International Journal of Medical and Health Research

International Journal of Medical and Health Research

ISSN: 2454-9142, Impact Factor: RJIF 5.54
www.medicalsciencejournal.com
Volume 3; Issue 6; June 2017; Page No. 08-19

Microbiological assessment of indoor air quality of some selected private primary schools in Ilishan-
Remo, Ogun state, Nigeria
*
Enitan SS, Ihongbe JC, Ochei JO, Effedua HI, Adeyemi O, Phillips T
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Babcock University, P.M.B. 21244, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria

Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the indoor air bacterial and fungal density of some selected private primary schools in
Ilishan-Remo of Ogun State at different sampling time of the day using the settle plate method. The outcome of this study shows
that regardless of the sampling periods, all the classrooms of the three private schools examined for indoor air microbiological
quality were more heavily contaminated with bacteria aerosols than with fungal aerosols, with a mean bacterial and fungal count
of: 4378.82 CFU/m3 and 178.93 CFU/m3, respectively. There were no significant differences between the mean bacterial counts
of School 1 and School 2 (P>0.05), whereas the mean bacterial counts of school 1 and 2 were significantly higher (P<0.05) than
that of School 3. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the fungal population density between and within the three
schools examined. The levels of pollution with bacterial aerosols recorded in this study range from high to very high, while that
of fungal aerosols range from very low to high. Aeroflora isolated include: Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase negative
Staphylococcus species, Micrococcus species and Aerocococcus species, Aspergillus species, Mucor species, Penicillium species,
Candida species, Microsporum species, Trichophyton species and Rhizopus species. The concentration of indoor bacterial aerosol
observed in this study which was above permissive standard; underscore the importance of this microenvironment for the high
exposure of children to bioaerosols.

Keywords: indoor air quality, bacteria, fungi, occupancy, temperature, relative humidity

1. Introduction environment and in human beings, hence the quality of air

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is vital to human health because most inside learning facilities where numerous school aged
human activities take place in the indoor environment children and their teachers spend a large part of their life is
including: classrooms, offices and factories [1]. Primary school therefore, an essential determinant of their health, well-being
education in Nigeria is bisected with myriads of problems and life expectancy.
including: poor funding, poor educational infrastructures, The sources of classroom airborne infection or contamination
overcrowding, inadequate classrooms and poor/polluted could be traced to a variety of factors. These include the
learning environment [2]. One of the cardinal objectives of pupil’s own normal flora, uniforms, bags, sandals; as well as
primary schools in a society is to provide a safe and activity of pupils like sneezing, coughing, talking and
conducive learning environment for pupils [3]. However, for yawning [1]. Materials such as cupboards, books and files have
many school-aged children, the outcome is different; they been implicated as viable sources [5]. House-keeping activity
acquire communicable diseases in school. The quality of air such as sweeping or using dry dust mops can aerosolize
inside enclosed spaces like the classrooms where they spend a particles that may contain microorganisms. Infectious nuclei
time period of nearly 7 to 8 hours daily while learning in in air currents and dust may be inhaled during normal
school has become a matter of growing concern today [1]. breathing [9].
While, the presence of microbes in air indoors is a problem The number of microorganisms present in classroom will
from the view of health protection; the classroom depend on the number of pupils occupying the classroom, the
environment represents a congenial situation where amount of physical activity, the rate of air exchange, the
microorganisms and susceptible pupils with their teachers are ambient temperature, relative humidity, level of
together indoors. As stated by Riley, “the enclosed environmental sanitation, type of ventilation, numbers of
atmosphere of a building and its human occupants constitute windows available for cross ventilation amongst others [1].
an ecological unit'’ [4]. No doubt, the air within the classrooms According to [10], maintaining a healthy environment and,
may serve as a reservoir for microorganisms thereby therefore, reducing disease transmission risk should
contributing to the rate of infection among school aged inarguably be one of the key agendas in school operation. It is
children who are more susceptible to indoor air pollutants important to understand the microbial community within
than adults as they are exposed to unidentified amount of public areas and, in particular, within school buildings as poor
indoor air pollutants in school environments [5-7]. health in children impacts on wider society. Against this
According to [8], microorganisms such as bacterial and fungal back-drop, the determination of indoor microbial density is
spores are major indoor biological air pollutants, accounting necessary, and it is especially important in such populated
for 5-34% of indoor air pollution and are almost always areas like school settings. There are numerous private primary
present in all indoor locations due to their ubiquity in the schools in Ilishan-Remo of Ogun state, but unfortunately,
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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

