CHAPTER 1

ENGINEERING MATERIALS,
CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS
CHAPTER
ENGINEERING MATERIALS CONTENTS:

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Glossary 1-1
Engineers today have at their disposal a GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Material
multitude of materials that they can use to produce Terms commonly used with respect to engineer- Properties 1-3
the products used in our rapidly developing society. ing materials are presented in this section and are
These materials range from the ordinary materials CARBON STEELS
adapted from the glossary in the third edition of Steelmaking 1-5
that have been available for several hundred years the Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Types 1-9
to those that have recently been developed, and Modern Steels and Their Properiies,l and Heat Grades 1-9
new materials are being introduced continuously, Quality 1-1o
Treaterk Guide? Additional terms common to the
Alloying
This section of the Handbook, Volume 111, heat treatment of metals appear in Chapter 10. Elements 1-1o
contains nine individual chapters and is designed to Mechanical
provide the manufacturing engineer and other acid steel Steel melted in a furnace with an acid Properties 1-13
bottom and lining and under a slag containing Applications 1-13
manufacturing professionals with the information Machining and
they need to efficiently and effectively accomplish an excess of an acid substance such as silica. Fabricating
their respective roles. Information presented in- alloy A metal containing additions of other Character-
metallic or nonmetallic elements to enhance istics 1-16
cludes definitions of terms frequently encountered,
brief discussions on how materials are produced, specific properties such as strength and corro- ALLOY STEELS
various material classifications, typical properties, sion resistance. Steelmaking 1-17
basic steel Steel melted in a furnace with a basic Grades 1-17
current and potential applications, and descriptions Quality 1-18
of machinability, formability, and weldability. bottom and lining and under a slag containing Alloying
A comprehensive discussion of machinability an excess of a basic substance such as magnesia Elements 1-18
or lime. Mechanical
and machining of various materials can be found in Properties 1-20
Volume 1,Machining, of this Handbook series; the Bayer process A process for extracting alumina Applications 1-22
forming of these materials is discussed in Volume from bauxite ore before the electrolytic reduc- Machining and
Fabricating
II, Forming; and the assembly of these materials tion to aluminum metal.
Character-
through various welding and joining processes can blast furnace A shaft-type furnace using solid fuel istics 1-22
be found in Volume IV, Quality Control and (coke), air, and oxygen to smelt ore in a
HSLA STEELS
Assembl.v. Heat treatment of ferrous and non- continuous operation.
Applications 1-23
ferrous alloys are discussed in subsequent chapters Brinell hardness number (Bhn) A measure of Production 1-23
of this volume. hardness determined by the Brinell hardness Types 1-24
Specifications 1-26
Throughout this section, the mechanical test, which forces a hard steel or carbide ball of Selection
properties and some chemical compositions of the specific diameter into a material under a speci- Factors 1-29
most commonly used materials are presented in fied load.
tabular form for comparison. Tabular data are not brittleness The quality of a material that leads
intended for use in specifications or design. For to fracture without appreciable plastic defor-
specific values and compositions, consult the mation.
material manufacturer. capped steel A steel similar to rimmed steel in
The materials discussed in this section include which the application of a mechanical or
carbon and alloy steels; stainless and maraging chemical cap renders the rimming action
steels; cast steels and irons; nickel alloys and incomplete by causing the top metal to solidify.
supcralloys; titanium and molybdenum alloys; carbon steel Steel that derives its properties from
aluminum, copper, and magnesium alloys; lead, the presence of carbon without substantial
tin, and zinc alloys; plastics and composites; amounts of other alloying elements.
powdered metals; and some refractory metals. Not cast iron A generic term for a large group of cast
included in this discussion of materials are precious ferrous alloys containing over 2% carbon and
metals, pure metals, and glasses and ceramics. 1% silicon.
Cutting tool materials are discussed in Volume I, cast steel Steel in the form of castings, charac-
Machining, and tool and die materials are discussed terized by a grain structure produced by
in Volume 11, Forming, of this Handbook series. solidification.

Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Calvin Cooley, Metallurgical Engineer, American Iron and
Steel Institute; W. C. Leslie, Professor, Dept. of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Universit y of
Michigan; Tom Oakwood, Manager, Wrought Alloy Steel Development, Climax Molybdenum, A MAX Inc.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: Calvin Coole y, Metallurgical Engineer, American Iron and Steel
Institute: Dr. Lee Cuddy, Associate Research Consultant, Heavy Products Div. . U. S, Steel Tech Center;

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

cold working Deforming metal plastically under conditions fatigue The tendency of a metal to break under conditions of
that induce strain hardening; usually performed at room repeated cyclic stressing considerably below the tensile strength.
temperature. file hardness Hardness as determined by the use of a file of
compacted graphite cast iron Cast iron having a graphite shape standardized hardness, on the assumption that a material
intermediate between the flake form of gray cast iron and the cannot be cut with the file if the material is as hard as, or
spherical form of ductile cast iron. harder than, the file. Files covering a range of harnesses
compressive strength The maximum compressive stress that a may be employed.
material can withstand without significant plastic deforma- flakes Short, discontinuous internal fissures in ferrous metals
tion or fracture. caused by localized internal stresses during cooling after hot
consumable electrode remelting A process for refining metals working. Flaking may be associated with the presence of
in which an electric current passes between an electrode hydrogen in the steel.
made of the metal or alloy to be refined and an ingot of the free machining A term used to describe metals having alloying
refined metal under the protection of a vacuum, inert additions, such as lead, manganese, or sulfur, that reduce the
atmosphere, or slag covers. tool force required in machining operations.
continuous casting A casting technique that produces steel in full hard A temper of nonferrous alloys and some ferrous alloys
the form of slabs, blooms, or billets directly from the ladle. corresponding approximately to a cold worked state beyond
creep The flow or plastic deformation of metals held for long which the material can no longer be formed by bending. In
periods of time at stresses lower than the normal yield specifications, a full-hard temper is commonly defined in
strength. terms of minimum hardness or minimum tensile strength
creep limit The maximum stress that will result in creep at a rate corresponding to a specific percentage of cold reduction
lower than an assigned rate. following a full anneal.
damping capacity The ability of a metal to absorb vibrations, grain An individual crystal in a metal or alloy.
changing the mechanical energy into heat. grain size The average cross-sectional area or volume of grains
dead soft A temper of nonferrous alloys and some ferrous in polycrystalline metals; usually expressed as average
alloys corresponding to the condition of minimum hardness diameter or number of grains per unit of area or volume,
and tensile strength produced by full annealing. gray cast iron Cast iron that contains a large percentage of
density ratio The ratio of the apparent density of a powder carbon in the form of flake graphite.
metallurgy compact to tbe absolute density of metal of the half hard A temper of nonferrous alloys and some ferrous
same composition. Usually expressed as a percentage. alloys characterized by tensile strength about midway
ductile cast iron Cast iron that has been treated with magnesium between that of dead-soft and full-hard tempers.
or cerium while molten to spheroidize the graphite and hardenability The relative ability of a ferrous alloy to form
thereby impart ductility to the cast metal. martensite when quenched from above the upper critical
ductility The ability of a metal to undergo substantial amounts temperature.
of plastic deformation before fracture. hardness The resistance of a metal to indentation, defined in
elastic limit The maximum stress that a metal can withstand terms of the method of measurement.
without exhibiting a permanent deformation upon release of heat treatment A sequence of controlled heating and cooling
the stress. operations applied to a solid metal to impart desired
elongation The amount of permanent extension within a properties.
specified gage length, measured after fracture in the tension inclusions Particles of nonmetallic compounds present in as-
test; usually expressed as a percentage of the original gage cast metals and carried over into wrought products. The
length, such as 25% in 2“(50 mm). Elongation may also refer shape and distribution of inclusions are changed by plastic
to the amount of extension at any stage in any process that deformation and contribute to directionality of mechanical
elongates a body continuously, as in rolling. properties.
endurance limit The maximum stress that a metal can with- ingot A casting intended for subsequent rolling, forging, or
stand without failure after a specified number of cycles of extrusion.
stress. If the term is employed without qualification, the killed steel Steel treated with additions of silicon or aluminum
cycles of stress are usually such as to produce complete to the melt to minimize the oxygen content so that no
reversal of flexural stress. reaction occurs between carbon and oxygen during
extra hard A temper of nonferrous and some ferrous alloys solidification.
characterized by tensile strength and hardness about one machinability The relative ease with which materials can be
third of the way from full-hard to extra-spring tempers. shaped by cutting, drilling, or other chip-forming processes,
extra spring A temper of nonferrous and some ferrous alloys malleable cast iron A cast iron made by annealing white cast
corresponding approximately to a cold worked state above iron to eliminate some or all of the cementite.
full hard beyond which further cold work will not measur- mechanical properties The characteristics of a material that are
ably increase the strength and hardness. displayed when a force is applied to the material. They

Reviewers, cont.: Gene Curry, Manager, Metallurgical Laboratory, McLouth Steel Products Corp.; Professor A. J. DeArdo,
Dept. of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Robert M. Fisher, Associate Director—Industry
Participation, Center for Advanced Mater\als, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories, University of California; J. Klein, Librarian,
Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.; Dr. Peter J. Koros, Senior Research Associate, Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.; W. C. Leslie,
Professor, Dept. of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Universit y of Michigan; Arnie Marder, Senior Scientist, Research Dept. ,
Bethlehem Steel Corp.; Conrad Mitchell, Manager, Bar, Rod, Wire & Semi-Finished Products, Product Metallurgy, U. S, Steel Corp.;

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

usually relate to the elastic or inelastic response of withstand before fracture when the load is applied parallel to
the material. the plane of stress.
modulus of elasticity The ratio of stress to strain within the strain, engineering The change in length divided by the original
elastic range of a material; a measure of stiffness and the length, L/ Lo. Expressed as a dimensionless number.
ability to resist deflection when loaded. Also referred to as strain rate The rate at which deformation occurs.
Young’s modulus. stress, engineering Internal force reactions set up in a body
modulus of rigidity The ratio of the shear stress to the shear when it is subjected to a load. Calculated by dividing the load
strain in the elastic range. Also called the shear modulus. by the original cross-sectional area.
notch impact strength Ameasure of theability ofa material to temper The degree of ductility and toughness produced in a
sustain high-velocity loading in the presence ofa notch. hardened metal by reheating to a temperature below the
percent elongation See elongation. transformation range and then cooling at a suitable rate.
percent reduction Seereduction in area. tensile strength The maximum engineering stress in tension
permanent set Plastic deformation. that a material can withstand before rupture, Calculated by
physical properties Properties that pertain tothe physics ofa dividing the maximum load by the original cross-sectional
material, such as melting point, density, electrical and area of a specimen pulled to failure in a tensile test.
thermal conductivity, specific heat, and coefficient of three-quarters hard A temper of nonferrous alloys and some
thermal expansion. ferrous alloys characterized by tensile strength and hardness
plasticity The ability of a metal to undergo permanent defor- about midway between those of half-hard and full-hard
mation without rupture. (See also ductility,) tempers.
Poisson’s ratio (p) The ratio of the lateral expansion to torsion modulus See modulus of rigidity.
the longitudinal contraction under a compressive load, or torsional strength The maximum stress that a material can
the ratio of the lateral contraction to the longitudinal withstand before fracture when subjected to a torque or
expansion under a tensile load, provided the elastic limit is twisting force. Stress in torsion involves shearing stress,
not exceeded. which is not uniformly distributed in a conventional torsion
powdered metals Metals and alloys in the form of fine particles, test bar.
usually in the range of 39 Min. to 0.039” (1-1000 pm), or toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy without
1-1000 microns. failure when a load is applied rapidly, such as in an impact.
proportional limit The greatest stress that a material can Represented by the area under a stress-strain curve.
sustain without any deviation from proportionality of stress ultimate strength See tensile strength.
to strain. vacuum refining Melting and/ or casting in vacuum to remove
quarter hard A temper of nonferrous alloys and some ferrous gaseous contaminants from a metal.
alloys characterized by tensile strength about midway yield point The stress at which a pronounced increase in strain
between that of dead-soft and half-hard tempers. is shown without an increase in load; observed in low and
recrystallization The formation of new, strain-free grains by medium-carbon steels.
annealing a cold worked metal. Also called primary yield strength The stress at which a material exhibits a specific
recrystallization. amount of permanent deformation. In tensile tests, it
reduction in area The difference between the original cross- is usually measured as the stress at 0.270 offset on a stress-
sectional area and that of the smallest area at the point of strain diagram.
rupture of a tensile test specimen. Usually stated as a yield/tensile ratio The ratio of the yield point stress or yield
percentage of the original area. A measurement of the strength to the tensile strength. Annealed low-carbon steels
material’s ability to deform plastically in a localized manner, may have a ratio of only 407., while heat-treated alloy steels
residual stress Stresses present in a free metal body, usually as a and cold worked steels may have a ratio of 907G or higher.
result of prior, nonuniform plastic deformation, severe Low-carbon steels usually have a ratio of 50 to 70%.
temperature gradients during quenching, or chemical
differences as in carburized surfaces. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
rimmed steel Low-carbon steel that does not contain significant Materials are usually selected for a particular application
percentages of easily oxidized elements such as aluminum, based on the properties that they possess and/or display under
silicon, or titanium, certain circumstances. The three main material property
semiskilled steel Steel that is incompletely deoxidized and categories are chemical, physical, and mechanical.
contains sufficient dissolved oxygen to react with carbon to
form carbon monoxide and offset solidification shrinkage. Chemical Properties
shear Deformation in which parallel planes within the metal It is not possible to make a sharp distinction between the
are displaced by sliding but retain their parallel relation to chemical and physical properties of a metallic material. Both
each other, are dependent upon the crystal structure, the strength of
shear strength The maximum stress that a material can interactive bonds, defects in the crystal lattice, and the amount

Reviewers, cont.: Tom Oakwood, Manager, Wrought Alloy Steel Development, Climax Molybdenum, A MAX Inc.; Dr. Gordon
Powell, Professor, Dept. of Metallurgy Engineering, Ohio State Universit y; Dr. Arnie Preban, Senior Research Metallurgist, Inland Steel;
Karl B. Rundman, Professor, Dept. of Metallurgical Engineering, Michigan Technological University; Everett E. Shields. Product
Metallurgist, Technical Services, Republic Steel Corp.; Gilbert R. Speich, Professor and Chairman, Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology; R. D. Stout t Professor, Dept. of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Lehigh University; Dr.
Brian Taylor, Research Scientist. APMES. General Motors Corp.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
ENGINEERING MATERIALS

and distribution of other phases within the body. Manufac-

turing engineers will be interested primarily in the interaction Stress
MPa ksi
between metals and their environments. These include relative
resistance to oxidation, galvanic corrosion caused by electrical
contact between disimilar metals, general corrosion, and, 800-
especially, stress-corrosion cracking, which occurs in the simul-
taneous presence of a corroding agent and stress. The stress can
700-
be either residual or applied. 100 Yield strengthaf’’n’’
set
————— ——
Physical Properties 600 –

The physical properties of a metal or alloy can be classified

as thermal, electrical, magnetic, or optical. The thermal proper- 500- 75
ties include melting temperature (or melting range), specific
heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion. The most 4oo-
important electrical properties are conductivity (and its inverse,
resistivity) and superconductivity. Magnetic materials are either
300- r
soft or hard. In the former, the direction of magnetization can I il J
Inset I
be altered with little expenditure of energy. [n the latter, the I ‘1
2oo- , II Curve showingregion
magnetization is permanent, which means that a large expendi- I
25 -: of yield whendefinite -
ture of energy is required to alter the direction. Soft magnetic I 1; yieldpoint is exhibited
materials are required for generators, motors, and transformers. % I II
1oo- I
Hard magnetic materials are used wherever permanent magnets
Cj;C’;?
are needed. The optical properties of a solid depend upon the 0- o
type of interatomic bonding. Metallic bonding is responsible I I 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009
for the color, reflectivity, and emissivity of metallic surfaces.
!“3 t- 0002 0004 0“006 0-008
Mechanical Properties Specified set
Strain, in./in. (mm/mm)
Mechanical properties are the characteristics of a material
that are displayed when a force is applied. The mechanical Fig. 1-1 A stress-strain diagram is a plot of the stress required to
properties of a material are usually the primary factors in produce a given strain during a tensile test. The tensile strength, yield
selecting a material for a specific application. strength, and modulus of elasticity of a given material can be obtained
from~his diagram.

