domestic Appliances Electronic Calculators

Domestic Appliances Electronic Calculators

Central Heating Systems Fitness Tracker

Central Heating Systems Fitness Tracker

Digital Watch GPS Systems

Digital Watch GPS Systems

Fig 1.20 Examples of embedded systems

Programmes on an embedded system often run in real time with limited hardware
resources. For example, often there is no disk drive. The software may be stored in
a type of memory called Flash ROM. If a user interface is present, it is often a small
keypad and screen or touch screen.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

Advantages of an embedded system

1. They can be used in a wide variety of products and devices, and to create new
ones.
2. They are ROM based so operate very quickly.
3. These systems are tiny and can fit into all sorts of gadgets, making them perfect
for things like smartphones or smartwatches.
4. They can react fast to what’s happening around them, like in cars or phones,
because they are designed to work in real time.
5. Embedded systems are specialized, so they are good at doing their jobs without
messing up.

Activity 1.25

1. Look around your home, school and place of work and name two examples
of embedded systems you might find in each place. Explain what the
embedded system does in each case.
2. What do you think are two important characteristics shared by most
embedded systems? Justify your answer.
3. Create a presentation demonstrating how embedded systems are employed
in managing household tasks, improving healthcare or enhancing
transportation systems.

33
Review Questions

1. Differentiate between the following terms:

a. Data and Information
b. Bit and Byte
c. Pixel and Bitmap
2. Papa Eyram was asked by his daughter, Mawusi, to aid her in a computing
homework. She was asked by her computing facilitator, Mr. Elikem, to convert
the following decimal numbers into their binary representations. As a computing
student, help Papa Eyram to also help his daughter.
a. 25
b. 57
c. 128
3. In a Science and Maths Quiz competition between three schools in the Upper
West Region, the competing schools were to convert the following numbers into
their decimal representations. Assuming you were one of the representatives of
the schools, what would have been your answers to these questions, showing steps
of working?
a. 11010
b. 100111
c. 1110100
4. If a computer has a 4-bit binary system, which of the following decimal numbers
cannot be accurately represented, and why?
a. 7
b. 15
c. 16
d. 9
5. A digital speedometer of a moving vehicle shows 8 bits reading as 11001100. What
is the speed of the vehicle in decimal value?
6. The binary representation of 9 is 1011. (True/False)
7. Match the decimal numbers with their binary representations:
- Decimal: 4
- Binary: ___
- Decimal: 17
- Binary: ___
- Decimal: 35
- Binary: ___

34
8. Sir Kojo was passing by to attend to one of his lessons and heard students in 3A
General Arts class making noise. He then tasked the class to convert decimal
number 22 into its binary representation. What would be your answer if you were
a member of the class that day?
A. 10101
B. 11010
C. 10110
D. 11011
9. What does the AND operation do if both input values are 1?
A. Outputs 0
B. Outputs 1
C. Outputs either 0 or 1 randomly
10. Which logic operation inverts the input value?
A. AND
B. OR
C. NOT
11. The OR operation requires both inputs to be 1 to produce an output of 1. True or
False?
A. True
B. False
12. Which of the following best describes the difference between RAM and ROM?
A. RAM is volatile and ROM is non-volatile.
B. RAM is used for permanent storage and ROM is used for temporary storage.
C. RAM is non-volatile and ROM is volatile.
13. Given that 1 KB equals 1024 bytes, how many bytes are there in 7 KB?
14. Why is ROM considered non-volatile?
A. It retains data without power.
B. It loses data when power is turned off.
C. It can be easily rewritten.
D. It operates at high speeds.
15. Given two binary numbers A = 01101 and B = 10011, after performing the AND
operation point wise (bit by bit) on A and B, how many 1s are in the output?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3