studies on the microbiological indoor air quality of such were collected on Nutrient agar (NA) and Blood agar (BA) to
private primary schools in Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State is which an antifungal agent (Griseofuvin) has been
lacking. This study is therefore designed to assess the extent incorporated to inhibit the growth of fungi; while fungi were
of indoor air microbial contamination in the classrooms of the collected on Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) plates to which
selected schools, as well as to determine the relationship an antibacterial agent (Chloramphenicol) has been
between microbial density and factors such as occupancy, incorporated to inhibit the growth of bacteria. The media
temperature and relative humidity. It is therefore hoped that plates were placed on a table with the sampling height 2m
the outcome of this study will provide data that will be used above the floor which approximated the human breathing
to set standards for levels of acceptable microbial population zone, while the sampling area was at the center of the selected
and can also be used to suggest suitable guidelines that will classrooms. Taking into consideration the variation in
help to decrease microbial density in school indoor air. environmental factors, the samplings were done at three
different periods of the day: 7.30 - 8.00 am (before class
2. Materials and Methods session begins in the morning), 11.30 am -12.00 pm (on
2.1 Study area resumption from recess) and 3.00-3.30 pm (just before school
The study was carried out in three selected private primary closing time).
schools designated as School 1, 2 and 3 located within A set of 3 plates (NA, BA and SDA) were exposed with their
Ilishan-Remo community of Ogun State. Ilishan-Remo lids open, about 3 meters apart and allowed to stay for 30
community is one of the geopolitical wards in Ikenne Local minutes. Triplicate samples for each culture medium were
Government Area of Ogun state, situated in the tropical area collected to ensure sampling accuracy. Afterwards, the plates
of South-western part of Nigeria, coordinates: 7°29′00″N were covered, kept in tight sealed case and transported to the
2°53′00″E. It has a warm-humid climate characterised by two Microbiology Laboratory unit of the Department of Medical
seasons: wet (April-October) and dry (January, February, Laboratory Science, Babcock University and incubated at
March, November and December). It experiences constant 37°C for 24-48 hours for bacteria and at 25°C for 5-7 days for
high temperatures and relative humidity throughout the year fungi as described by [13]. To avoid self-contamination of agar
with a diurnal temperature range of minimum 23-27OC and plates during air sampling, sterile gloves, mouth masks and
maximum 30-34OC, with a mean annual relative humidity protective gown were worn, and before use the agar plates
value of 84%. were also checked visually for any microbial growth.

2.2 Assessment of the physical characteristics of 2.6 Microbiological analysis

classrooms 2.6.1 Determination of microbial density
Without any form of bias, a structured-checklist was Following incubation of culture plates, bacterial and fungal
completed by the researcher to collect data on the physical colony forming units (CFU) were enumerated. Afterwards,
characteristics of each classroom prior to air sampling. the mean colony forming units per cubic meter (CFU/m3) of
Information collected include: School identification number, air of the plates collected in triplicates were determined using
class level, number of pupils per class, number of seats per the following equation as described by [14, 15]:
class, number of pupils per seat, number of windows per
N = 5a x 104 (bt)−1,
class, number of doors per class, number of ceiling fans per
class, if available, area of the classroom in square feet (ft 2), Where
number of standard ceiling tiles per classroom, evidence of  N: microbial CFU/m3 of indoor air;
dampness and molds growing on the classroom wall and  a: number of colonies per Petri dish;
ceiling, level of classroom sanitation/hygiene, classroom  b: dish surface area, cm2;
sweeping and moping routine, availability of well covered  t: exposure time of the petri dish, minutes.
waste bins in the classroom etc. After the microbial density of the resultant colonies on each
plate has been determined, the colonial morphology of the
2.3 Enumeration of classroom occupants different colonies formed were noted and identical colonies
The numbers of occupants (pupils and teacher) present in were sub-cultured into Nutrient Agar (NA) or Sabouraud
each classroom during each sampling period were determined Dextrose Agar (SDA) plates, incubated appropriately and
by head count and recorded. stored for further identification and characterization.

2.4 Measurements of meterological parameters 2.6.2 Identification of bacterial and fungal isolates
A digital handheld battery-powered temperature-humidity Individual bacterial isolates were identified using standard
meter (MEXTECH TM-1 digital thermo-hygrometer with an methods (including: colonial morphology, microscopy and
indoor temperature and relative humidity range of: -10oC - biochemical tests) as described by [16]. While, fungal isolates
+50oC and 20% - +99%, respectively, held at 2 m above the were identified on the basis of microscopic (using
floor level was used to measure the temperature and relative Lactophenol cotton blue staining) and macroscopic
humidity of each classroom during each sampling period. characteristics (with the aid of an Atlas of Mycology) as
described by [17].
2.5 Microbiological air sampling
Settle plate method using three (3) open 8.5 cm diameter Petri 2.7 Data analyses
dishes (60.0525 cm2 areas) containing different cultures were Data were presented using tables and graphs. Statistical
used as described by [11, 12]. This method allows bacteria or analyses were carried out with one way analysis of variance
fungi carrying particles to settle on culture media. Bacteria (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer Multiple Comparisons Test
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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

using SPSS Statistics Software Package (Version 18.0) to test indoor air of three private primary schools in Ilishan-Remo,
for significant differences in the microbial densities of the Ikenne Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria using
classrooms at different sampling time. P-values <0.05 were settle plate method. The mean indoor bacterial colony counts,
considered significant. Data were also subjected to Spearman
temperature and relative humidity of the selected classrooms
correlation analysis using Graphpad In-stat Software Package
to determine the relationship between microbial densities and of School 1 at different sampling periods (7:30 am, 11:30 am
classroom occupancy, temperature and relative humidity. and 3:00 pm) of the day are presented in Table 1. There were
no significant differences in the bacterial colony counts
3. Result and Discussion between and within the classrooms (P>0.05).
This present study assessed the microbiological quality of