TABLE 1-1
Comparison of Density and Modulus of Elasticity of Commonly Used Engineering Materials
Material Density, lb/ in.3 (g/ cm~) Modulus of Elasticity, psi x 106 (GPa)
Wrought steels 0.280-0.290 (7.76-8.03) 28.0-31.0 (193-215)
Cast steels
Carbon and low alloy 0.282-0.285 (7.8 1-7.90) 29.3-31.4 (202-21 7)
High alloy* 0.272-0.294 (7.53-8.14) 24.0-29.0 ( 165-200)
Cast irons 0.251-0.280 (6.95-7.76) 9.6-28.0 (66-193)
Nickel alloys 0.282-0.334 (7.8 1-9.25) 24.0-30.0 ( 165-207)
Molybdenum alloys 0.369 (10.22) 46 (3 17)
Titanium alloys 0.158-0.175 (4.38-4.85) 15.0-17.9 (103-123)
Superalloy
Iron based 0.286-0.291 (7.92-8.06)
Nickel based 0.280-0.319 (7.76-8.84) 28.6-31.6 (197-218)
Cobalt based 0.290-0.333 (8.03-9.23) 29.5-32.6 (203-225)
Aluminum alloys 0.097-0.102 (2.69-2.83) 10.0-11.4 (69-79)
Magnesium alloys 0.064-0.067 (1.77-1.86) 6.5 (45)
Copper alloys 0.301-0.323 (8.34-8,95) 14.0-22.0 (97-1 52)
Lead alloys 0.351-0.410 (9.72-1 1.36) 2.0 (14)
Tin alloys 0.262-0.304 (7.25-8.42) 6,03 (41.6)
Zinc alloys 0.188-0.259 (5.21-7. 18) 6.2-14.0 (43-97)
Powdered metals
Ferrous 0.209-0.267 (5.80-7.40) 10.5-23 (72-1 59)
Nonferrous 0.047-0.296 ( 1.30-8.20)
Plastics
Thermosetting 0.0397-0.0632 (1. 1-1.75) 1.0-1.5 (6.9-10.3)
Thermoplastic 0.0328-0.0769 (0.9 1-2. 13) 0.025-4,0 (O.17-28)
Note: Values are based on materials at room temperature.
* The modulus of elasticity is sensitive to the material’s crystalline structure and grain orientation. The range
given is for equiaxed structures; columnar structures are lower.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

CARBON STEELS

Mechanical properties provide the engineer with informa- The mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of a
tion regarding strength, formability, rigidity, toughness, and metal are sensitively dependent upon crystal structure. Engi-
durability, 1n the subsequent chapters, the tensile strength, yield neering materials almost invariably have one of three struc-
strength, total elongation, and hardness are given in tabular tures: body-centered cubic (bee), face-centered cubic (fee), or
form for commonly used materials. Figure 1- I shows the tensile hexagonal close-packed (hcp).
strength, yield strength, yield point, and modulus of elasticity of The mechanical properties of bcc metals are dependent upon
a material on a typical stress-strain diagram. The modulus of temperature and the strain rate. As temperature is reduced and
elasticity range and density are given in Table 1-1 to permit the strain rate increased, the strength of the metal increases
comparison of these values for various materials. Table 1-2 rapidly and the ductility and toughness decrease. In contrast,
shows the approximate relations between various hardness strain rate and temperature changes have little effect on the
scales for steel having uniform chemical composition and heat mechanical properties of fcc metals, Often they are more easily
treatment,~ The approximate tensile strengths for correspond- formed than bcc metals. Hexagonal close-packed metals are
ing harnesses are also given. These relations usually apply to generally more difficult to form than either bcc or fcc metals
only steels with uniform chemical composition and heat owing to the small number of slip systems that can operate in
treatment, the hcp structures.

CARBON STEELS
Iron and carbon are the predominant elements in steels. originally removed, the difference being that the elements
Carbon content ranges from a few hundredths to about one present in the final steel product are in the proper proportion to
percent. The amount of additional alloying elements determines produce the desired properties.d
whether the steel is considered to be a carbon or an alloy steel. The various practices employed in steel production have a
Steel is considered a carbon steel when no minimum content direct influence on the type and quality of the finished product.
is specified or required for ahrminum (except for oxidation or to To ensure a quality finished product, it is necessary to exercise
control grain size), chromium, cobalt, columbium, molyb- control over the raw materials used and to employ the proper
denum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or melting, refining, and casting techniques.
any other element to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the
specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40%; or when Melting and Refining Techniques
the addition of manganese, silicon, and copper is limited to a
The melting of pig iron in the production of steel is
maximum of 1.657., 0.60Y0, and 0.60!% respectively.
performed in basic oxygen, electric, and open-hearth furnaces.
On the basis of carbon content, carbon steels can be divided
Before the molten metal is poured, it is sometimes subjected to a
into three groups. The first group contains 0.00 1-0.30% carbon
vacuum treatment that lowers the content of hydrogen and
and is considered low-carbon steel. The second group contains
oxygen gases, minimizes slow cooling time, and improves alloy
0.30-o.70% carbon and is considered medium-carbon steel. The
distribution and mechanical properties. The two types of
third group contains 0.70- 1.30% carbon and is considered high-
vacuum treatments used are vacuum degassing and vacuum
carbon steel.
carbon deoxidation (VCD).
Certain grades may also specify the addition of boron to
In recent years, ladle metallurgy has been adopted for
improve hardenability and aluminum for deoxidation and to
refining steel. Ladle metallurgy permits the steelmaking
control grain size. Carbon steels also contain small quantities of
processes to operate in a lower cost and higher productivity
residual elements or impurities from the raw material such as
mode, while simultaneously ensuring production of high-
copper, nickel, molybdenum, chromium, phosphorus, and
quality steels.s The various treatments in ladle metallurgy are
sulfur, which are considered incidental. synthetic slag treatments, gas stirring or purging, direct
Carbon steels may be classified according to chemical
immersion of reactants, lance injection of reactants, and wire
composition, deoxidation practice, quality, and end-product
feeding of reactants for the purpose of removing undesired
forms. Common end-product forms include bar, sheet/ strip,
elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
plate, wire, tubing, and structural shapes. Carbon steel may also
The treatments may be performed separately or in combination
be classified as hot rolled or cold drawn (cold rolled when
to achieve the desired results.
referring to sheets). Cold finished steels are produced from hot
rolled steel by several cold finishing processes, resulting in
improved surface finishes, dimensional accuracy, alignment, or Casting Techniques
machinability; elongation and yield and tensile strengths are In wrought steel production, the molten steel is poured into
increased. Cold rolled sheets are available in different tempers tapered molds or into a strand-casting machine. Techniques for
and can be precoated with zinc, aluminum, terne (lead-tin producing steel castings are discussed in Volume II, Forming,
alloy), tin, and organic coatings. of this Handbook series.
Ingot casting. In ingot casting, the molten metal is poured
STEELMAKING PRACTICE into tapered, cast iron molds and allowed to solidify. The
Steelmaking maybe described as the process of refining pig solidified metal is referred to as an ingot. Ingots can be square,
iron or ferrous scrap by removing undesirable elements from rectangular, or round in cross section, with round corners and
the melt and then adding desired elements in predetermined corrugated sides. The size of the ingot ranges from a few
amounts. The additions are often the same elements that were hundred pounds to several hundred tons.

1-5

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS
1-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
0 0
,
,
, , cew)r-lt--4-
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WI
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1-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS
m-,
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1-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

CARBON STEELS

After the ingots are stripped from the molds, they are held in minimal, the carbon and residual oxygen react during solidi-
a furnace or soaking pit to equalize the temperature throughout. fication. The reaction stirs the liquid metal causing the metal
When the suitable temperature has been attained, the ingot is that solidifies at the outer rim of the ingot to be lower in carbon,
rolled or forged into blooms, billets, or slabs through a series of phosphorus, and sulfur than the average composition, whereas
mill operations. the inner portion, or core, is higher than average in those
Strand (continuous) casting. Strand casting is the direct elements. The rimming action may continue until the reactions
casting of steel from the ladle into slabs, blooms, or billets. The stop and the top of the ingot solidifies, or it may be stopped
process can be performed vertically or horizontally. In opera- mechanically or chemically.
tion, the molten steel is poured from the ladle into an Rimmed steels have good surface and ductility characteris-
intermediate vessel, called a tundish, at the top of the strand- tics. Because of their ductility, rimmed steels are suitable for
casting machine. The tundish acts as a reservoir for the molten moderate cold forming applications.
steel and regulates the rate at which the molten steel flows into
one or more oscillating, water-cooled molds. The water-cooled, Capped Steels
open-ended molds incorporate the desired cross section of the Capped steels have characteristics similar to those of rimmed
slab, bloom, or billet. steel. The rimming action is controlled when the steel is cast so
Solidification of the steel begins in the mold and is completed that gas produced during solidification causes the metal to rise
by cooling the moving steel surface. The steel produced from in the mold. Capping occurs when the rising metal contacts a
one or more ladle through one mold is commonly referred to as heavy metal cap placed on the bottle-top mold (mechanical
a strand. Several strands maybe cast simultaneously, depending capping). Adding ferrosilicon or aluminum to the ingot top
on the size of the ladle and the cross section of the strand. A after the ingot has rimmed for the desired period of time is
reduction in strand size may be carried out by hot working another method of producing capped steel (chemical capping).
before cutting the strand into proper lengths, When two or
more ladles are cast without interruption, the process is called GRADES OF STEEL
continuous casting. Grade usually denotes the chemical composition of a
Strand orcontinuous casting techniques are being increas- particular steel. The grades may vary in chemical composition
ingly employed inthe steel industry. Several advantages of the from almost pure iron to a material of complex constitution. A
process include more uniform chemical composition and
particular grade of carbon steel usually has specified limits for
mechanical properties in the semifinished product, and various elements, but the properties of products made from that
increased productivity over ingot casting. Continuous casting
grade can be diverse.
methods are also being used in the production of copper and Lists of standard steels designed to serve the needs of
aluminum alloys, and gray and alloy-typecast irons, fabricators and users of steel products are published by the
TYPES OF STEEL American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of
The principal reaction in steelmaking is the removal of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The general acceptance and use
excess carbon by the combination of carbon and oxygen to of standard steels since their inception in 1941 have demon-
form a gas. If the extra oxygen remaining after this reaction is strated that these steels have, in most cases, successfully
not removed prior to or during casting, the gaseous products replaced the many steels of specialized compositions previously
continue to evolve during solidification. The type of steel used. The list is altered from time to time to accommodate steels
produced is determined by the amount of deoxidation that of proven merit and to provide for changes that develop in
takes place before casting. The four types of carbon steels industry. There are still specialized steels being produced,
produced are killed, semiskilled, rimmed, and capped. however, for particular applications.

Killed Steels Grade Designation

Killed steels are strongly deoxidized by the addition of A four-numeral series, adopted by the AISI and the SAE, is
aluminum and/ or silicon to the ladle before pouring. These used to designate standard carbon steels specified to chemical
elements combine with the oxygen; thus, only a negligible composition ranges. It is important to note that these designa-
evolution of gases occurs during solidification. Killed steels are tions do not indicate specifications. The prefix M is used to
characterized by a high degree of uniformity in chemical designate a series of merchant-quality steels and the suffix H
composition and mechanical properties, which render them designates standard hardenability steels.
suitable for applications requiring forging, extrusion, severe The first two digits indicate the steel type and identifying
cold forming, carburizing, and heat treatment. However, there elements as shown in Table 1-3. The last two digits indicate the
may be variations in composition depending on the steelmaking approximate mean of the carbon range. For example, in the
practice used. grade designation 1035,35 represents a carbon range of 0.32 to
0.38%. It is necessary to deviate from this system and to
Semiskilled Steels interpolate numbers in the case of some carbon ranges and for
Semiskilled steels have characteristics intermediate between variations in manganese, phosphorus, or sulfur with the same
those of killed and rimmed steels. During solidification, the range. Special-purpose elements such as lead and boron are
evolved gas is entrapped within the body of the ingot and designated by inserting the letter L or B, respectively, between
counteracts the shrinkage. the second and third numerals.
In 1975, the Unified Numbering System (UNS) for Metals
Rimmed Steels and Alloys was established by the American Society for Testing
Rimmed steels are generally low-carbon steels that do and Materials (ASTM) and the SAE. The UNS number
not contain significant percentages of easily oxidized elements consists of a single letter prefix followed by five digits. The letter
such as aluminum, silicon, or titanium. Since deoxidation is G indicates standard carbon steels, and H indicates standard