35
16. If a computer has 8GB of storage and a programme takes up 8000 MB of memory,
can the programme be stored? Explain your reasoning.
17. A student claims that deleting files from a computer’s ROM can speed it up.
Evaluate this statement and explain why it is correct or incorrect.
18. Create a truth table for the following statement and evaluate when it is true:
‘Kojo is not an artist and Abena is not a musician’
19. What does CPU stand for?
20. Which part of the human body is the best analogy for what the CPU is to a
computer?
A. Heart
B. Brain
C. Eyes
D. Skin
21. Which component is primarily responsible for executing instructions in a
computer?
A. RAM
B. ROM
C. CPU
D. SSD
22. Identify the three main components of a CPU.
A. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and Registers
B. Hard Drive, Monitor, and Keyboard
C. Motherboard, Power Supply, and Fan
D. RAM, ROM, and SSD
23. Explain the role of CPU registers; specifically, how they help make computers
more efficient.
24. Explain the role of the ALU.
25. Explain the role of the CU.
26. How does increasing the clock speed of a CPU affect its performance?
27. If Efo Danny’s personal computer’s CPU can process 10 thousand instructions per
second, how many instructions can it process in one minute?
28. Describe how cache memory benefits CPU performance.
29. What are the four stages of the machine cycle?
30. Name the three buses that make up the system bus.

36
31. What is the name of the set of commands that a processor can understand and
execute?
32. Describe the steps involved in the fetch phase in the Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store
cycle.
33. Research and prepare a presentation to illustrate, with examples, how a typical
instruction is processed through the Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store cycle.
34. Explain the role the CPU clock plays in the machine cycle.

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

EXTENDED READING
• Click on the link below to learn more on ASCII Code and Binary https://youtu.be/
H4l42nbYmrU?si=BxrlW76QNrAbi6zS
• Click on the link below to watch a video on binary numbers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcTwu6TFZ08&t=2s
• Click on the link below to play a binary game
https://learningcontent.cisco.com/games/binary/index.html
• CSC 170 – Introduction to Computers and their Applications – Lecture #1 – Digital
Basics

Computational Fairy Tales:

• Pixels, Peacocks, and the Governor’s Turtle Fountain
https://computationaltales.blogspot.com/2011/06/pixels-peacocks-and-
governors-turtle.html
• Using Binary to Warn of Snow Beasts
https://computationaltales.blogspot.com/2012/01/using-binary-to-warn-of-
snow-beasts.html
• Unhappy Magic Flowers and Binary
https://computationaltales.blogspot.com/2011/06/unhappy-magic-flowers-and-
binary.html
• Introduction to Boolean logic https://youtu.be/-hhZIFEGIIU
• Difference between SRAM and DRAM https://youtu.be/n974TtK0qnA
• What is a Browser Cache? How Do I Clear It? (youtube.com)
• CPU Cache Explained - What is Cache Memory? - YouTube

Computational Fairy Tales:

• Computer Memory and Making Dinner https://computationaltales.blogspot.
com/2011/03/computer-memory-and-making-dinner.html
• Caching and the Librarian of Alexandria https://computationaltales.blogspot.
com/2011/03/caching-and-librarian-of-alexandria.html

Watch this video on how a CPU works:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNN_tTXABUA
• The Fetch-Execute Cycle: What›s Your Computer Actually Doing? - YouTube (9
mins)

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

REFERENCES
Appiah O. K., Birbal R., Taylor M. (2008). ICT for Senior High Schools, Students’ Book.
Sedco Publishing Limited, pg. 38 - 40.
Computer Science Wiki (2016). Fetch-execute-cycle.png retrieved from https://
computersciencewiki.org/index.php?title=File:Fetch-execute-cycle.png.
Fenwick, P. (2014). Introduction to computer data representation. Bentham Science
Publishers.
Harvard, Indonesia. (2022). Black and White Bitmap. In CS50 for Teachers. Retrieved
from https://cs50.harvard.edu/indonesia/2023/psets/4/filter/less/
NaCCA (2023). Computing Teacher Manual (Year One - Book One). Pages – 47.
Teach Computer Science (2024). Sound Representation. Retrieved from https://
teachcomputerscience.com/sound-representation/
Thapliyal, N. (2023). Difference Between RAM and ROM retrieved from https://www.
scaler.com/topics/difference-between-ram-and-rom/

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SECTION 1 COMPUTER SYSTEMS A – DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMPUTER STRUCTURE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution

Mark Kwadwo Ntoso Krachi SHS

Mahama Seidu Daboya Community SHS

Miheso Daniel Wa SHTS, Wa

Francis Bennet Kouadio Kouame Odorgonno SHS, Awoshie

40