Table 1: Indoor bacterial colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day of School 1
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Study Bacterial colony Mean T Mean Bacterial colony Mean T Mean Bacterial colony Mean T Mean CMBCC/C
Class counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) (CFU/m3)
Class 1 5308 28.7 74.3 3687 32.9 65.7 4500 33.7 63.7 4498
Class 2 5979 28.4 74.0 7389 32.9 61.0 4250 33.9 61.0 5872
Class 3 5309 28.5 73.3 3728 32.9 63.3 4375 34.2 61.7 4471
Class 4 6129 28.4 74 5733 32.9 58.3 4340 34.0 61.3 5401
Class 5 5249 28.4 75.3 7996 33.0 64.7 0 33.4 62.6 4415
CMBCC/SP
5595* 5707* 3493
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
28.5 33.0 33.8
(OC)
CMRH/SP
74.2 62.6 62.1
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMBCC/CL = Combined mean bacterial colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMBCC/SP
= Combined mean bacterial colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period (OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).

Also, there was no significant difference between the 7:30 am (62.1%).Furthermore, the mean indoor bacterial colony
and 11.30 am bacterial colony counts (P>0.05), whereas there counts, temperature and relative humidity of the selected
were significant differences (P<0.05) between the 7:30 am classrooms of School 2 at different sampling periods (7:30
and 3:00 pm bacterial colony counts; as well as between the am, 11:30 am and 3:00 pm) of the day are presented in Table
11:30 am and 3: 00 pm bacterial colony counts. While the 2. There were no significant differences in the bacterial
mean temperature of the classrooms increased non- colony counts between and within the classrooms (P>0.05).
significantly (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am However, there were significant differences between the 7:30
(28.5OC), 11:30 am (33.0 OC) and 3:00 pm (33.8OC), the am and 11.30 am bacterial colony counts; as well as between
mean relative humidity of the classrooms decreased non- the 7:30 am and 3: 00 pm bacterial colony counts (P<0.05);
significantly (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am but, there was no significant difference between the 11:30 am
(74.2%), 11:30 am (62.6%) and 3:00 pm and 3: 00 pm bacterial colony counts (P>0.05).

Table 2: Indoor bacterial colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day at School 2
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Study Bacterial colony Mean T Mean Bacterial colony Mean T Mean Bacterial colony Mean T Mean CMBCC/C
Class counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) (CFU/m3)
Class 1 6666 29.3 74.3 7299 33.6 65.0 4871 33.3 65 6279
Class 2 2709 29.3 74.3 5679 33.6 61.3 4394 34.2 63.3 4261
Class 3 1827 29.4 74.0 6298 33.3 62.3 7590 33.3 64.7 5238
Class 4 1208 29.3 74.0 9111 33.1 64.7 9860 34.2 63.7 6726
Class 5 1932 29.4 112 3873 33.5 65.3 6064 33.8 58.3 3956
CMBCCPP
2868 6452* 6556*
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
29.3 33.4 33.8
(OC)
CMRH/SP
81.7 63.7 63.0
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMBCC/CL = Combined mean bacterial colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMBCC/SP
= Combined mean bacterial colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period (OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).

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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

While the combined mean temperature of the classrooms colony counts between and within the classrooms in School 3
increased non-significantly (P>0.05) across the sampling (P>0.05). Also, there were no significant differences in the
periods: 7:30 am (29.3OC), 11:30 am (33.4OC) and 3:00 pm bacterial colony counts between and within the sampling
(33.8OC), the combined mean relative humidity of the periods of the day (P>0.05). While the mean temperature of
classrooms decreased non-significantly (P>0.05) across the the classrooms increased non-significantly (P>0.05) across
sampling periods: 7:30 am (81.7%), 11:30 am (63.7%) and the sampling periods: 7:30 am (27.9 OC), 11:30 am (28.3OC)
3:00 pm (63.0%). In addition, the mean indoor bacterial and 3:00 pm (33.1OC), the mean relative humidity of the
colony counts, temperature and relative humidity of the classrooms decreased non-significantly (P>0.05) across the
selected classrooms of School 3 at different sampling periods sampling periods: 7:30 am (80.1%), 11:30 am (75.8%) and
(7:30 am, 11:30 am and 3:00 pm) of the day are presented in 3:00 pm (62.7%).
Table 3. There were no significant differences in the bacterial

Table 3: Indoor bacterial colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day of School 3
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Study Bacterial colony Mean T Mean RH Bacterial colony Mean T Mean RH Bacterial colony Mean T Mean RH CMBCC/C
Class counts (CFU/m3) (oC) (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) (%) (CFU/m3)
Class 1 2552 28.1 76 1103 29.1 76 903 33.2 66 1519
Class 2 7848 27.9 83.3 2321 27.8 74.6 2835 33.5 66.7 4335
Class 3 2594 27.9 80.3 1397 28.3 75.6 3509 33.7 63 2500
Class 4 1712 27.9 79 6977 28.4 76 4364 34.2 61 4351
Class 5 2258 27.7 81.7 2037 28.1 77 1281 30.9 57 1858
CMBCC/SP
3393* 2767 2578
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
27.9 28.3 33.1
(OC)
CMRH/SP
80.1 75.8 62.7
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMBCC/CL = Combined mean bacterial colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMBCC/SP
= Combined mean bacterial colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period (OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).