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS

TABLE 1-3 austenite grain size, special discard, macroetch test, special
Grade Designations of Standard Carbon Steels hardenability, maximum incidental alloy elements, restricted
chemical composition, and nonmetallic inclusions. In addition,
Series Type and Approximate Percentages several products have special qualities that are intended for
Designation* of Identifying Elements specific end uses or fabricating practices.’
Ioxx Nonresulfurized, 1.00% manganese maximum
ALLOYING ELEMENTS
llXX Resulfurized
Alloying elements added to carbon steel influence both
12XX Rephosphorized and resulfurized steelmaking practice and the mechanical properties of the
15XX Nonresulfurized, over 1.0070 manganese finished steel. The effect of any given element depend on the
quantities of other elements present.
* XX indicates carbon content in hundredths of a percent. Some of the commonly specified alloying elements include
carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and alumi-
hardenability steels. The first four digits usually correspond to num. Other elements are also specified on occasion to obtain
standard AISI, ASTM, or SAE steel designations, and the last desired properties.
digit usually indicates that an additional element such as lead or
boron is specified. The number four indicates that lead is added, Carbon
the number one indicates boron, and the number six indicates Carbon is the principal alloying element in steel. As the
that an electric furnace is used for melting. carbon content increases, the tensile strength, yield strength,
and hardness increase, whereas ductility, weldability, and
Hardenability Grades toughness decrease. In rimmed steels, surface quality is
Hardenability is a term used to designate that property of impaired as carbon content increases. In contrast, the surface
steel that determines the depth and distribution of hardness quality of killed steels is poorer in the low-carbon grades.
induced by quenching from the austenitizing temperature. b
Hardenability is mainly determined by alloying elements in the Manganese
steel, whereas maximum attainable hardness is dependent upon The addition of manganese contributes to the strength and
carbon content and cooling rate, Hardenability is also discussed hardness of steel, but to a lesser degree than carbon. The
in Chapter 10, “Heat Treatment of Steel, ” of this volume. amount of increase in these properties depends on the carbon
Methods of specifying hardenability requirements. The content; for example, high-carbon steels are affected more by
recommended method and equipment used to determine the manganese than are low-carbon steels. Increasing the
hardenability of steel is described in SAE Standard J406, manganese content decreases weldability, but to a much lesser
“Methods of Determining Hardenability of Steels. ” extent than carbon. Manganese tends to increase the rate of
The hardenability bands are tabulated in SAE Standard J 1268, carbon penetration during carburizing and increases the
“Hardenability Bands for Carbon and Alloy H Steels. ” Rock- hardenability of the steel. Manganese is beneficial to surface
well hardness C-scale (Rc) is used to designate the minimum quality in all types of steel except low-carbon, rimmed steels,
and maximum harnesses of the test bar at specified distances. and is particularly beneficial in high-sulfur steels.
Hardenability bands. In the AIS1/ SAE grade designation
system, steels specified to hardenability band limits are identi-
Phosphorus
fied by the suffix letter H. In the UNS, the prefix letter H Phosphorus increases the strength and hardness of carbon
indicates steels specified to hardenability band limits. The steels, but reduces ductility and impact toughness, particularly
chemical composition limits of these steels have been modified in high-carbon steels that are quenched and tempered. Phos-
somewhat from those in the same grade of steel without phorus content is generally held well below the specified
specified hardenability band limits. The modifications permit maximum. In some free-machining steels, however, phosphorus
adjustments in chemical composition to reflect individual plant content is greater because it improves machinability.
melting characteristics that may influence the level and widths
of the hardenability bands. The hardenability bands are Sulfur
applicable to killed, fine-grain carbon steels. Sulfur lowers the transverse ductility and notch-impact
toughness of carbon steel, but has only a slight effect on
longitudinal tensile properties, The weldability of a steel also
CARBON STEEL QUALITY decreases with increasing amounts of sulfur. In addition, sulfur
The term quality is indicative of internal soundness, relative is very detrimental to the surface quality of steel, particularly in
uniformity of composition, relative freedom from detrimental low-carbon and low-manganese steels. To minimize these
surface imperfections, and finish for any given steel. Steel negative effects, a maximum sulfur content is usually specified.
quality also relates to general suitability for particular appli- For certain steels, however, sulfur content may be increased to
cations. For example, cold rolled sheet steel is available in improve machinability, as in the resulfurized grades of steel.
classes for either exposed or unexposed applications. Exposed
applications require a good painted surface, whereas the surface Silicon
finish is not important in unexposed applications. Silicon is one of the two principal deoxidizers used
Carbon steels can be obtained in a number of qualities that in steelmaking; therefore, silicon content is directly related to
reflect various degrees of the conditions mentioned above. the type of steel being produced. Silicon increases the strength
These quality designations are summarized in Table 14. Some and hardness of steel, but generally impairs machinability and
of the qualities may be modified by such requirements as cold forming.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS

TABLE 1-4
Summary of Quality Designations for Carbon Steel Bars and Sheets

Quality
Designations Characteristics Applications
Hot Rolled Bars

Merchant quality Produced to chemical composition (ladle Used in structural and similar applications
analysis only) within limits of 0.50910 requiring mild cold bending, mild hot forming,
maximum carbon, 0.60!?7G maximum punching, and welding when producing non-
manganese, 0.0590 maximum sulfur, and critical parts of bridges, buildings, ships, agri-
0.04% maximum phosphorus. May contain cultural implements, road-building equipment,
pronounced chemical segregation, internal railway equipment, and general machinery. This
porosity, surface seams, and other surface quality is not suitable for applications requiring
irregularities. Size ranges are limited; and the hot forging, heat treating, cold drawing, or
type of steel may be rimmed, capped, other operations that require internal soundness
semiskilled, or killed. or relative freedom from surface imperfections.
Special quality Basic or standard quality for carbon steel Special-quality bars are used when end use,
bars. Produced using rimmed, capped, method of fabrication, or subsequent processing
semiskilled, or killed deoxidizing practices. treatment requires quality characteristics not
available in merchant quality. Typical applica-
tions include hot forged, heat treated, cold
drawn, and machined parts, and many
structural uses.
Strapless-nut quality Steel must be of controlled soundness and Production of strapless nuts by piercing, upset-
free from detrimental surface imperfections. ting, and forming round bars.
Annealing or spheroidize annealing may be
necessary to obtain proper cold forming
characteristics.
Axle shaft quality Special rolling practices, special billet and Production of powerdriven axle shafts for auto-
bar conditioning, and selective inspection are motive or truck applications.
employed to minimize injurious surface
imperfections.
Cold extrusion Characteristics vary with application. Heat Used in the production of solid or hollow shapes
quality treatment may be required to obtain cold- by means of severe, cold plastic deformation
forming characteristics. involving forward extrusion, backward
extrusion, or both, with or without expansion.
Cold heading and Steel must be free from surface Used in applications requiring severe cold
cold forging quality imperfections. Annealing or spheroidize forming.
annealing may be required to achieve
forming characteristics,
Cold Finished Bars

Standard quality Produced from special-quality, hot rolled

carbon steel bars. May contain surface
imperand require stock removal for finishing.
fections Restrictive requirement bars are also
available.
Cold heading and Steel produced by closely controlled steel- For applications involving severe, cold plastic
cold forging quality making practices. Grades over 0.3090 carbon deformation by upsetting, heading, or forging.
may require heat treatment to obtain proper
hardness and microstructure.
Cold extrusion To minimize age hardening, a fully killed, For applications that require steel to flow in a
quality fine-grained steel is used. A sound internal die to produce a desired shape.
structure is required. Heat treatment may be
required to obtain proper forming
characteristics.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS

TABLE 1-4—Continued

Quality
Designations Characteristics Applications

Hot Rolled Sheet

Commercial quality Produced from rimmed, capped, or Suitable for applications when the presence of
semiskilled steel and does not contain a high oxides and surface imperfections are not objec-
degree of uniformity in chemical composition tionable. Not recommended for exposed parts
and mechanical properties. May require heat that require good surface finish.
treatment before drawing operations and
may contain coil breaks, stretcher strains,
and fluting.
Drawing quality Production requires the special selection of Used in drawing applications when surface
raw materials, the use of specially produced finish and surface disturbances are not
or selected steels, and exacting control of the objectionable. Used when fabricating parts that
processing operations. Subject to coil breaks, are too difficult to form with commercial-
stretcher strains, and fluting. quality steel.
Drawing quality, Supplied as a low-carbon, aluminum-killed Used when fabricating parts that are too
special killed steel. Production requires special selection of difficult to form from drawing-quality steel,
raw materials, the use of specially produced when delays between draws detrimentally affect
or selected steel, and exacting control of pro- the drawing performance, or when inherent
cessing operations. Subject to coil breaks, qualities of special killed steel are required.
stretcher strains, and fluting.
Structural quality Mechanical properties influenced by Used when fabricating parts that have specified
chemical composition, thickness, and mechanical properties. Not recommended for
variables in mill design, mill practice, or exposed parts that require good surface finish.
both. Improper heat treatment may adversely
affect steel properties.
Cold Rolled Sheet

Commercial quality Produced from low-carbon grade of rimmed, Suitable for exposed parts requiring good
capped, or semiskilled steel. Does not have a surface finish.
high level of ductility or a high degree of
uniformity of chemical composition and
mechanical properties. Has matte finish.
Drawing quality Produced from specially processed steel but Suitable for fabricating parts requiring a more
not commonly specified to chemical severe deformation than permissible with com-
composition. Improper heat treatment may mercial-quality steel.
adversely affect steel properties.
Drawing quality, Normally produced with a matte finish. Used when fabricating parts that require severe
special killed Chemical composition is homogeneous, and drawing and forming.
mechanical properties are stable over time.
Structural quality Formability of structural-quality steel Used when special mechanical properties are
decreases with increasing yield strength required.
and /or hardness. Surface characteristics are
the same as commercial quality.

Aluminum Other Elements

Aluminum is the other principal deoxidizer in steelmaking; The metallurgical characteristics of a steel are also influenced
however, it also performs other functions. Aluminum combines by the addition of various elements that are not commonly
with nitrogen in the solid steel to minimize austenite grain specified. These elements are added to improve fabricating
growth and to eliminate or minimize the effects of strain aging. characteristics or influence service behavior.
This combination also helps control the plastic strain ratio of Some of the elements occasionally specified include copper,
sheet products, discussed under mechanical properties next in boron, lead, nitrogen, selenium, tellurium, bismuth, and
this chapter. calcium. Copper is normally added to improve resistance to

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

CARBON STEELS

atmospheric corrosion; however, copper is detrimental to 1.0

surface quality and hot working behavior. Boron is added to E
improve the hardenability of steel; it may also improve
machinability and formability in relation to other steels of the
same hardenability without boron. Lead, nitrogen, selenium,
tellurium, and bismuth can be added to improve the machin-
ability of carbon steels. Nitrogen is also a low-cost strengthening
agent, Tellurium and calcium may be added to control the
shape of tbe sulphide inclusions, thus improving formability
and fracture toughness,

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties are those properties of the material
that are associated with the material’s reaction when a force is
applied. Mechanical properties are usually determined from
tension, bend, and hardness tests. The properties most
commonly specified are tensile and yield strengths, total
elongation, reduction in area, and hardness.
Hot rolled and cold drawn bars are usually produced to meet
mechanical property requirements as well as limited composi-
O.O1l~ ksi
tional requirements, The tensile characteristics of hot rolled
bars are mainly influenced by chemical composition, thickness
or cross-sectional area, and variables in hot rolling and cooling ~ ‘p”
69
practices. The effect of cold working on cold drawn bars
depends on chemical composition, cross-sectional area, amount Yield strength
of cold reduction, and thermal treatment. During cold working,
the yield strength of a material increases more than the tensile Fig. 1-2 Relationship between work-hardening exponent (n) and the
yield strength. (Nazional Steel Corporafiorr)
strength. Table 1-5 lists mechanical properties of both hot
rolled and cold drawn bars.x
Data from tension tests are used to determine the mechanical
properties of sheet steel that influence drawing and stretching. carbon steels can be divided into three main groups: low,
The two main properties are the plastic strain ratio (r) and the medium, and high-carbon steels.
work-hardening exponent (n).
The plastic strain ratio is indicative of the ability of a sheet to
resist thinning during drawing and is defined as the ratio of Low-Carbon Steels
width strain to thickness strain in the tensile test. Since the In general, low-carbon steels are used for industrial products
properties of the sheet are different in different directions, the such as nuts, bolts, sheet, strip, plates, shapes, tubes, and many
average strain ratio (i) is given. As the 7 value increases, the machined components that are subject to low stresses. An
depth of permissible draw increases. Typical r and Yvalues for important group of low-carbon steels are free-cutting or free-
low-carbon steels are given in Table 1-6. machining steels. In many instances, the products made from
The work-hardening exponent (n) is a measure of the ability this class of steel are machined from hot or cold formed bars;
of the sheet to resist localized straining and thus increase products requiring a hard, wear-resistant surface can be
uniform deformation. A metal with a high n value tends to subsequently surface (case) hardened.
strain uniformly even under nonuniform stress conditions.
Typical n values for low-carbon steels are 0.20-0.22. Figure 1-2
can be used to approximate the n value of low-carbon sheet Medium-Carbon Steels
from its yield strength. The medium-carbon grades of steel are used when the
strength and hardness requirements are greater than can be
APPLICATIONS adequately met by low-carbon steels. The mechanical properties
The selection of a carbon steel for a particular application is of this class of steel can be improved by quenching and
largely determined by its carbon content. As previously stated, tempering.

TABLE 1-5
Mechanical Properties and Machinability Ratings of Carbon Steel Bars8

Grade Tensile Estimated Minimum Values Average

SAE andl or Strength, Yield Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Hardness, Machinability
UNS No. AIS1 No. Condition* ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) 2“ (50 mm), ~ Area, YO Bhn Rating**
Nonresulfurized Carbon Steels. I% Mamzanese Maximum
G 10060 1006 Hot rolled 43 (300) 24( 170) 30 55 86
50
Cold drawn 48 (330) 41 (280) 20 45 95

(continued)

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS

TABLE I-S-Continued

Grade Estimated Minimum Values

Tensile Average
SAE and/or Strength, Yield Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Hardness, Machinability
UNS No. AISI No. Condition* ksi (MPa) ksi (M Pa) 2“ (50 mm), % Area, ~0 Bhn Rating**

G 10080 1008 Hot rolled 44 (303) 24.5 (170) 30 55 86

55
Cold drawn 49 (340) 41.5 (290) 20 45 95

G101OO 1010 Hot rolled 47 (320) 26( 180) 28 50 95

55
Cold drawn 53 (370) 44 (300) 20 40 105

G1015O 1015 Hot rolled 50 (340) 27.5 (190) 28 50 101

60
Cold drawn 56 (390) 47 (320) 18 40 111

G1016O 1016 Hot rolled 55 (380) 30 (210) 25 50 111

70
Cold drawn 61 (420) 51 (350) 18 40 121

G1OI8O 1018 Hot rolled 58 (400) 32 (220) 25 50 116

70
Cold drawn 64 (440) 54 (370) 15 40 126

G 10200 1020 Hot rolled 55 (380) 30 (210) 25 50 111

65
Cold drawn 61 (420) 51 (350) 15 40 121

G 10300 1030 Hot rolled 68 (470) 37.5 (260) 20 42 137

70
Cold drawn 76 (520) 64 (440) 12 35 149

G1035O 1035 Hot rolled 72 (500) 39.5 (270) 18 40 143

65
Cold drawn 80 (550) 67 (460) 12 35 163

G1037O 1037 Hot rolled 74(5 10) 40.5 (280) 18 40 143

65
Cold drawn 82 (570) 69 (480) 12 35 167

G 10400 1040 Hot rolled 76 (520) 42 (290) 18 40 149

60
Cold drawn 85 (590) 71 (490) 12 35 I70

GI0450 1045 Hot rolled 82 (570) 45 (3 10) 16 40 163

55
Cold drawn 91 (630) 77 (530) 12 35 179
65
ACD 85 (590) 73 (500) 12 45 I70
G 10460 Hot rolled 85 (590) 47 (320) 15 40 170
55
Cold drawn 94 (650) 79 (540) 12 35 187
65
ACD 90 (620) 75 (520) 12 45 179