On the other hand, the mean indoor fungal colony counts, temperature of the classrooms increased non-significantly
temperature and relative humidity of the selected classrooms (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am (28.5 OC),
of School 1 at different sampling periods (7:30 am, 11:30 am 11:30 am (33.0OC) and 3:00 pm (33.8OC), the mean relative
and 3:00 pm) of the day are presented in Table 4. humidity of the classrooms decreased non-significantly
There were no significant differences in the fungal colony (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am (74.2%), 11:30
counts between and within the classrooms in School 1 am (62.6%) and 3:00 pm (62.1%).
(P>0.05). Still, there were no significant differences between Furthermore, the mean indoor fungal colony counts,
the 7:30 am and 11:30 am fungal colony counts; but there temperature and relative humidity of the selected classrooms
were significant differences between the 7:30 am and 3:00 pm of School 2 at different sampling periods (7:30 am, 11:30 am
fungal colony counts, as well as between the 11:30 am and and 3:00 pm) of the day are presented in Table 5.
3:00 pm fungal colony counts (P<0.05). While the mean

Table 4: Indoor fungal colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day of School 1.
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Study Fungal colony Mean T Mean Fungal colony Mean T Mean Fungal colony Mean T Mean CMFCC/C
Class counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) (CFU/m3)
Class 1 0 28.7 74.3 700 32.9 63.7 0 33.7 65.7 233
Class 2 245 28.4 74.0 450 32.9 61 0 33.9 61 232
Class 3 326 28.5 73.3 967 32.9 61.7 0 34.2 63.3 431
Class 4 276 28.4 74.0 0 32.9 61.3 0 34.0 58.3 276
Class 5 189 28.4 75.3 462 33.0 62.6 0 33.4 64.7 217
CMFCC/SP
207 516* 0
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
28.5 33.0 33.8
(OC)
CMRH/SP
74.2 62.6 62.1
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMFCC/CL = Combined mean fungal colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMFCC/SP =
Combined mean fungal colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period ( OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).

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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the fungal (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am (81.7%), 11:30
colony counts between and within the classrooms in School 2, am (63.7%) and 3:00 pm (63.0%). Still, the mean indoor
but there were significant differences between the 7:30 am fungal colony counts, temperature and relative humidity of
and 11:30 am fungal colony counts; as well as between the the selected classrooms of School 3 at different sampling
7:30 am and 3:00 pm fungal colony counts. Howbeit, there periods (7:30 am, 11:30 am and 3:00 pm) of the day are
was no significant difference between the 11:30 am and 3:00 presented in Table 6.
pm fungal colony counts (P<0.05). While the mean There were no significant differences in the fungal colony
temperature of the classrooms increased non-significantly counts between and within the classrooms (P>0.05). There
(P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am (29.3 OC), were no significant differences between and within the
11:30 am (33.4OC) and 3:00 pm (33.8OC), the mean relative sampling periods (P>0.05).
humidity of the classrooms decreased non-significantly

Table 5: Indoor fungal colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day of School 2.
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Study Fungal colony Mean T Mean Fungal colony Mean T Mean Fungal colony Mean T Mean CMFCC/C
Class counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) counts (CFU/m3) (oC) RH (%) (CFU/m3)
Class 1 609 29.3 74.3 21 33.6 65.0 42 33.3 65.0 224
Class 2 294 29.3 74.3 42 33.6 61.3 63 34.2 63.3 133
Class 3 54 29.4 74.0 63 33.3 62.3 0 33.2 64.7 39
Class 4 32 29.3 74.0 0 33.1 64.7 0 34.2 63.7 11
Class 5 420 29.4 112 42 33.5 65.3 0 33.8 58.3 154
MFCC/SP
282* 34 21
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
29.3 33.4 33.8
(OC)
CMRH/SP
81.7 63.7 63.0
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMFCC/CL = Combined mean fungal colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMFCC/SP =
Combined mean fungal colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period ( OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).

While the mean temperature of the classrooms increased non- 7848 CFU/m3, respectively. The highest and lowest mean
significantly (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am bacterial population density was recorded at School 2 and
(27.9OC), 11:30 am (28.3OC) and 3:00 pm (33.1OC), the mean School 3, 5292.17 CFU/m3 and 2912.73 CFU/m3,
relative humidity of the classrooms decreased non- respectively. There was no significant difference (P>0.05)
significantly (P>0.05) across the sampling periods: 7:30 am between the mean bacterial population density at School l and 2.
(80.1%), 11:30 am (75.8%) and 3:00 pm (62.7%). However, the mean bacterial population density at School 1
The ranges of microbial population density in the three and 2 were significantly higher than those of School 3 at P
private primary schools are presented in Table 7. On one value <0.05. The total bacterial population density for the
hand, the bacterial population density at School 1, 2 and 3 three schools range between 2913.73-529.17 CFU/m3 with a
ranges from 0-7996 CFU/m3, 1208-9860 CFU/m3, and 903- mean bacterial count of 4378.82 CFU/m3.

Table 6: Indoor fungal colony counts (CFU) per m3 air at different sampling periods of day of School 3.
Different air sampling time of the day
7.30 am 11:30 am 3:00 pm
Fungal
Mean Fungal colony Fungal colony Mean
colony Mean T Mean Mean Mean CMFCC/C
Study Class RH counts counts RH
counts (oC) T (oC) RH (%) T (oC) (CFU/m3)
(%) (CFU/m3) (CFU/m3) (%)
(CFU/m3)
Class 1 358 28.1 76 542 29.1 76 0 33.2 66 300
Class 2 0 27.9 83.3 403 27.8 74.6 524 33.5 66.7 309
Class 3 102 27.9 80.3 147 28.3 75.6 200 33.7 63 150
Class 4 36 27.9 79 55 28.4 76 42 34.2 61 44
Class 5 96 27.7 81.7 250 28.1 77 0 30.9 57 115
CMFCCPP
118 279 153
(CFU/m3)
CMT/SP
27.9 28.3 33.1
(OC)
CMRH/SP
80.1 75.8 62.7
(%)
*P<0.05 is considered statistically significant.
KEY: T = Temperature, RH = Relative humidity, CMFCC/CL = Combined mean fungal colony count per classroom (CFU/m 3), CMFCC/SP =
Combined mean fungal colony count per sampling period (CFU/m3), CMT/SP = Combined mean temperature per sampling period ( OC),
CMRH/SP = Combined mean relative humidity per sampling period (%).
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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

On the other hand, the fungal population density at School 1, premises is indicated in Table 8. The degree of air pollution
2 and 3 ranges from 0-967 CFU/m3, 0-609 CFU/m3 and 0-542 by bacteria population across the various classrooms of the
CFU/m3, respectively. The highest and lowest mean fungal three private primary schools ranges largely between high to
population density was recorded at School 1 and 2, 241.00 very high; while the degree of air pollution by fungal
CFU/m3 and 112.13 CFU/m3, respectively. There were no population across the various classrooms of the three private
significant differences in the mean fungal population density primary schools ranges largely between very low to high,
between and within the three schools studied. The total fungal indicating that the indoor air of these schools were
population density for the three schools range between predominantly polluted by bacteria population.
112.13-241.00 CFU/m3 with a mean fungal count of 178.93 The distribution of aero-flora in the classrooms of the three
CFU/m3. Assessment of air quality in the selected private primary schools, in Ilishan-Remo studied is present in
classrooms of the three private Primary schools in Ilishan- Table 9.
Remo according to the sanitary standards for non-industrial

Table 7: The ranges of microbial population density in the three private primary schools
Study Area N Minimum Maximum Median Mean Standard error of mean
SCHOOL 1
Bacteria Count (CFU/m3) 15 0 7996 5249 *4931.57 476.18
Fungi Count (CFU/m3) 15 0 967 189 241 77.09
School 2
Bacteria Count (CFU/m3) 15 1208 9860 5679 *5292.17 683.3
Fungi Count (CFU/m3) 15 0 609 42 112.13 46.94
School 3
Bacteria Count (CFU/m3) 15 903 7848 2321 2912.73 529.31
Fungi Count (CFU/m3) 15 0 542 102 183.67 48.93
School 1, 2 & 3 Combined
Bacteria Count (CFU/m3) 3 2913.73 5292.17 4931.57 4378.82 740.40
Fungi Count (CFU/m3) 3 112.13 241.00 183.67 178.93 37.28
*P value <0.05 is considered statistically significant

In all, four (4) bacteria types were isolated which include: Trichophyton spp. were exclusively absent in School 1. Also,
Staphylococcus aureus (SA), Coagulase negative Mucor spp. and Penicillium spp. were exclusively absent in
Staphylococcus (CoNS) species, Micrococcus (MC) species School 2; while, Candida spp., Microsporum spp.,
and Aerocococcus (AE) species; while seven (7) fungal types Trichophyton spp. and Rhizopus spp. were exclusively absent
were isolated which include: Aspergillus (AS) species, Mucor in School 3. School 1 recorded the highest number of isolates
(MU) species, Penicillium (PE) species, Candida (CA) (32), followed by School 2 (31), while School 3 recorded the
species, Microsporum (MS) species, Trichophyton (TR) lowest number of isolates (25).
species and Rhizopus (RH) species. Penicillium spp. and