GI0490 1049 Hot rolled 87 (600) 48 (330) 15 35 179

45
Cold drawn 97 (670) 81.5 (560) 10 30 197
55
ACD 92 (630) 77 (530) 10 40 187

G 10500 1050 Hot rolled 90 (620) 49.5 (340) 15 35 179

45
Cold drawn 100 (690) 84 (580) 10 30 197
55
ACD 95 (660) 80 (550) 10 40 189
G 10600 1060 Hot rolled 98 (680) 54 (370) 12 30 201
60
SACD 90 (620) 70 (480) 10 45 183
G107OO 1070 Hot rolled 102 (700) 56 (390) 12 30 212
55
SACD 93 (640) 72 (500) 10 45 192
GI0800 1080 Hot rolled 112 (770) 61,5 (420) 10 25 229
45
SACD 98 (680) 75 (520) 10 40 192
G 10950 1095 Hot rolled 120 (830) 66 (460) 10 25 248
45
SACD 99 (680) 76 (520) 10 40 197

Resulfurized Carbon Steels

G11170 1117 Hot rolled 62 (430) 34 (230) 23 47 121
90
Cold drawn 69 (480) 58 (400) 15 40 137

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
CARBON STEELS

TABLE 1-5—Continued

Grade Estimated Minimum Values Average

Tensile
SAE and/or Strength, Yield Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Hardness, Machinability
UNS No. AISI No. Condition* ksi (M Pa) ksi (M Pa) 2“ (50 mm), % Area, % Bhn Rating**

G11370 1137 Hot rolled 88 (610) 48 (330) 15 35 179

70
Cold drawn 98 (680) 82 (570) 10 30 197

GI141O 1141 Hot rolled 94 (650) 51.5 (360) 15 35 187

70
Cold drawn 105 (720) 88 (610) 10 30 212

G11440 1144 Hot rolled 97 (670) 53 (370) 15 35 197

80
Cold drawn 108 (740) 90 (620) 10 30 217

Re~hosDhorized and Resulfurized Carbon Steels

G12110 1211 Hot rolled 55 (380) 33 (230) 25 45 121
95
Cold drawn 75 (520) 58 (400) 10 35 163

G12120 12!2 Hot rolled 56 (390) 33.5 (230) 25 45 121

100
Cold drawn 78 (540) 60(4 10) 10 35 167

G12144 12L14 Hot rolled 57 (390) 34 (230) 22 45 121

160
Cold drawn 78 (540) 60(4 10) 10 35 163

Nonrephosphorized Carbon Steels, over 1% Manganese

G15410 1541 Hot rolled 92 (630) 51 (350) 15 40 187
45
Cold drawn 102.5 (710) 87 (600) 10 30 207
60
ACD 94 (650) 80 (550) 10 45 184

G15520 1552 Hot rolled 108 (740) 59.5 (410) 12 30 217

50
ACD 98 (680) 83 (570) 10 40 193

G 15480 1548 Hot rolled 96 (660) 53 (370) 14 33 197

45
Cold drawn 106.5 (730) 89.5 (620) 10 28 217
50
ACD 93.5 (640) 78.5 (540) 10 35 192
(Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.)
Note: The values of the mechanical properties listed are obtained from bars 3/4 to 1 1/4” (20 to 30 mm) diam and should only be
used for general information rather than for design guidelines. For specific values, contact the steel manufacturer.
* ACD = annealed cold drawn SACD = spheroidized, annealed cold drawn
** Based on cold drawn AISI ]212 = 10070
Medium-carbon grades are used in producing rails, railroad
equipment, parts for lathes and presses, machined parts
requiring moderate-to-high strength, heavy stamped or pressed
TABLE 1-6 products, crankshafts, connecting rods, axles, gears, and many
Typical Values of Plastic Strain Ratio other automotive parts. In addition, many items in the agricul-
tural equipment and petroleum industries are made from
Plastic Strain Ratio.* medium-carbon steels.
Type of Steel m r45 r90 ?
High-Carbon Steels
Rimmed, normalized 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.0 High-carbon steels are used for manufacturing products that
1,0 1.2 require high strength, high hardness, and, in certain instances,
Rimmed, annealed 1.3 1.4
good wear resistance. Typical applications for high-carbon
Aluminum killed steels include cutting tools such as drills, reamers, taps and dies,
(CR 40%, annealed) 1.4 1.2 1.6 I .4 and cutlery. High-carbon steels are also used for high-strength
rope, cable, music wire, and springs. High-carbon steels are
Aluminum killed generally purchased in the annealed condition; the manufac-
(CR 70~, annealed) 1.6 1.4 1,9 1.6 tured parts are then heat treated to obtain the desired properties.
* The value r~lis obtained in the rolling direction, r~s is in the
diagonal direction, r~o is in the transverse direction, and ~ is MACHINING AND FABRICATING
the average of the three values based on the equation ~ = CHARACTERISTICS
1/4 (rO + 2 r45 + r90). The machining and fabricating characteristics of carbon
steels depend on the properties of the particular grade of steel
being machined or fabricated, as well as the specific equipment

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
cHAPTER 1

CARBON STEELS

and tooling employed. The following sections provide general machinability and machining processes for carbon steels can be
information to assist the manufacturing engineer in machining, found in Volume I, Machining, of this Handbook series.
forming, welding, and heat treating carbon steels. Detailed
information on the various operations can be obtained from the Formability
references mentioned in each section. Carbon steel bars and sheets are readily formed by a variety
of processes. For bars and wires, these processes include
forging, wire drawing, extruding, heading, and swaging. Sheet
Machinability metal forming processes include bending, flanging, hemming,
Machinability concerns the relative ease with which a steel drawing, expanding, shrinking, stretch forming, roll forming,
can be cut in turning, drilling, milling, broaching, threading, spinning, and several special forming processes. A discussion of
reaming, or sawing. Machinability is influenced by machine these processes, including their advantages and applications,
and work material variables. Some common machine variables can be found in Volume II, Forming, of this Handbook series.
are cutting speed, dimensions of the cut, tool geometry and Low-carbon steels are the most easily formed because they
material, cutting fluid, condition of the machine, and type of contain less carbon and fewer alloying elements. Medium-
tool engagement with the workpiece. Work material variables carbon steels are usually not formed cold but can be successfully
include hardness, tensile properties, chemical composition, formed warm or hot. Both bar and sheet carbon steels are
microstructure, degree of cold work, strain hardenability, shape produced in special qualities that facilitate forming.
and dimension of workpiece, and rigidity of the workpiece.
Hot rolled carbon steels containing less than 0,25% carbon Weldability
tend to be tough and gummy in machining. Increasing carbon Weldability is the capacity of a metal or combination of
and manganese content increases strength and hardness and metals to be welded under fabrication conditions into a specific,
results in improved surface finish and chip character. Increasing suitably designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the
sulfur, phosphorus, or nitrogen content and adding lead also intended service.9 The weldability of carbon steel depends
improves the machinability of carbon steels. primarily on the carbon content or carbon equivalent, which in
If carbon content is approximately 0.20 -O.25Y0, machin- turn controls hardenability and the susceptibility of the welded
ability is improved over lower carbon grades in both hot rolled structure to cracking or to hardening during thermal cycles
and cold drawn steels. Carbon content greater than 0.2596 induced by welding. Carbon equivalent is determined by the
decreases machinability. Most carbon steels containing less combined amount of carbon and other alloying elements
than 0.35T0 carbon are machined in the as-rolled or as-rolled, present in steel.
cold drawn condition. Cold drawn grades containing greater Carbon steels with up to 0.30% carbon or with a carbon
amounts of carbon are usually annealed to improve machin- equivalent not over 0.40YGare easily welded by arc, resistance,
ability. In comparison to hot rolled bars of similar composition flash, oxyfuel gas, solid state, electron beam, or laser processes.
and microstructure, cold drawn bars have improved machin- The selection of the process is usually determined by the section
ability because of the higher yield-tensile strength ratio. thickness and the quality requirements of the weld, For carbon
Machinability ratings of carbon steels are given in Table 1-5. content over O,15% and section thicknesses over 1.0’’(25 mm), it
When machining both hot rolled and cold drawn carbon may be necessary to preheat the workpiece, control interpass
steels, it is necessary to allow for surface finishing. Resulfurized temperature, and stress relieve the workpiece after welding,
grades have a poorer surface finish and require more material to Resulfurized carbon steels have poor weldability due to their
be removed for a proper surface finish than nonresulfurized high sulfur content.
grades. Table 1-7 gives the recommended minimum machining Carbon steels containing more than 0.30T0 carbon are
allowances, per side, for hot rolled and cold drawn carbon steel weldable, but special techniques must be employed to prevent
bars. To calculate the recommended allowance per side, weld cracking. Preheating the workpiece from 300 to 600° F
multiply the diameter or thickness by the percentage allowed. (150 to 316° C) and postheating between 1000 and 1200° F (550
The total allowance calculated for nonresulfurized steels and 650° C) helps to avoid any brittle microstructure. Low-
should always be greater than 0.010” (0.25 mm) per side. If it is hydrogen-type electrodes are recommended for welding these
less, allow 0.010” per side for machining. For resulfurized steels, steels. Steels containing more than 1.00% carbon are not
the total allowance should always be greater than 0.015” (0.38 recommended for high-temperature welding processes. For
mm) per side. If it is less, allow 0.015” per side for machining. additional information on welding processes and techniques,
Carbon steels made to higher qualities may permit lesser refer to Volume IV, Quality Corurol and Assembly, in this
amounts of surface removal. Additional information on Handbook series.

TABLE 1-7
Recommended Machining Allowances for
Hot Rolled and Cold Drawn Carbon Steels

Nonresulfurized, Resulfurized,
Quality Machining Operation % %
Hot rolled Turned on centers 3.0 3.8
Centerless turned or ground 2.6 3.4
Other methods 1.6 2.4

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 CHAPTER 1

ALLOY STEELS

Heat Treatment heating within or below the transformation range, followed by

The versatility of steel can be attributed to its response to slow cooling. The first category can involve through hardening
heat treatment. While themajor percentage ofsteelis usedin by quenching and tempering, or a variety of specialized
the as-rolled condition, heat treatment greatly broadens the treatments undertaken to enhance surface hardness to a
spectrum of properties attainable. controlled depth. The second category encompasses normaliz-
Heat treatments fall into two general categories: (I) those ing and various types of annealing to improve machinability,
that increase the strength, hardness, and toughness by virtue of toughness, or cold forming characteristics, 10 Annealing after
rapid cooling from above the transformation range, and (2) cold forming relieves stresses and restores ductility. Details of
those that decrease hardness and promote uniformity by slow heat treating practices for steels are discussed in Chapters 10,
cooling from above the transformation range, or by prolonged 11, and 13 of this volume.

ALLOY STEELS
Simply stated, an alloy steel is a steel that has one or more improving surface finish, dimensional accuracy, alignment, or
alloying elements added to it to obtain properties not obtainable machinability; also, in the case of cold drawn or cold rolled
in carbon steels. Steel is considered to bean alloy steel when the bars, to increase the yield strength and tensile strength. Cold
maximum range for manganese, silicon, orcopperexceeds 1.65, finishing processes and surface improvement processes used
0.60, and 0.6070 respectively. A steel is also considered an alloy singly or in combination include cold drawing, cold rolling,
when a definite range or a minimum quantity is specified or turning, grinding, polishing, and straightening. Cold finishing
required for aluminum, chromium (up to 3,99yO), cobalt, processes are frequently employed in conjunction with thermal
columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vana- treatments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching and
dium, zirconium, or any other alloying element, tempering, and stress relieving when special properties are
The alloy steels discussed in this section are the low-alloy required in the finished bar,
steels. These steels may be divided into the structural grades and Hot rolled steels, from which cold finished bars are
those listed by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) produced, normally contain a decarburized, peripheral zone.
and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). In the The decarburized zone can be eliminated by sufficient
structural grades, the alloying elements are the principal means mechanical surface removal. On bars that are only cold drawn,
of strengthening the ferrite matrix. The structural grade the decarburized, peripheral zone is not removed. Carbon can
alloy steels are generally used in the as-rolled condition, the be restored to that zone by a carburization thermal treatment
quenched and tempered condition, and in the normalized or sometimes known as carbon restoration or carbon correction.
annealed condition. In the AISI/ SAE grades, the alloying
elements serve primarily to improve the mechanical properties ALLOY STEEL GRADES
over equivalent carbon steel and to enhance the response of the The grade of a particular alloy steel is commonly indicated
steel to heat treatment. by the percentage of the various elements that comprise its
Alloy steels not included in this section are high-strength low chemical composition. The composition may be specified by a
alloy (HSLA) steels, stainless steels, and tool steels. The HSLA maximum limit, a minimum limit, or by both minimum and
steels are discussed in the next section of this chapter, stainless maximum limits, which are referred to as the range. Lists of
steels are discussed in Chapter 2 of this volume, and tool steels standard alloy steels designed to serve the needs of fabricators
are discussed in Volume I, Machining, and Volume II, Forming, and users of steel products are published by the AISI and SAE.
of this Handbook series. Specialized grades, steels not on the standard alloy steel lists,
are also produced.
STEELMAKING PRACTICE
Alloy steel is made by basic open-hearth, basic oxygen, or Grade Designation
basic electric furnace practices. In addition to the conventional As with low-carbon steels, a four-numeral series designates
melting practices, there are several methods of treating molten alloy steels specified to chemical composition ranges. For
steel under vacuum, including vacuum-arc remelting, vacuum- certain grades, a five-numeral series is used.
induction remelting, and vacuum degassing. These methods The last two digits of the four-numeral series indicate the
improve the soundness, cleanliness, and mechanical properties approximate middle of the carbon range; for example, 20
(particularly transverse ductility, toughness, and fatigue life) of represents a range of 0.18 to 0.2W0 carbon. In the five-numeral
the steel by reducing its gaseous impurities and lowering series, the last three digits represent the carbon range. The first
inclusion content. two digits of both the four and five-numeral series indicate the
The casting techniques for alloy steels are the same as those primary alloying elements used in the grade, along with their
discussed previously for carbon steels. Alloy steels are always approximate percentages. Table 1-8 defines the grade designa-
produced as killed steels and are made using a fine-grain tion system as established by the AIS1 and the SAE.
practice as described in American Society for Testing and The prefix letter E is used to designate steels normally made
Materials (ASTM) Standard El 12. by the basic electric furnace practice. Steels without the prefix
Alloy steel, cold finished bars are produced from hot rolled are normally manufactured by the basic open-hearth or basic
steel by several cold finishing processes for the purpose of oxygen processes.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1

ALLOY STEELS

TABLE 1-8 Hardenability Grades

Alloy Steel Grade Designations As a result of cooperative work done by the SAE and
the AISI, hardenability bands have been developed for many
Series Designation Type and Approximate of the constructional alloy steels. The hardenability limits
UNS AI SIISAE* Percenta~es of Elements were determined from data obtained by conducting standard 1”
(25.4 mm) Jominy end-quench hardenability tests (ASTM
G 13XXX 13XX Manganese 1.75
Standard A 256) on many heats of each composition. Harden-
G31XXX 31XX Nickel 1.25 and chromium 0.65
ability is also discussed in Chapter 10, “Heat Treatment of
G33XXX 33XX Nickel 3.50 and chromium 1.55
Steel,” later in this volume.
G40XXX 40XX Molybdenum 0,20 or 0.25;
As a means of identifying steels specified to hardenability
or molybdenum 0.25 and
requirements, the suffix letter H has been added to the
sulfur 0.042
conventional series number. The UNS designates these steels
G4 t XXX 41XX Chromium 0.50,0.95, or 1.05 and
with the prefix letter H instead of G which is used to designate
molybdenum 0.12, 0.20, or 0.30
standard alloy or carbon steels.
G43XXX 43XX Nickel 1.83, chromium 0.50 or
0.80, and molybdenum 0.25
G44XXX 44XX Molybdenum 0.40 or 0.53 ALLOY STEEL QUALITY
G46XXX 46XX Nickel 0.85 or 1.83 and Alloy steels are made with more than ordinary care through-
molybdenum 0.20 or 0.25 out their manufacture. They are more sensitive to thermal and
G47XXX 47XX Nickel 1.05, chromium 0.45, and mechanical operations, the control of which is complicated by
molybdenum 0,20 the varying effects of different chemical combinations.
G48XXX 48XX Nickel 3,50 and molybdenum 0.25 The quality characteristics of alloy steel include, among
G50XXX 50XX Chromium 0.28 or 0.40 others, internal soundness, uniformity of chemical composition,
G51XXX 51XX Chromium 0.80, 0.88, 0.93,0.95, and freedom from injurious surface imperfections. The degree
or 1.00 to which these characteristics can be obtained is limited by
G5XXXX 5XXX Carbon 1.00 and chromium 1.03 existing raw materials, manufacturing methods, and the tech-
or 1.45 nological nature of the alloy steel. Quality characteristics are
G61XXX 61XX Chromium 0.60, 0.80, or 0.95 and related to the suitability of the steel to make a particular part.
vanadium 0.10 and/or 0.15 min The qualities of alloy steels that are summarized in Table 1-9
G71XXX 71XX Chromium 1.60, molybdenum concern characteristic properties that are adapted to the
0.35, and aluminum 1.13 particular conditions encountered in the fabrication or use for
G81XX1 8 I BXX Nickel 0.30, chromium 0.45, and which the steels are intended.
molybdenum 0.12
G86XXX 86XX Nickel 0.55, chromium 0.50, and ALLOYING ELEMENTS
molybdenum 0.20 Alloying elements are added to ordinary steels for the
G87XXX 87XX Nickel 0.55, chromium 0.50, and purpose of modifying their behavior during heat treatment,
molybdenum 0,25 which in turn results in improvement of the mechanical and
G88XXX 88XX Nickel 0,55, chromium 0,50, and physical properties. Specifically, the additions are made for one
molybdenum 0.35 or more of the following reasons:
G92XXX 92XX Silicon 2.00; or silicon 1.40 and
chromium 0.70
● Improve tensile strength without lowering material
G93XXX 93XX Nickel 3.25, chromium 1.20, and ductility.
molybdenum 0.12
● Improve toughness.
G94xx 1 94BXX Nickel 0.45, chromium 0.40, and
● Increase hardenability, which permits the hardening of
molybdenum 0.12 larger sections than possible with plain carbon steels or
G98XXX 98XX Nickel 1.00, chromium 0.80, and allows successful quenching with less drastic cooling
molybdenum 0.25 rates, reducing the hazard of distortion and quench
Gxxxx 1 B Denotes boron steel. as in 86B45 cracking.
(G86451) and others
● Retain physical properties at elevated temperatures.
● Obtain better corrosion resistance.
(American Iron and Steel Institute) ● Improve wear resistance.
Note: All values shown are mean values. ● Impart a fine grain size to the steel.
* xx indicates carbon content in hundredths of a percent. ● Improve surface (case) hardening characteristics.
The effects of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur,
silicon, aluminum, copper, and boron are discussed in the
In 1975, the Unified Numbering System (UNS) for Metals earlier section on carbon steels.
and Alloys was established by the ASTM and the SAE. The
UNS designates the various alloy steel grades using a single Nickel
letter prefix followed by five digits. The letter G indicates Nickel is one of the common steel alloying elements. When
standard alloy or carbon steels, and the first four digits usually present in appreciable amounts, it provides simplified and more
correspond to the AISI/ SAE steel designations. The fifth digit economical heat treatment, increased hardenability, less distor-
indicates an additional element, such as boron (indicated by the tion in quenching, improved corrosion resistance, and improved
number one), or a particular manufacturing practice. toughness, particularly at low temperatures,

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
ALLOY STEELS

TABLE 1-9
Summary of Quality Designations for Hot and Cold Rolled Alloy Steel Bars

Quality Designations Characteristics Applications

Regular quality Basic or standard quality for alloy Used for regular constructional
steel. These steels are killed and are applications.
produced as fine grain. May contain
surface imperfections.

Axle shaft quality Special rolling practices, special billet Used for power-driven axle shafts for
and bar conditioning, and selective automobiles and trucks,
inspection are employed to minimize
surface imperfections.
Ball and roller bearing quality Subjected to restricted melting and Used for antifriction bearings.
special teeming, rolling, cooling, and
conditioning practices. Thorough
examinations for internal
imperfections are performed.

Cold heading quality Bars are supplied from steel produced Used in the production of fasteners,
by closely controlled steelmaking studs, anchor pins, bearing rollers,
practices and are subject to testing and cap screws by cold plastic
and inspection to determine internal deformation.
soundness, uniformity of chemical
composition, and freedom from
detrimental surface imperfections.
Hardness and microstructure
controlled by heat treatment.

Special cold heading quality Produced by closely controlled Used for applications requiring severe,
steelmaking practices to provide cold plastic deformation such as for
uniform chemical composition and front suspension studs, socket screws,
internal soundness, Surface imper- and valves.
fections removed at intermediate
stages by grinding or equivalent
surface preparation, Hardness and
microstructure controlled by heat
treatment.

Aircraft quality Produced using exacting steelmaking, Used for highly stressed aircraft,
rolling, and testing practices. missile, and rocket parts.
Phosphorus and sulfur limited to

Chromium Vanadium
Chromium is used in constructional alloy steels primarily to
Vanadium increases the hot rolled mechanical properties
increase hardenability, provide improved resistance to abrasion
of steel and may be used to enhance hardenability, provided
and wear, and to promote carburization. It also contributes to
that it is not combined into carbides. It is a deoxidizer and
corrosion and heat resistance. A maximum content of 3.99%
forms carbides and more stable carbo-nitrides. Vanadium
chromium has been established for constructional alloy steels. inhibits grain growth and promotes a fine-grain structure
Heat-resisting and stainless steels have much higher chromium
that imparts strength and toughness to HSLA steels. It also
percentages. provides secondary hardening during tempering through
Molybdenum precipitation hardening.
Molybdenum is a nonoxidizing element that promotes
hardenabilit y of steel and is useful when hardenability control is Tungsten
important. Molybdenum provides hardenability with minimal Tungsten increases hardness, promotes a fine-grain struc-
detrimental effects on cold forming characteristics. It widens ture, and is excellent for resisting heat. At elevated tempering
the temperature range of effective heat treating response since it temperatures, tungsten forms tungsten carbides, which are very
has a strong tendency to form stable carbides. It also increases hard and stable. The tungsten carbide helps prevent the steel
the tensile and creep strengths at high temperatures. from softening during tempering.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1

ALLOY STEELS

Columbium/Niobium finished condition can be produced to specified maximum

Columbium (or niobium) decreases the hardenability of steel hardness limits. Forsteels inthenormalized and cold finished
by promoting a fine-grain structure when it is precipitated as a condition, minimum hardness or minimum tensile strength may
carbide or nitride. Columbium in solid solution increases be specified. Ifthesteels arenormalized and tempered before
hardenability. The fine grain size results in increased strength cold finishing, either maximum and minimum harnesses or
and impact resistance in the hot rolled condition of HSLA steels. maximum and minimum tensile values can be produced to a
range that varies with the tensile strength level and is equivalent
Titanium to a Brinell indentation diameter range of four-tenths of a
millimeter (e.g., 4.0 to 4.4) at any specified location. If the steels
Titanium is primarily used as a deoxidizer and helps to limit
grain growth. When added to boron steels, it helps increase are quenched and tempered before cold finishing, either
maximum and minimum harnesses or maximum and mini-
hardenability by preventing the loss of boron through reaction
mum tensile strength values can be produced to a range that
with nitrogen in the steel. It can also provide precipitation
varies with the tensile strength level and is equivalent to a
hardening by forming titanium nitrides.
Brinell indentation diameter range of three-tenths of a milli-
meter (e.g., 3.6 to 3.9) at any specified location.
Cobalt
When both hardness and tensile values are specified at the
In alloy steels containingmore than 0.40~ carbon, cobalt
same position, the limits should be consistent with each other.
decreases hardenability. In low-carbon chromium steels,
In many cases, when the Brinell limits are specified as surface
however, cobalt has improved the hardenability of the steel.
values, the tensile test results, which are of necessity obtained
Zirconium below the surface, and the surface hardness results will not be
Zirconium inhibits grain growth and is a better deoxidizer consistent because they vary according to the size of bar and the
than boron, silicon, titanium, vanadium, or manganese when hardenability of the steel involved. For that reason the
precipitated as zirconium nitride. Its primary use is to improve purchaser should recognize inconsistencies between the two
hot rolled properties in HSLA steels. Zirconium in solution also and specify limits accordingly. In either case, it is essential that
improves hardenability slightly. the position at which Brinell hardness values are taken be
specified by the purchaser.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Generally the yield, elongation, and reduction of area are
Alloy steels are not directly produced to specific mechanical specified as minimums for steel in the quenched and tempered
properties, but are usually heat treated to achieve desired or normalized and tempered conditions, and they should be
properties. Cold finished alloy steel bars usually require consistent with the tensile strength or Brinell hardness. Table
thermal treatments in order to meet definite limitations for 1-10 lists the mechanical properties of commonly used grades of
tensile or hardness values. Alloy steels in the annealed and cold alloy steel bars.
TABLE 1-10
Representative Mechanical Properties of Various Alloy Steels*

Total
Tensile Yield Strength Elongation Reduction
Grade
Strength, (0.2% Offset), in 2“ (50 mm), of Area, Hardness,
UNS AISI/SAE Condition ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % Bhn
G 13400 1340 Annealed, 1475° F (800° C) 102 (703) 63.3 (436) 25.5 57.3 207
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 121.3 (836) 81 (558.5) 22 62.9 248
Oil quenched, 1525° F (830° C), 118(814) 98.3 (677) 21.7 60.1 241
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)
G40270 4027 Annealed, 1585° F (865° C) 75 (517) 57.3 (326) 30 52.9 143
Normalized, 1660° F (905° C) 93.3 (643) 61.3 (422) 25.8 60.2 179
Water quenched, 1585° F (865° C), 139.3 (960) 122.3 (843) 18.8 60.1 285
and tempered, .1OOOOF (540° C)

G41180 4118 Annealed, 1600° F (870° C) 75(5 17) 53 (365) 33 63.7 137
Normalized, 1670° F (910° C) 84.5 (583) 56 (386) 32 71 156
Carburized, 1700° F (925° C), 119 (820.5) 64.5 (445) 21 37.5 241
and tempered, 300° F (150° C)

G41300 4130 Annealed, 1585° F (865° C) 81.3 (560) 52.3 (360) 28.2 55.6 156
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 97 (669) 63.3 (436) 25.5 59.5 197
Water quenched, 1575° F (855” C), 144.5 (996) 129.5 (893) 18.5 61.8 293
and tempered, 1000° F (540° C)
G41400 4140 Annealed, 1500° F (8 15° C) 95 (655) 60.5 (41 7) 25.7 56.9 197
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 148 ( 1020) 95 (655) 17.7 46.8 302
Oil quenched, 1550° F (845° C), 140.3 (967) 135 (931) 19.5 62.3 285
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

ALLOY STEELS

TABLE l-10 —Corrtirrued

Total
Tensile Yield Strength Elongation Reduction
Grade Strength, (0.2% Offset), in 2“ (50 mm), of Area, Hardness,
UNS AIS1/SAE Condition ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % Bhn

G4 1500 4150 Annealed, 1525° F (830° C) 105.8 (729) 55 (379) 20.2 40.2 197
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 167.5 (1 155) 106.5 (734) 11.7 30.8 321
Oil quenched, 1525° F (830° C), 165.5(1141) 150 ( 1034) 15.7 51.1 331
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)
G43200 4320 Annealed, 1560° F (850”C) 84 (579) 61.6 (425) 29 58.4 163
Normalized, 1640° F (895° C) 115 (793) 67.3 (464) 20.8 50.7 235
Carburized, 1700° F (925” C), 152.5 (1052) 107.3 (739) 17 51 302
and tempered, 300° F ( 150°C)

G43400 4340 Annealed, 1490° F (8 10° C) 108 (745) 68.5 (472) 22 49.9 217
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 185.5 (1279) 125 (862) 12.2 36.3 363
Oil quenched, 1475° F (800° C), 164,8(1136) 159 ( 1096) 16.5 54.1 331
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)
G44 190 4419 Annealed, 1675° F (915° C) 64.8 (446) 48 (331) 31.2 62.8 121
Normalized, 1750° F (955° C) 75.3 (519) 51 (352) 32.5 69.4 143
Carburized, 1700° F (925° C), 97.3 (670,5) 62,8 (433) 24.2 66.4 201
and tempered, 300° F ( 150° C)
G46200 4620 Annealed, 1575° F (855° C) 74.3 (512) 54 (372) 31.3 60.3 I49
Normalized, 1650° F (900° C) 83.3 (574) 53.1 (366) 29 66.7 I74
Carburized, 1700° F (925° C), 98 (676) 67 (462) 25.8 70 197
and tempered, 300° F ( 150° C)

G48200 4820 Annealed, 1500° F (8 15° C) 98.8 (681) 67.3 (464) 22.3 58.8 197
Normalized, 1580° F (860° C) 109.5 (755) 70.3 (484) 24 59.2 229
Carburized, 1700° F (925° C), 169.5 (1169) 126.5 (872) 15 51 352
and tempered, 300° F ( 150° C)