Table 8: Assessment of air quality in the selected classrooms of the three private Primary schools in Ilishan-Remo according to the sanitary
standards for non-industrial premises
Sampling Sites and time
Degree of
Study Range of values Primary 1 Primary 2 Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5
Air
area (CFU/m3) 7: 30 11: 30 3: 00 7: 30 11: 30 3: 00 7: 30 11: 30 3: 00 7: 30 11: 30 3: 00 7: 30 11: 30 3: 00
Pollution
am am pm am am pm am am pm am am pm am am pm
School 1
<25 Very Low √
25-100 Low
Bacteria 100-500 Intermediate
500-2000 High
>2000 Very high √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
<25 Very Low √ √ √ √ √ √ √
25-100 Low
Fungi 100-500 Intermediate √ √ √ √ √ √
500-2000 High √ √
>2000 Very high
School 2
Bacteria <25 Very Low
25-100 Low
100-500 Intermediate
500-2000 High √ √ √

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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

>2000 Very high √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Fungi <25 Very Low √ √ √ √ √
25-100 Low √ √ √ √ √ √ √
100-500 Intermediate √ √
500-2000 High √
>2000 Very high

School 3
Bacteria <25 Very Low
25-100 Low
100-500 Intermediate
500-2000 High √ √ √ √ √
>2000 Very high √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Fungi <25 Very Low √ √ √
25-100 Low √ √ √ √
100-500 Intermediate √ √ √ √ √ √
500-2000 High √ √
>2000 Very high
NB: ≤ 500 CFU/m3 is the permissive standard

Figures 1-6 are graphs showing the correlations between temperature and relative humidity) and microbial counts of
human/environmental factors (classroom occupancy, indoor the three private primary schools.

Table 9: Distribution of aero-flora in the classrooms of the three private primary schools, in Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State.
Bacterial isolates Fungal isolates No. of isolates
SA CoNS MC AE AS MU PE CA MS TR RH Per class
School 1
Primary 1 + + - + + - - - + - + 6
Primary 2 + + + + + + - + + - + 9
Primary 3 + - + + + - - + + - + 7
Primary 4 + - + + - - - + - - + 5
Primary 5 - + + - + - - - + - + 5
Total = 32
School 2
Primary 1 + + + - + - - + + + - 7
Primary 2 + + + + + - - + + + - 8
Primary 3 + + + - + - - - + - + 6
Primary 4 + + - - + - - - + - + 5
Primary 5 + + - - + - - - + + - 5
Total = 31
School 3
Primary 1 + - + - + + + - - - 5 -
Primary 2 + + - + + + + - - - 6 -
Primary 3 + + - + + - + - - - 5 -
Primary 4 + + + - + - - - - - 4 -
Primary 5 - + - + + + + - - - 5 -
Total = 25
KEYS: SA = S. aureus, CoNS = Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus, MC = Micrococcus spp., AE = Aerococcus spp., AS = Aspergillus spp.,
MU = Mucor spp., PE = Penicillium spp., CA = Candida spp., MS = Microsporium spp., TR = Trichophyton spp., RH = Rhizopus spp., + =
Present, - = Absent.

The mean bacterial count (4378.82 CFU/m3) recorded in this rooms of 15 schools and day-care centers in Denmark [19].
study was higher than the ones previously reported by other reported a mean bacterial count of 519 CFU/m3 for 10 schools
researchers. For instance, [18] reported a mean bacterial count in the same Denmark. In Sweden, [20] reported a mean
of 1538 CFU/m3/carpets and 840 CFU/m3/no carpets in the bacterial count of 900 CFU/m3 for 38 schools.

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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

38

37

36

35

Class occupancy
34

33

32

31

30
1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500
Bacterial count

Fig 1: Graph showing the correlation between the combined classroom occupancy and bacterial count (CFU/m3) of the three private Primary
Schools. Classroom occupancy correlates with bacterial count by a correlation coefficient (r) value of 0.2336. The two-tailed P value is 0.4021,
considered not significant.

38

34
37

33
36

32
TEMPERATURE

35
Class occupancy

34 31

33
30

32
29
31

28
30
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000
Fungal count BACTERIAL COUNT

Fig 2: Graph showing the correlation between the combined Fig 3: Graph showing the correlation between the combined indoor
classroom occupancy and fungal count (CFU/m3). of the three temperature (oC) and bacterial count (CFU/m3) of the three Private
Private Primary Schools. Classroom occupancy correlates with Primary Schools. Indoor temperature correlates with bacterial count
fungal count by a correlation coefficient (r) value of 0.1078. The by a correlation coefficient (r) value of 0.3368, the two-tailed P
two-tailed P value is 0.7023, considered not significant. value is 0.0237, considered significant).