G51400 5140 Annealed, 1525° F (830”C) 83 (572) 42.5 (293) 28.6 57.3 167
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 115 (793) 68.5 (472) 22.7 59.2 229
Oil quenched, 1550° F (845” C), 127.3 (878) 105 (724) 20.5 61.7 262
and tempered, 1100° F (595” C)

G5 1500 5150 Annealed, 1520° F (827° C) 98 (676) 51.8 (357) 22 43.7 197
Normalized, 1600° F (870” C) 126.3 (870) 76.8 (529) 20.7 58.7 255
Oil quenched, 1550° F (845° C), 137 (945) 115.3 (795) 20.2 59.5 277
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)

G51600 5160 Annealed, 1495° F (8 15° C) 104.8 (722) 40 (276) 17.2 30.6 197
Normalized, 1575° F (855° C) 138.8 (957) 77 (531) 17.5 44.8 269
Oil quenched, 1525° F (830° C), 145.3 (1001) 126 (869) 18 53.6 302
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)
G61500 6150 Annealed, 1500° F (8 15° C) 96.8 (667) 59.8 (412) 23 48.4 197
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 136.3 (939) 89.3 (615) 21.8 61 269
Oil quenched, 1550° F (845° C), 158.3 (1091) 150.5 (1038) 16 53.2 311
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)

G86200 8620 Annealed, 1600° F (870”C) 77.8 (536) 55.9 (385) 31.3 62.1 149
Normalized, 1675° F (9 15° C) 91.8 (633) 51.8 (357) 26.3 59.7 183
Carburized, 1700° F (925° C), 126.8 (874) 83.8 (577) 20.8 52.7 255
and tempered, 300° F ( 150”C)

G86300 8630 Annealed, 1550° F (845° C) 81.8 (564) 54 (372) 29 58.9 156
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 94.3 (650) 62.3 (429) 23.5 53.5 187
Water quenched, 1550° F (845° C), 134.8 (929) 123 (848) 18.7 59.6 269
and tempered, 1000° F (540° C)

(continued)

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

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TABLE I-lO—Continued

Total
Tensile Yield Strength Elongation Reduction
Grade in 2“ (50 mm), of Area, Hardness,
Strength, (0.2% Offset),
UNS AISI/SAE Condition ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % Bhn

G86500 8650 Annealed, 1465” F (795° C) 103.8 (715) 56 (386) 22.5 46.4 212
Normalized, 1600° F (870° C) 148,5 (1024) 99.8 (688) 14 40.4 302
Oil quenched, 1475° F (800°C), 153.5 (1058) 142.8 (984) 17.7 57.3 311
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)

G87400 8740 Annealed, 1500° F (8 15° C) 100.8 (695) 60.3 (41 5) 22,2 46.4 201
Normalized, 1600° F (870°C) 134.8 (929) 88 (607) 16 47.9 269
Oil quenched, 1525° F (830° C), 149.3 (1029) 134.5 (927) 18.2 59.9 302
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)

G92550 9255 Annealed, 1550° F (845° C) 112.8 (777) 70.5 (486) 21.7 41.1 229
Normalized, 1650° F (900° C) 135.3 (933) 84 (579) 19.7 43.4 269
Oil quenched, 1625° F (885° C), 150 (1034) 118(814) 19.2 44.8 293
and tempered, 1100° F (595° C)
Note: the values of the mechanical properties listed are for comparison purposes only and are not intended for specifications or design
purposes. For specific information, consult the steel manufacturer.
* Based on 1” (25.4 mm) diam bars.

APPLICATIONS The low-alloy machinery steels are generally characterized by

As was stated previously, low-alloy steels Can be divided into high tensile strength, good ductility, and excellent toughness
the structural and AISI / SAE groups. The structural group is when appropriately heat treated. The alloy content in these steels
produced according to ASTM specifications. imparts good hardenability to the steel and permits the steel to
be oil quenched to obtain these characteristics and air quenched
Structural Grades when the mass of the section is small enough. This combination
The high-strength structural steels are used principally in the of characteristics is also desirable from the standpoint of
transportation and construction industries for applications that preventing serious distortion during heat treatment.
require moderately high strength and weight reduction. An
alloy combination for a common low-alloy structural steel is MACHINING AND
usually balanced to produce a minimum tensile strength of FABRICATING CHARACTERISTICS
about 70 ksi (483 M Pa), with a corresponding minimum yield To secure the most satisfactory results, purchasers normally
strength of about 55 ksi (379 M Pa). consult with the steel producers regarding the working,
machining, heat treating, or other operations to be used in
AIS1/SAE Grades fabricating the steel ordered, the mechanical properties to be
The AISI alloy steels are used particularly in the automotive obtained, and the conditions of service for which the finished
and aircraft industries for highly stressed members such as parts are intended. Particular attention should be given to
gears, studs, and axles and moving engine parts such as cams, informing the producer regarding the details of the first
crankshafts, and valves. Certain combinations of the various operation to which the steel will be subjected and subsequent
alloying elements, after appropriate heat treatment, can impart operations when significant,
to any one steel certain specialized characteristics for use in Alloy steels containing over 0.38~ carbon are customarily
specific applications. For example, carbon-molybdenum and given a thermal treatment prior to cold finishing. For best
several other molybdenum-bearing steels possess good creep results when machining, cold heading, or performing other
characteristics and therefore find useful application for moder- fabricating operations, thermal treatment of alloy steels having
ately high-temperature service, when oxidation is not too lower carbon content may be required.
severe. Typical applications are found in piping for steam and
oil refineries. Machining
The nickel-chromium steels as a group exhibit excellent Machinability concerns the relative ease with which a steel is
hardenability, high strength, good wear resistance, and tough- cut by sharp tools in various operations, such as turning,
ness. The various “nickel-chromium combinations, properly drilling, milling, broaching, threading, reaming, or sawing.
heat treated, demonstrate tensile properties embracing the Machinability involves the concepts of tool life and surface
entire range available with alloy steels. finish and is influenced in an important way by cutting speed,
The chromium-vanadium steels, after heat treatment, show tool geometry, cutting fluid, rigidity of the workpiece, and
remarkable toughness and good fatigue resistance. As such, mechanical condition of the machine tool.
they find wide application when the part is subjected to The characteristics of steel that influence machinability are
reversing cycles such as with leaf and coil springs. composition, special additives, treatment, and structure. The

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

chemical composition has a major influence since it affects the content is low, preheating or postheating is not required. Alloy
microstructure and mechanical properties. steels containing between 0.10 and 0.30% carbon are slightly
Most low-carbon alloy steels are machined in the as-rolled more difficult to weld than the steels with lower carbon content.
or as-rolled and cold drawn condition. Higher carbon alloy Preheating and postheating of these steels are recommended to
steels and high-hardenability, low-carbon alloy steels may be reduce internal stresses. Alloy steels containing more than
conditioned for machining by annealing, either for softening or 0.30% carbon are difficult to weld, and preheating and post-
for producing a specified microstructure. heating techniques are required.
Average machinability ratings for cold finished alloy steel Heat treating the alloy steels with a higher carbon content
bars are given in Volume I, Machining, of this Handbook series. helps to produce a uniform structure in the weld metal and the
Cutting speeds for the various machining operations are also parent metal. Low-hydrogen electrodes are recommended
given in appropriate chapters of Volume I. when arc welding these steels to reduce brittleness in the weld.
Forming For additional information on welding techniques and pro-
cesses, refer to Volume IV, Quality Control and Assembly, in
Alloy steels are not widely used in forming operations other
this Handbook series.
than forging and heading. Special quality designations are
assigned to those alloy steels that are used in different forming
operations. The various forming operations are discussed in
Volume 11, Forming, of this Handbook series. Heat Treatment
Alloy steels are usually heat treated to achieve the required
Welding properties for a given application. Heat treating practices for
Alloy steels with a carbon content lower than O.10’% can be steel are discussed in Chapter 10, “Heat Treatment of Steel,”
readily welded by most welding techniques. Since their carbon later in this volume.

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels are a group of steels PRODUCTION OF HSLA STEELS
that exhibit and develop strengths significantly higher than High-strength low-alloy steels are produced using special
carbon steels owing to the addition of small amounts of alloying rolling and finishing practices to achieve their high strength.
elements, coupled with special steel processing methods. The
carbon content of these steels is usually less than 0.30YG by
weight. Small amounts of manganese, silicon, phosphorus, Melting and Casting
copper, aluminum, chromium, niobium, vanadium, titanium, The steelmaking practices used for HSLA steels are in most
molybdenum, nickel, zirconium, nitrogen, calcium, and rare respects the same as those for carbon steels. A description of
earth elements are used singly or in combination to increase these steelmaking practices is discussed in the section on carbon
strength, toughness, formability, and corrosion resistance. steels. The vacuum treatments and ladle metallurgy processes
The total alloy content of a few grades of HSLA steel is high described for carbon steels are also applicable to HSLA steels.
enough to qualify them as alloy steels. However, HSLA steels Both ingot and strand (continuous) casting methods are used.
are considered distinct from traditional alloy steels, such as Killed, semiskilled, and nonkilled grades are produced.
constructional alloy steels, since, with a few exceptions, they
achieve their high strength without separate heat treatment Rolling and Finishing
after finishing. The rolling and finishing practices used for HSLA steels are
also similar to those used for carbon steels. However, since the
PRODUCT FORMS AND APPLICATIONS level of alloy addition is kept low, HSLA steels often rely on
High-strength low-alloy steels are produced in a variety of special processing methods in order to obtain optimum proper-
product forms. Most HSLA steels are produced as hot rolled ties. Hot rolled products, particularly flat rolled products, use
products including sheet and strip, plates, structural shapes, combinations of low reheating temperatures prior to rolling
and bars. A few grades are also produced as cold rolled sheet and low, finish hot rolling temperatures (compared to carbon
and strip. Flat rolled product forms are also available with steels), as well as accelerated cooling practices, to obtain
protective coatings, such as zinc, for corrosion resistance. maximum strength and toughness. These practices are often
Sheet and strip products, either in the form of coils or cut referred to as controlled rolling. A few hot rolled grades are
lengths, are used in automobiles, trucks and trailers, agricultural normalized or quenched and tempered rather than controlled
equipment, mining equipment, railway equipment, tanks and rolled to obtain good combinations of strength and toughness.
containers, and in other miscellaneous industrial applications. Certain grades are given low-temperature aging treatments
Plate products are also used in these applications, and, in following hot rolling, normalizing, or quenching to achieve
addition, they are used in bridges, ships, buildings, line pipe, and optimum properties.
other structural applications. Structural shapes, which include Cold rolled HSLA sheet and strip steels are annealed after
1-beams, H-beams, channels, angles, tees, and zees, find a wide cold rolling to obtain specific combinations of strength and
range of structural applications. Bars are used in applications ductility. In most cases, annealing develops a recrystallized
that require cold and hot forming for the manufacture of ferrite plus carbide microstructure that results in higher strength
structural parts for diverse industrial equipment and machinery. along with good ductility. Low-temperature annealing (recovery

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CHAPTER 1

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

annealing) is used for some grades to obtain an unrecrystallized steels, along with a summary of their mechanical properties and
microstructure that exhibits somewhat higher strength but with manufacturing characteristics. Comparisons of HSLA proper-
limited ductility. ties with those of carbon steels are discussed subsequently.
Dual-phase HSLA steels achieve high strength along with
superior ductility through the use of high-temperature inter- Niobium (Columbium) /Vanadium Steels
critical annealing. During the high-temperature anneal, a ferrite This category of HSLA steels contains niobium and/or
plus austenite microstructure is obtained. This microstructure vanadium additions in amounts of approximately 0.1% by
transforms to ferrite plus martensite during rapid cooling weight or less. These alloying elements combine with carbon
following the anneal. and/or nitrogen to form fine precipitates in the microstructure
during controlled rolling with the result that fine ferrite grain
TYPES OF HSLA STEELS size is obtained, Subsequent precipitation hardening during
High-strength low-alloy steels have been categorized or cooling results in high strength. Thesteels areavailable in all
grouped largely on composition. ]’”~ Several types can often product forms, are readily weldable, and have good formability.
achieve a given strength level, but with varying degrees of Toughness of hot rolled products is poor when this type of alloy
toughness, formability, weldability, and corrosion resistance. steel is semiskilled and conventionally rolled. When fully killed,
In addition, the strength, toughness, and formability of a given toughness, along with formability and fatigue resistance, is
type of HSLA steel can vary depending on the rolling and significantly improved. These steels can also be controlled
finishing practices used during production. rolled to obtain excellent toughness along with high strength,
HSLA steels are typified by a high strength-to-weight ratio,
and, as a result, yield strength is an important consideration. Manganese-Copper Steels
Hot rolled grades exhibit yield strengths ranging from 42 to 90 This group of HSLA steels contains higher amounts
ksi (290 to 620 M Pa). Cold rolled sheet and strip grades develop of manganese along with additions of copper to improve
yield strengths from 40to 140ksi(276 t0965MPa). strength and corrosion resistance. Resistance to corrosion
Table 1-11 gives thechemical compositions for the various is about twice that of carbon steels. This type is produced
types of HSLA steels. Table 1-12 lists the various types of HSLA largely as plates; however, a few grades are available as sheet,

TABLE 1-11
Chemical Compositions for HSLA Steels’1 12

Type %C (max) ~OMn (max) YOSi(max) Other

Niobium/ 0.09-0.26 0.8-1.65 0.1-0.9 Nb (0.005 -O,OIYO
vanadium rein) and/ or V
(0.0 1-O.1% rein).
Nitrogen may be
added with V.

Manganese- 0.25-0.28 1.6 0.3 Cu (0.2$10rein)

copper
Manganese 0.14-0.24 1.35-1.6 0.3-0.6 Some grades use
(heat treated) Ni, Cr, Mo, Nb, V,
and Cu (opt.).

Managanese- 0.22 1.5 find V (0.4Y0 rein).

vanadium Some grades use
nitrogen or Nb
(0.0 1-0.05%).

Manganese- 0.12-0.15 0.9-1.0 find Ti (0.05-0.07% rein)

titanium

Manganese- 0.15-0.22 1.25 0.3-0.4 Cu (0.2$70rein), V

vanadium- (0.02% rein)
copper
Multiple alloy 0.12-0.25 0.9-1.6 0.3- 1.0 Cu (0.2$7i0rein). Cr,
plus copper Ni, Mo, V, Ti, and
Nb may be added
in various
combinations.
Multiple alloy 0.12-0.22 1.0-1.25 0.2-0.9 Cu (0.2-0.55%
plus copper rein), P (O.12-
and phosphorus O.I570 max). Cr,
(continued)

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 CHAPTER 1

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

TABLE 1-11 —Continued

Type %C (max) ~Mn (max) %Si (max) Other

Ni, and Mo added

in various
combinations.
HSLA special 0.09-0.18 0.6-1.65 0.1-0.9 Nb(O.005-O.01%
formability rein) or V (O.Ol-
0.02% rein) or Ti
(0.05% rein)
added. Nitrogen
may be used with
V, Ce, and Zr, and
Ca used for sulfide
shape control and
desulfurization.
HSLA 0.07-0.2 0.65- 1.0 0,15-35 Cu (0.75-1.0%
precipitation rein), Ni (1.0-2.2%
hardening max). Cr, Mo, Nb,
and V used in
some grades.
Note: The ranges given for the maximum and minimum percentages for various elements represent the
variations in these maximums and minimums for different manufacturers.

TABLE 1-12
Mechanical Properties and Manufacturing Characteristics for HSLA Steels’1’ 1z

Tensile Strength, Yield Strength,

Tvve ksi (MPa) ksi (M Pa) Formability Weldabilitv
Niobium/ vanadium 60-90 (415-620) 42-80 (290-550) Good Weldable by filler metal
and resistance methods.
Manganese-copper 70 (485) 50 (345) Fair Not recommended for
welding.

Manganese (heat 63-80 (435-550) 42-60 (290-4 15) Fair Weldable by filler metal
treated) methods.

Manganese-vanadium 80 (515) 60 (415) Good Weldable by filler metal

and resistance methods.
Manganese-titanium 65-95 (448-655)* 50-80 (345-350)* Weldable by filler metal
Good
65-140 (448-965)** 50-140 (345-965)** and resistance methods.

Manganese-vanadium- 60-70 (4 15-485) 45-50 (3 10-345) Good Weldable by filler metal

copper and resistance methods.

Multiple alloy plus 60-90 (485-620) 45-80 (3 10-550) Good Weldable by filler metal
copper and resistance methods.
Multiple alloy plus 70 (485) 50 (345) Fairly Weldable by filler metal
copper and phosphorus good and resistance methods.
HSLA special 50-95 (345-965) 40-80 (3 10-550) Excellent Weldable by filler metal
formability and resistance methods.

HSLA precipitation 72-100 (500-690) 65-85 (450-585) Very Weldable by filler metal
hardening good and resistance methods.
Note: The values for tensile and yield strengths are minimums. The strength ranges shown are variations in minimum strength levels
produced by various manufacturers.
* Hot rolled
** Cold rolled

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CHAPTER 1

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

strip, bars, and shapes. Weldability is relatively poor, and, as a

Precipitation-Hardening Steels
result, this group of HSLA steels is not recommended for use in
This category of HSLA steels contains significant amounts
welded structures.
of copper, nickel, and molybdenum. Niobium or vanadium is
also added in some instances. These steels develop their strength
Manganese Steels (Heat Treated)
as a result of low-temperature aging treatments following hot
These steels contain additional amounts of manganese for
rolling, normalizing, or quenching. They exhibit excellent
increased strength. Some grades also contain various combina-
corrosion resistance (four to six times that of carbon steel) and
tions of nickel, chromium, molybdenum, niobium, and notch toughness. Product forms include plates, structural
vanadium. In some cases copper is an optional addition. They
shapes, and bars.
are available as plates, and, in some cases, as hot rolled sheets.
Plate grades are usually normalized to obtain optimum
Dual-Phase Steels
toughness, or, in some instances, quenched and tempered to
Dual-phase steels are a special category of high-strength
maximize both strength and toughness. These steels are
steels that have been recently developed. Their properties result
weldable by filler metal methods.
from a mixed ferrite plus martensite microstructure. They are
characterized by relatively low yield strengths, 40-50 ksi (275-
Manganese-Vanadium and
345 MPa), but work harden rapidly during straining, and
Manganese-Titanium Steels
develop high tensile strengths on the order of 85 to 100 ksi (585
This group of HSLA steels contains additions of vanadium to 690 MPa). As a result, very high strengths are obtained in
or titanium in order to improve strength by precipitation fabricated parts. They exhibit significantly higher ductility and
hardening and grain refinement. Manganese-vanadium grades formability than more conventional HSLA steels. Dual-phase
may also contain additions of nitrogen or niobium. Manganese- steels are produced as hot and cold rolled sheet and strip with
vanadium steels are plate grades, and manganese-titanium very small amounts of alloy additions using intercritical
steels are available as hot rolled and cold rolled sheet and strip. annealing. A more highly alloyed version can be produced as
These steels have good formability and toughness, and are directly bot rolled sheet and strip using additions of silicon,
weldable by both filler metal and resistance methods. chromium, and molybdenum. Where needed, the low yield
strengths of dual-phase steels can be increased by low-
Manganese-Vanadium-Copper Steels temperature aging or straining and aging treatments.
These steels contain additions of manganese and vanadium
for increased strength, as well as copper for increased corrosion Rephosphorized and Renitrogenized Steels
resistance. They have good notch toughness and formability, The strength of carbon steels can be increased to the levels
and exhibit a corrosion resistance about twice that of carbon exhibited by many HSLA steels through additions of
steel. These steels are weldable by both filler metal and phosphorus or nitrogen. These types of steels are produced as
resistance methods. They are available in all product forms. hot and cold rolled sheet and strip products. Nitrogen-
containing steels respond to straining and aging treatments
Multiple Alloy Steels with Copper resulting in high strength following fabrication. These steels can
These grades contain additions of silicon, copper, chrom- be obtained with yield strengths ranging from 35 to 140 ksi (240
ium, molybdenum, and nickel for improved strength and to 965 MPa).
corrosion resistance. Niobium and vanadium are also added.
These steels are weathering steels with corrosion resistance two SPECIFICATIONS
to six times that of carbon steel, They are primarily plate steels, The ASTM, the SAE, and the American Petroleum Institute
but a few grades are available as bars, sheets, or shapes. They (API) have developed specifications applicable to high-strength
have good formability, excellent notch toughness, and are low-alloy steels. In addition, the AISI has developed a desig-
readily weldable. nation system applicable to high-strength sheet steels. It is
important to note, however, that not all HSLA grades
Multiple Alloy Steels with produced by all steel producers are covered by the various
Copper and High Phosphorus specifications. Many grades that are produced as proprietary
These HSLA steels are also weathering steels that contain grades by various manufacturers do not qualify for coverage by
additions of copper and phosphorus along with nickel, any specification.
chromium, and molybdenum. Corrosion resistance is four to
eight times that of carbon steel. They exhibit fairly good ASTM Specifications
formability and are weldable; however, notch toughness is Table I-1 3 lists 14 ASTM specifications that deal with
poor. These grades are available in most product forms. HSLA steels. Each specification describes the composition
limits, required properties, and applicable product forms for
HSLA Steels with Special Formability one or more grades of HSLA steels. Further information can be
These steels contain very low carbon contents (O. 18% max), obtained through review of the individual specifications.
are usually fully killed, and often use additions of niobium or
vanadium to increase strength, To achieve excellent formability SAE Recommended Practices
and notch toughness, ladle desulfurization and/or sulfide The SAE has two recommended practices for HSLA steels,
inclusion shape control using calcium, zirconium, or rare earth J4 IOCand J 1392. Practice J41OC is currently under revision.
elements are employed. These grades are produced primarily as Practice J41OC.SAE recommended practice J4 10c covers 14
hot and cold rolled sheet and strip; however, a few plate grades grades of HSLA steel intended primarily for automotive
are available. applications. Table 1-14 gives the grade designations of these

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 CHAPTER 1

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TABLE 1-13 TABLE l-13 —Coniinued

ASTM Specifications for HSLA Steels
Specification
Specification No. HSLA Group(s) Specification Title
No. HSLA Group(s) Specification Title
columbium and
A 242 Multiple alloy plus High-strength, low- nickel-copper-
copper, multiple alloy structural steel columbium alloy steels
alloy plus copper
and phosphorus A715 HSLA special Steel sheet and strip:
formability hot rolled, high-
A 440 Manganese-copper High-strength strength, low-alloy,
structural steel with improved
A 441 Manganese- High-strength, low- formability
vanadium-copper alloy, structural A 736 Precipitation Pressure vessel
manganese-vanadium hardening plates: low-carbon,
steel age-hardening nickel-
A 572 Columbium/ High-strength, low- copper-chromium-
vanadium alloy columbium/ molybdenum-
vanadium steels of columbium alloy steel
structural quality A 737 Manganese Pressure vessel
A 588 Multiple alloy plus High-strength, low- plates: high-strength,
copper alloy structural steel low-alloy steel
with 50,000 psi (345
MPa) minimum yield
steels, along with product forms and mechanical properties.
point to 4“ (100 mm)
The second and third digits of these grade designations give the
thick
specified minimum yield strength in ksi. (To obtain the yield
A 606 Multiple alloy plus Steel sheet and strip: strength in M Pa, multiply strength in ksi by 6.895.) Only the
copper, multiple hot rolled and cold maximum carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon
alloy plus copper and rolled, high-strength, contents are specified.
phosphorus low-alloy, with ‘l’he steels designated by the suffix X contain strengthening
improved corrosion elements such as niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen, added singly
resistance or in combination. These steels are usually made semiskilled;
A 607 Columbium/ Steel sheet and strip: however, if killed steel is desired, it may be specified by use
vanadium hot rolled and cold of the K suffix, such as SAE 950XK, The killed grade should
rolled, high-strength, only be selected when improved low-temperature notch
low-alloy columbium toughness is important.
and/ or vanadium Practice J1392. SAE recommended practice J 1392 covers
high-strength hot rolled, cold rolled, and coated sheet steels, and
A 633 Columbium/ Normalized high- will eventually replace J410c for these particular product forms.
vanadium, strength, low-alloy The mechanical properties for the various grades covered by
manganese, structural steel practice J 1392 are given in l-able 1-15 and Table 1-16.14
manganese- A six-character code is used to describe strength level,
vanadium, general chemical composition, general carbon level, and the
manganese-titanium deoxidation/ sulfide inclusion control system. The first, second,
--- and third characters give the minimum yield strength in ksi; for
A 699 Low-carbon
example, 035 is 35 ksi, 040 is 40 ksi, etc.
manganese-
The fourth character describes the general chemical compo-
molybdenum-
sition. The letter A means carbon and manganese only; B means
columbium alloy
carbon, manganese, and nitrogen; C means carbon, manganese,
steel plates, shapes,
and phosphorus; S means carbon and manganese with nitrogen
and bars
and/or phosphorus added at producer option; W refers to
A 709 Columbium/ Structural steel for weathering compositions that include silicon, phosphorus,
vanadium bridges copper, nickel, and chromium in various combinations; X
refers to HSLA compositions containing niobium, chromium,
A71O Precipitation Low-carbon, age- copper, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, titanium, vanadium, and
hardening hardening zirconium added singly or in combination (along with nitrogen
nickel-copper- and/or phosphorus if desired), and that exhibit a 10 ksi (70
chromium- M Pa) spread between specified minimal values of yield and
molybdenum- tensile strengths; Y refers to the same compositions as X except
with a 15 ksi (100 M Pa) spread between specified minimal

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CHAPTER 1

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TABLE 1-14
Mechanical Properties of HSLA Steels Specified by SAEJ410c13

Yield Strength,* Elongation, %

Tensile Strength,
Grade Form and Size ksi (M Pa) ksi (MPa) 2“ (50 mm) 8“ (200 mm)
942X Plates, shapes, and bars 60 (414) 42 (290) 24 20
to 4“ ( I00 mm) inclusive

945A, C Sheet and strip 60 (414) 45 (310) 22 .-.

Plates, shapes, and bars

to 1/2’’ (12.7 mm) 65 (448) 45(3 10) 22 18
l/2to I l/2’’ (12.7t038 mm) 62 (427) 42 (290) 24 19
1 1/2 to 3“ (38 to 76 mm) 62 (427) 40 (276) 24 19

945x Sheet and strip 60 (414) 45 (310) 25 ---

Plates, shapes, and bars 60 (414) 45 (310) 22 19

to 1 1/2” (38 mm)

950A, B, Sheet and strip 70 (483) 50 (345) 22 ---

C, D
Plates, shapes, and bars
to 1/2’’ (12.7 mm) 70 (483) 50 (345) 22 18
l/2to 1 l/2’’ (12.7t038 mm) 67 (462) 45(3 10) 24 19
1 1/2 to 3“ (38 to 76 mm) 63 (434) 42 (290) 24 19

950X Sheet and strip 65 (448) 50 (345) 22 ---

Plates, shapes, and bars 65 (448) 50 (345) --- 18

to 1 1/2” (38 mm)

955x Sheet and strip 70 (483) 55 (379) 20 ---

Plates, shapes, and bars 70 (483) 55 (379) --- 17
to 1 1/2” (38 mm)

960X Sheet and strip 75(5 17) 60 (414) 18 ___

Plates, shapes, and bars 75 (517) 60 (414) --- 16

to 1 1/2” (38 mm)

965X Sheet and strip 80 (552) 65 (448) 16 ---

Plates, shapes, and bars 80 (552) 65 (448) -— 15
to 3/4’’ (19 mm)

970X Sheet and strip 85 (586) 70 (483) 14 ---

Plates, shapes, and bars 85 (586) 70 (483) --- 14
to 3/4” (19 mm)

980X Sheet and strip 95 (655) 80 (552) 12 --

Plates to 3/ 8“ (9.5 mm) 95 (655) 80 (552) --- 10
(Socie[y of Automotive Engineers)
Note: The values of the mechanical properties listed are determined in accordance with ASTM A370 and should only be used for
comparison purposes, not for design guidelines. For specific values, contact the steel manufacturer.
* Yield strength to be measured at 2910offset.

values of yield and tensile strengths; and Z refers to the same O.13T0 carbon maximum. The sixth character describes
compositions as X except with a 20 ksi (140 M Pa) spread deoxidation/ sulfide inclusion control practices. The letter K
between specified minimal values of yield and tensile strengths. means killed and made to a fine-grain practice; F means sulfide
The fifth character describes the general carbon level, The inclusion controlled, killed, and made to a fine-grain practice;
letter H refers to the maximum carbon level, and L means and O refers to other than K or F.