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International Journal of Medical and Health Research

110 110

105 105

100 100

95 95

REL. HUMIDITY
REL. HUMIDITY

90 90

85
85
80
80
75
75
70
70
65
65
60
60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 FUNGAL COUNT
BACTERIAL COUNT
Fig 6: Graph showing the correlation between the combined indoor
Fig 4: Graph showing the correlation between the combined indoor relative humidity (%) and fungal count (CFU/m3) of the three
relative humidity (%) and bacterial count (CFU/m3) of the three Private Primary Schools. Relative humidity correlates with fungal
Private Primary Schools. Relative humidity correlates with bacterial count by a correlation coefficient (r) value of 0.2219, the two-tailed
count by a correlation coefficient (r) value of - 0.3139, the two-tailed P value is 0.1429, considered not significant.
P value is 0.0357, considered significant.
Still, [21] reported mean bacterial concentrations of 782 and
621 CFU/m3 in a science classroom and in an art classroom,
34 respectively, from an USA school [22]. Reported an average
bacterial concentration of 1025 CFU/m3 in indoor air of 5
primary schools from Malaysia. While [23] registered a mean
33
winter indoor value of 1984 CFU/m3 and 2784 CFU/m3 for
primary schools in rural and urban settings, respectively.
32 Furthermore, the mean fungal count (178.93 CFU/m3)
TEMPERATURE

recorded in this study varied when compared with those of

previous studies. On one hand, the mean fungal count was
31 higher than the ones previously reported by some researchers.
A work conducted by [18] in 15 schools and day-care centers in
30 Denmark reported a mean fungal level of 155 CFU/m3/no
carpet in the rooms. While, [24] reported a mean fungal level of
100 CFU/m3 for a research conducted in 10 schools in Paris.
29 According to [25], the fungal concentration was <30 CFU/m3
for 7 schools in Norway.
28
On the other hand, the mean fungal count recorded in this
study was found to be lower than some previous reports. For
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 instance, [18] reported a mean fungal level of 291
FUNGAL COUNT CFU/m3/carpets in 15 schools and day-care centers in
Denmark [26]. Investigated air-bone fungi in 13 classrooms of
Fig 5: Graph showing the correlation between the combined indoor 6 Florida schools during summer and reported indoor fungal
temperature (OC) and fungal count (CFU/m3) of the three Private levels with mean value of 475 CFU/m3. Still, a study
Primary Schools. Temperature correlates with fungal count by a conducted by [20] in 96 classrooms in 38 randomly selected
correlation coefficient (r) value of -0.1639, the two-tailed P value is
0.2819, considered not significant).
schools in Sweden, reported mean values of 500 CFU/m3 [21].

16
International Journal of Medical and Health Research

Reported fungi concentrations of 561 and 811 CFU/m3 in a humidity are two important factors for fungal spore
science classroom and in an art room, respectively, from an generation, release and dispersal; particularly in indoor
USA school. Also, [27] registered an average of 10375 environments. The indoor temperature range suggested by the
CFU/m2/h in the indoors of the studied classrooms. While [28] ASHRAE standard 55 [36, 37] I must be between 23 and 26°C,
reported culturable fungal counts ranging from 268-2089 while, the recommended indoor relative humidity must be
cfu/m3 in the three schools studied [23]. The last, but not the between 30% and 70%. The combined mean indoor
least reported an average of 717 CFU/m3 and 2248 CFU/m3 temperature values of the three private primary schools
indoor level of fungi measured in winter and summer, obtained in this study at different sampling time of the day:
respectively. 7:30 am (28.5OC), 11:30 am (31.6OC) and 3:00 pm (33.6OC);
It is very important to mention here that, there is no uniform were not above the maximum acceptable value (34 OC), but
international standard available on levels and acceptable they were also not within comfort range. On the other hand,
maximum bioaerosol loads [29], besides, different countries the combined mean relative humidity values of 11:30 am
have different standards. The work conducted by a WHO (67.4%) and 3:00 pm (62.6%) were within comfort range,
expert group on assessment of health risks of biological except for the 7:30 am (78.7%), which still, did not exceed
agents in indoor environments has set the guidelines of the maximum acceptable value (84%). The outcome of this
bioaerosol counts at 500 cfu/m3, if higher than this, the study shows that bacterial count, rather than fungal count is
environment is considered as contaminated [30]. The strongly associated with indoor temperature and relative
quantitative interpretation of the results (Table 8) describing humidity with P-value <0.05. This finding agrees with the
the indoor air quality in the classrooms of the three private reports of [38, 39]. However, in a study by [40], they found out
schools were evaluated based on the sanitary standards for that relative humidity exaggerated fungi levels more than
non-industrial premises formulated by the European temperature did.
Commission in 1993 [31]. According to this classification, all With regards to ventilation, most of the classrooms examined
the classrooms of the three private schools examined for were either moderately or poorly ventilated. The classrooms
bacterial aerosols at different time of the day were not in of School 1 had either 2 or 4 windows and between 1-3
hygienic conditions. Most of them were rated to be either ceiling fans. While the classrooms of School 2 had between
highly or very highly polluted as the values obtained clearly 1-3 windows, with no single ceiling fan. Also all the
exceed the permissive standard of 500 CFU/m3 for indoor classrooms examined in School 3 had 4 windows each, but no
environments, except for class 5 of School 1 with no bacterial ceiling fans. Inadequate ventilation has been reported to be
growth recorded at 3:00 pm. However for fungal aerosols, the one of the causes of poor indoor air quality of classrooms [41,
42]
levels of pollution range from very low to high. . It leads to the accumulation of pollutants from different
The number of pupils per classroom in relation to the sources and may increase the incidence of symptoms among
classroom area, ambient temperature, relative humidity, poor building occupants. Poor ventilation may also indirectly
ventilation, increased indoor traffic, together with poor contribute to moisture damage in a building by increasing the
sanitary measures as at the time of this study might be risk of condensation of water [43].
responsible for the level of air pollution recorded in this Another remote factor that can impact on indoor air quality is
study. poor sanitary measures. The level of classroom sanitation in
Regarding the relationship between the density of occupants School 1 was rated between intermediate and high. The
and the concentration of indoor aeroflora, a correlation classrooms are swept and mopped daily. Waste bin was
between bacteria count and number of persons in a classroom particularly lacking in one of the classrooms and where
has been previously reported by [32]. However in this present available, it may be left uncovered. On the other hand, the
study, there was no significant correlation between classroom level of classroom sanitation in School 2 was rate between
occupancy and microbial counts. It is worth knowing that the low and intermediate. Although the classrooms are swept
allowable number of pupils per classroom varies from one daily, routine mopping of the floor is not been done.
country to another. In Nigeria, for the purpose of effective Similarly, waste bins were either lacking or available, with or
teaching and learning, the allowable number of pupils for a without cover. The level of classrooms sanitation in School 3
standard classroom with an area of 50m2 or 538 ft2 according was also rated between low and intermediate, with features
to the National Policy on Education of the Federal Republic similar to those of School 2.
of Nigeria [33], is officially pegged at 35, although some well In addition, physical assessment of the classrooms also shows
populated schools especially in urban areas may be close to that one or two classrooms in School 1and 2 had evidences of
50 if not more [34]. In this study, it was observed that most of dampness on the wall or ceiling. Also, one of the classrooms
the classrooms examined had less than 35 pupils each, only in School 2 and 3 had evidence of molds growing on the wall
one classroom in School 1 had exactly 35 pupils, while or ceiling. This agrees with the report of [44, 45], who both
another had above 35. Howbeit, none of the classroom made the observation that moisture is a predisposing factor to
examined had a standard area of 538 ft2. The classroom area fungal growth on school buildings.
of School 1 was 181 ft2, while that of School 2 and 3 ranges Regarding the distribution of aero-flora in the classrooms of
between 120-459 ft2 and 289-378 ft2, respectively. These the three private primary schools, in Ilishan-Remo studied,
classroom areas appear not to be proportionate with the four (4) bacteria types were isolated which include:
occupant density and hence, could be partly responsible for Staphylococcus aureus (SA), Coagulase negative
the concentration of indoor aeroflora recorded in this study. Staphylococcus (CoNS) species, Micrococcus (MC) species
Furthermore, airborne bacterial counts have been found to be and Aerocococcus (AE) species; while seven (7) fungal types
directly associated with temperature and relative humidity [35]. were isolated which include: Aspergillus (AS) species, Mucor
Also, it is an established fact that temperature and relative (MU) species, Penicillium (PE) species, Candida (CA)
17
International Journal of Medical and Health Research

species, Microsporum (MS) species, Trichophyton (TR) 7. Naruka K, Gaur J. Microbial air contamination in a
species and Rhizopus (RH) species. The outcome of this School. In. J Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 2013; 2(12):404-
present study partly agrees with the work of [46], who reported 410.
Micrococcus, but disagrees with the same, who also reported 8. Soto T, García-Murcia RM, Franco A, Vicente-Soler J,
Bacillus species and pigmented gram negative rods such as Cansado J, Gacto M. Indoor airborne microbial load in a
Flavobacterium species and coryneforms. It also agrees with Spanish university (University of Murcia, Spain). Anales
the work of [47] who reported principally species of de Biologia. 2009; 31:109-115.
Staphylococcus and Micrococcus, except for Difteroides in 9. Sharma PD. Aeromicrobiology In: Environmental
Italian classrooms. It also agrees with the report of [24], on microbiology. Alpha Science international Ltd, UK,
Staphylococcus auerus, except for Escherichia coli and 2005, 52-65.
Streptococcus D. Similarly, it agrees with the report of [48] on 10. Kumari NK, Shravanthi CM, Reddy TB. Identification
Staphylococcus, but disagrees with the same on and assessment of airborne bacteria in selected school
Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella and Escherichia as environments in Visakhapatnam, India. Ind. J Sci. Res.
the dominant bacteria genera. and tech. 2015; 3(6):21-25.
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[49]
who both isolated moulds belonging to the genera: 2000; 46:241-256.
Penicillium and Aspergillus from the indoor air of some 12. Ekhaise FO, Ogboghodo BF. Microbiological Indoor and
Norwich schools and Danish schools, respectively. It also Outdoor Air Quality of Two Major Hospitals in Benin
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most common fungal genera isolated, except for School. In. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 2013; 2(12):404-
Cladosporium and Actinobacteria. Still, it agrees with the 410.
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