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 CHAPTER 1

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

TABLE 1-15 API Specifications

Mechanical Properties of Hot Rolled HSLA Sheet and Strip The American Pipe Institute Specification 5LX covers high
Specified by SAE J13921J test-line pipe and includes both seamless and welded pipe. This
specification includes yield strengths ranging from 42 to 70 ksi
Yield Tensile (290 to 483 MPa); for example, X42 to X70. Specification 5LS
Strength, Strength, ~ Elongation* for spiral-weld line-pipe covers these same grades and two lower
ksi ksi (2” or strength grades. Steel compositions other than those shown in
(M Pa) (M Pa) 50 mm), the specifications may be supplied by agreement between
Grade min min min purchaser and manufacturer. Niobium and vanadium are often
035 A, B, C, S 35 (240) ** 21 used for higher strength grades, and the pipe skelp is often
035 x, Y, z 35 (240) ** 28 controlled rolled. Further information may be obtained from
040 A, B, C, S 40 (280) ** 20 the specifications.
040 x, Y, z 40 (280) ** 27
045 A, B, C, S 45 (310) 18
045 w 45(3 10) 65 j~50) 25 AISI Sheet Designation System
045 x 45(3 10) 55 (380) 25 The AISI designation system of high-strength sheet steels
045 Y 45 (310) 60 (410) 25 contains three basic components: (1) the minimum yield strength,
045 z 45(3 10) 65 (450) 25 (2) the chemical composition, and (3) the deoxidation practice.
050 A, B, C, S 50 (340) ** 16 A five-character code is used to describe these components.
050 w 50 (340) 70 (480) 22 The first three characters give the yield strength of a given
050 x 50 (340) 60(4 10) 22 grade. Yield strength is categorized in 5 ksi (35 MPa) increments
050 Y 50 (340) 65 (450) 22 from 35 to 60 ksi (241 to 414 MPa), in 10 ksi (70 MPa)
050 z 50 (340) 70 (480) 22 increments from 60 to 80 ksi (414 to 550 MPa), and in 20 ksi
060 X 60 (410) 70 (480) 20 (140 MPa) increments from 80 to 140 ksi (550 to 965 MPa).
060 Y 60 (410) 75 (520) 20 Thus, the designation “050” refers to a steel with a yield strength
070 x 70 (480) 80 (550) 17 of 50 ksi (345 MPa).
070 Y 70 (480) 85 (590) 17 The chemical composition of each grade is designated by a
080 X 80 (550) 90 (620) 14 letter classification: S, X, W, or D. The letter S refers to
080 Y 80 (550) 95 (650) 14 structural-quality steels that contain carbon plus manganese;
(Society of Automotive Engineers) carbon plus manganese and phosphorus; carbon plus man-
* Elongation values are dependent upon specimen geometry ganese and nitrogen; or carbon plus manganese, phosphorus,
(cross-sectional area). Thicker and wider specimens normally and nitrogen. Recovery-annealed steels, except those with the
result in higher percentages. designation X, are included in this category. The letter X refers
** Minimum tensile strength normally does not aPPIY. to low-alloy steel grades containing niobium, chromium,
copper, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, titanium, vanadium, and
TABLE 1-16
zirconium either singly or in combination. Weathering steels
Mechanical Properties of Cold Rolled and Coated
containing silicon, phosphorus, copper, nickel, and chromium
HSLA Sheet and Strip Specified by SAE J139214
in various combinations are indicated by the letter W. Dual-
phase steels containing martensite or other transformation
Yield Tensile
products in a ferrite matrix are designated by the letter D.
Strength, Strength, % Elongation*
Dual-phase steels exhibit very high work-hardening rates, and,
ksi ksi (2” or
as a result, formed parts have significantly higher strengths than
(M Pa) (M Pa) 50 mm),
the original flat rolled sheets. Consequently, the yield strength
Grade min min min
of a dual-phase steel is designated as the strength after a 5%
035 A, B, C, S 35 (240) ** 22 strain; for example, an 80D grade exhibits an 80 ksi (550 MPa)
035 x, Y, z 35 (240) ** 27 yield strength after 5% strain.
040 A, B, C, S 40 (280) ** 20
** Deoxidation practice is also designated by a letter classifi-
040 x, Y, z 40 (280) 25
** cation. The letter F means killed plus sulfide inclusion con-
045 A, B, C, S 45 (3 10) 18 trolled, K means killed, and O means nonkilled. For example,
045 w 45 (3 10) 65 (450) 22 the steel designation 040SF would mean a minimum yield
045 x 45 (3 10) 55 (380) 22 strength of 40 ksi (275 MPa), structural quality, killed.
045 Y 45 (3 10) 60(4 10) 22
045 z 45 (310) 65 (450) 22
050 A, B, C, S 50 (340) ** 16 SELECTION FACTORS
050 x 50 (340) 60 (410) 20 Selection of an HSLA steel for use in a given application
050 Y 50 (340) 65 (450) 20 involves an evaluation of ( 1) properties in relation to the
050 z 50 (340) 70 (480) 20 requirements for the application, and (2) manufacturing
(Sociefy of Automotive Engineers) characteristics needed for the production of the part. Properties
* Elongation values are dependent upon specimen geometry to be considered include strength, toughness, weldability, and
(cross-sectional area). Thicker and wider specimens normally corrosion resistance. In some instances, fatigue behavior also
result in higher percentages. becomes important. Manufacturing characteristics include
** Minimum tensile strength normally does nOt aPP1y. formability and weldability.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

Strength Characteristics Fatigue Strength

The strength of an HSLA steel depends on steel composition Fatigue performance depends on a number of factors
and production processing. However, a characteristic common including loading cycle, material properties, design of the part,
to all HSLA steels is their high strength-to-weight ratio. As was surface condition, and environment. 18 In general, fatigue
mentioned earlier, yield strength is an important criterion for strength increases as tensile strength increases.
selection. Figure 1-3 shows partial stress-strain diagrams for a
low-carbon mild steel (SAE 1010) and an HSLA steel (SAE Formability
950X). 15The higher yield strength and greater elastic range of Formability of a steel maybe defined as the capability of the
the HSLA grade permit its use in thinner gages, resulting in steel to be formed into a useful shape. 19In general, formability
weight savings. [t should be noted, however, that the modulus increases as uniform and total elongation and reduction in area
of elasticity (Young’s modulus) is the same for both grades. increase. As strength increases, formability generally decreases.
Thus, where stiffness, deflection, or buckling is a design Thus, while HSLA steels exhibit good formability for their
consideration, it may not be possible to take full advantage of strength, they are not as formable as ordinary low-carbon
the increased strength of HSLA steels. steels. Table 1-18 presents the relative formability for the
various grades of HSLA steel as described in SAE recommended
Toughness Characteristics practice J410c.zO
Toughness of a steel is the ability of the steel to absorb The formability of steel is usually evaluated by the forming
impact loads by plastically deforming prior to fracture. 16The limit diagram (FLD). The strain-hardening exponent (n) and
toughness of HSLA steels can vary considerably depending on the average plastic strain ratio (7) are also measurements of a
steel composition and processing. In general, toughness steel’s formability. The FLD, strain-hardening exponent, and
decreases as strength increases. Toughness can be improved by plastic strain ratio are discussed in greater detail in Volume 11,
using fully killed steels and through the use of desulfurization Forming, of this Handbook series. It should be noted that the
and sulfide inclusion shape control. The use of controlled formability of HSLA steels is significantly improved by the use
rolling practices or heat treatment also results in good tough- of steelmaking practices that incorporate killing, desulfuri-
ness. The relative notch toughness of HSLA steels specified in zation, and sulfide inclusion shape control.
SAE recommended practiceJ410c is given in Table 1-17.’7
TABLE 1-17
Relative Notch Toughness of HSLA Steels
Corrosion Characteristics
Specified by SAE J410c17
The corrosion resistance of HSLA steels depends primarily
on alloy content as well as on the environment. With the
Order of Increasing Toughness
exception of steels containing copper and weathering steels,
HSLA steels exhibit a corrosion resistance approximately 980X Least tough
equal to that of carbon steel. 970X
965X
960X
955x
945C, 950C, 942X
945x, 950X
950D
($4)
950B
SAE 950X 950A
(:;5) 945A Toughest
(Society of Automotive Engineers)

(;~6) TABLE 1-18

Relative Formability of HSLA Steels
Specified by SAE J410cz0
(;:7)

Order of Increasing Formability

( ::8) 980X Least formable
970X
965X
(~) Longitudinal grain
960X
955x
o 950C
0,001 0 oo~ 0.003 0,-)(34 0.005
0 950D
Strain, in./in. (mm/mm) 950B, 950X, 942X
945C, 945x
950A
945A Most formable
Fig. 1-3 Partial stress-strain diagrams for a low-carbon mild steel(SAE
1010) and an HSLA steel (SAE 950X). (American .Sociely~or Me[a/s) (Society of Automotive Engineers)

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 1
HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS

Weldability tearing results from the action of shrinkage stresses in the

The weldability of HSLA steels is measured in many through thickness (for example, plate thickness and direction).
different ways. It takes into consideration the susceptibility of a These stresses act on thin sulfide inclusions or other lamination-
steel to cracking during welding and the properties of the weld type defects. Control of the amount and shape of inclusions is
and heat-affected zone. In structural applications, most welding the best means of preventing this type of cracking. The
is carried out by metal arc welding. toughness of a weld and heat-affected zone vary with steel
When welding HSLA steels, five serious problems may composition and welding procedure. Each application must be
occur. Three of these—hydrogen cracking (cold cracking), considered on an individual basis.
solidification cracking (hot cracking), and lamellar tearing— Resistance spot welding is used for many sheet applications,
are fabrication problems. The other two—weld metal toughness particularly in the automotive industry. Because of their higher
and heat-affected zone toughness—are service problems.21 hot strength, HSLA steels usually require somewhat higher
The susceptibility of a steel to hydrogen cracking, resulting weld pressures and weld times than low-carbon mild steels of
from absorption of hydrogen into the weld, can be assessed the same thickness. This factor is usually offset, however, by the
through the use of carbon equivalent (CE). As total alloy use of lighter gage HSLA grades. The higher resistivity of
content increases, the susceptibility to hydrogen cracking HSLA steels reduces to some degree the required welding
increases. Table 1-19 gives the carbon equivalent values for current. Generally, higher carbon and alloy contents result in
several HSLA steels and indicates a qualitative estimate of their harder welds that are more susceptible to failure.~~ Thus, lower
weldability.z2 Solidification cracking results during solidifi- carbon, lower alloy HSLA steels are used when spot welding is
cation of the weld metal whenever the last portion to freeze has an important fabrication consideration,
a significantly lower freezing temperature than the bulk solidi- With a few exceptions, HSLA steels are generally weldable
fied material. Shrinkage stresses then produce cracks. The by filler metal and resistance methods. Preheat and postheat are
presence of low-melting-point iron and alloy sulfides that wet usually not required. Table 1-20 ranks the relative weldability of
interdendritic regions during solidification are principal causes the HSLA steels covered by SAE recommended practice
of this type of cracking. High carbon and phosphorus levels are J4 10c.~4 Additional information on welding methods and
also detrimental. Thus, control of the amount and type of practices can be found in Volume IV, Quality Conrrol and
sulfides aids in prevention of this type of cracking. Lamellar Assembly, of this Handbook series,

TABLE 1-19
Carbon Equivalent Values and Manufacturer’s Weldability Rating
for Six Types of HSLA Steel**

Carbon
Specifications
Equivalent Weldability
Steel Type ASTM SAE (J410c) Value Range Rating

Multiple alloy, A242, Type 2 Grade 950B 0.28-0.34 Excellent

low phosphorus A606, Type 4

Multiple alloy, A242, Type I Grade 950D 0.27-0.33 Excellent

high phosphorus A606, Type 4

Columbium A572
A607, Type 1
Min YS ❑ 50 ksi (345 MPa) Grade 50 Grade 950X 0.27-0.33 Excellent
Min YS ‘ 60 ksi(415 MPa) Grade 60 Grade 960X 0.27-0.33 Excellent
Min YS = 70 ksi (485 MPa) Grade 70 Grade 970X 0.34-0.40 Very good

High formability A715, Type 6 --- --- ---

Min YS = 50 ksi (345 MPa) Grade 50 ... 0.18-0.24 Excellent
Min YS = 60 ksi (415 MPa) Grade 60 --- 0.23-0.29 Excellent

Manganese-vanadium A441 Grade 950B 0.34-0,40 Very good

A572, Type 2
A607, Type 2

Manganese-copper A440 Grade 950C 0.44-0.50 Fair

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER

REFERENCES

TABLE1-20 Flinn, Richard A., and Trojan, Paul K. Engineering Materials and
Relative Weldability of HSLA Steels Their Applications. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1975.
Hosford, W. F., and Caddell, R. M. Mets/Forming. Englewood Cliffs,
Specified by SAE J410c2~
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 19B3.
Leslie, W. C. The Physical Metallurgy of Steels. New York:
Order of Increasing Weldabilitv McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Smith, W. F. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. New
980X Difficult to weld York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
970X Steel Founders’ Society of America, Stee/Castings Handbook, 5th
965X ed. Des Plaines, IL: Steel Founders’ Society of America, 1980.
Van Vlack, L. H. Elements of Materials Science, 4th ed. Reading,
960X
MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980.
955X, 950C, 942X
945C
950B, 950X
945x
950D
950A
945A Easv to weld
(Society of Automotive Engineers)

References

1. Modern SteeLsand Their Properties (Bethlehem, PA: Beth-

lehem Steel Corp., 1980), pp. 191-198.
2. Paul M, Unterweiser, Howard E. Boyer, and James J. Kubbs,
eds,, Heat Treater’s Guide (Metals Park, OH: American
Society For Metals, 1982), pp. 447-457.
3. 1983 SAE Handbook, vol. 1 (Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1983) p. 3.04.
4, Modern Steels and Their Properties, op. cit.. p. 6.
5. Robert D. Pehlke, “An Overview of Contemporary Steel-
making Processes, ” Jouma/ of Metals (May 1982), p. 62.
6, Modern Steels and Their Properties, op. cit., p. 43
1983 SAE Handbook, op.cit., p. 2.02.
:: ibid., pp. 2.15-2.17.
9. American Welding Society, We/ding Handbook, 7th cd., vol. 1
(Miami. FL: American Weldina Societv, 1976), D. 137.
10, fiodern Steels and Their Pro~erties, op. cit., p.”61.
11, E. E. Fletcher, A Review of the Status, Selection, and
Physical Metallurgy of High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels, ”
Battelle Report MCIC-79-39 (Columbus, OH: Battelle Colum-
bus Laboratories, March 1979), pp. 5-110.
12. Mets/s Progress 1978 Databook (Metals Park, OH: American
Society for Metals, 1979), pp. 47-59.
13. 1983 SAE Handbook, op. cit., p. 1.75.
14. 1983 SAE Handbook, op. cit., p. 1.77.
15. D. G. Younger, “How Ford Evaluates Conversions to HSLA,”
Metal Progress (May 1975), PP. 43-47.
16. Fletcher, op. cit., p. 40.
17. 1983 SAE Handbook, op. cit., p. 1.76.
18. Fletcher, op. cit., p. 93.
19. Ibid., p. 75”.
20, 1983 SAE Handbook, 00. cit., D 1.76.
21. Fletcher, op. cit., p. 49. ”
22. Do fascoloy High Strength Low Alloy Steels (Hamilton,
Ontario: Dominion Foundries and Steel Limited).
23, Fletcher, op. cit., p. 59.
24, 1983 SAE Handbook, op. cit., p. 1.76.

Bibliography

American Society for Metals. Mets/s Handbook, vol. 4, 9th ed.

Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1981.
Avitzur, B. Handbook of Metal-Forming Processes. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1983.
Bardes, Bruce P., ed, Meta/s Handbook, vol. 1, 9th ed. Metals Park,
OH: American Society for Metals, 1978.
Barrett, C. S,, and Marsalski, J. B. Structure of Meta/s, 3rd ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.
Dieter, G. E. Mechanical Metallurgy, 2nd ad. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1976.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers