CHAPTER TWO

Composites Classification, Their Manufacturing Methods and Applications

LECTURE : 3: CHAPTER TWO

Print · Feb 2024.

Instructor: Dr. Ayad Albadrany.

E.mail: ayadaied@ uoanbar.edu.iq

Classification of Composites
How are composites classified?

Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement, such as

particulate, flake, and fibers (Figure 1.8) — or by the type of matrix, such
as polymer, metal, ceramic, and carbon.

• Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices such as

alloys and ceramics. They are usually isotropic because the particles are
added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages such as improved
strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation resistance, etc. Typical
examples include use of aluminum particles in rubber; silicon carbide
particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and cement to make concrete.
• Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical flake
materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver. Flake composites provide
advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural modulus,* higher strength,
and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and only a limited
number of materials are available for use.

• Fiber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous)

or long (continuous) fibers. Fibers are generally anisotropic† and examples
include carbon and aramids. Examples of matrices are resins such as epoxy,
metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such as calcium–alumino silicate.
Continuous fiber composites are emphasized in this book and are further
discussed in this chapter by the types of matrices: polymer, metal, ceramic,
and carbon. The fundamental units of continuous fiber matrix composite
are unidirectional or woven fiber laminas. Laminas are stacked on top of
each other at various angles to form a multidirectional laminate.

• Nanocomposites consist of materials that are of the scale of nanometers

(10–9 m). The accepted range to be classified as a nanocomposite is that one
of the constituents is less than 100 nm. At this scale, theproperties of
materials are different from those of the bulk material. Generally, advanced
composite materials have constituents on the microscale (10–6 m). By
having materials at the nanometer scale, most of the properties of the
resulting composite material are better than the ones at the microscale. Not
all properties of nanocomposites are better; in some cases, toughness and
impact strength can decrease. Applications of nanocomposites include
packaging applications for the military in which nanocomposite films show
improvement in properties such as elastic modulus, and transmission rates
for water vapor, heat distortion, and oxygen.

Body side molding of the 2004 Chevrolet Impala is made of olefinbased

nanocomposites.9 This reduced the weight of the molding by 7% and
improved its surface quality. General Motors™ currently uses 540,000 lb
of nanocomposite materials per year.

Rubber containing just a few parts per million of metal conducts electricity
in harsh conditions just like solid metal. Called Metal Rubber®, it is
fabricated molecule by molecule by a process called electrostatic self-
assembly. Awaited applications of the Metal Rubber include artificial
muscles, smart clothes, flexible wires, and circuits for portable electronics.
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Polymer Matrix Composites

What are the most common advanced composites?

The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites
(PMCs) consisting of a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane)
reinforced by thin diameter fibers (e.g., graphite, aramids, boron). For
example, graphite/ epoxy composites are approximately five times stronger
than steel on a weight-for-weight basis. The reasons why they are the most
common composites include their low cost, high strength, and simple
manufacturing principles.

What are the drawbacks of polymer matrix composites?

The main drawbacks of PMCs include low operating temperatures, high
coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion,* and low elastic properties
in certain directions.

What are the typical mechanical properties of some polymer matrix

composites? Compare these properties with metals.

Table 1.4 gives typical mechanical properties of common polymer matrix

composites.

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 Give names of various fibers used in advanced polymer composites.

The most common fibers used are glass, graphite, and Kevlar. Typical
properties of these fibers compared with bulk steel and aluminum are
given in Table 1.5.

Give a description of the glass fiber.

Glass is the most common fiber used in polymer matrix composites. Its
advantages include its high strength, low cost, high chemical resistance,
and good insulating properties. The drawbacks include low elastic
modulus, poor adhesion to polymers, high specific gravity, sensitivity to
abrasion (reduces tensile strength), and low fatigue strength.

The glass used for making fibers is classified into five major types, explain each
one.
The letter designation is based on the characteristic property of the glass:
(i) A-glass is a high-alkali glass; it has very good resistance to chemicals, but
lower electrical properties.
(ii) C-glass is a chemical grade, which offers extremely high chemical resistance.

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(iii) E-glass has low alkali content and it is electrical grade. It provides good insulation
property and strong resistance to water.
(iv) S-glass has 33 % higher tensile strength than E-glass.
(v) D-glass has superior electrical properties with low dielectric constant.

The difference in the properties is due to the compositions of E-glass

and S-glass fibers. The main elements in the two types of fibers are given
in Table 1.7.

Give a description of graphite fibers.

Graphite fibers are very common in high-modulus and high-strength

applications such as aircraft components, etc. The advantages of graphite
fibers include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient of thermal
expansion, and high fatigue strength. The drawbacks include high cost, low
impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity.

Are carbon and graphite the same?

No, they are different. Carbon fibers have 93 to 95% carbon content, but
graphite has more than 99% carbon content. Also, carbon fibers are
produced at 2400°F (1316°C), and graphite fibers are typically produced in
excess of 3400°F (1900°C).
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Give a description of the aramid fiber.
An aramid fiber is an aromatic organic compound made of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Its advantages are low density, high tensile
strength, low cost, and high impact resistance. Its drawbacks include low
compressive properties and degradation in sunlight.
Types: The two main types of aramid fibers are Kevlar 29®* and Kevlar
49®†. Both types of Kevlar fibers have similar specific strengths, but
Kevlar 49 has a higher specific stiffness. Kevlar 29 is mainly used in
bulletproof vests, ropes, and cables. High performance applications in the
aircraft industry use Kevlar 49.

Give names of various polymers used in advanced polymer composites.

These polymers include epoxy, phenolics, acrylic, urethane, and
polyamide.

Why are there so many resin systems in advanced polymer composites?

Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use:

• Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170°F (77°C),
brittleness, and high shrinkage* of as much as 8% during curing.

• Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.

• Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good

adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and difficulty in
processing.

As can be seen, each of the resin systems has its advantages and drawbacks.
The use of a particular system depends on the application. These
considerations include mechanical strength, cost, smoke emission,
temperature excursions, etc.

Epoxy is the most common type of matrix material. Why?

Although epoxy is costlier than other polymer matrices, it is the most

popular PMC matrix. More than two-thirds of the polymer matrices used in

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 aerospace applications are epoxy based. The main reasons why epoxy is the
most used polymer matrix material are
• High strength
• Low viscosity and low flow rates, which allow good wetting of fibers and
prevent misalignment of fibers during processing
• Low volatility during cure
• Low shrink rates, which reduce the tendency of gaining large shear
stresses of the bond between epoxy and its reinforcement
• Available in more than 20 grades to meet specific property and processing
requirements.

Polymers are classified as thermosets and thermoplastics. What is the

difference between the two? Give some examples of both.
Thermoset polymers are insoluble and infusible after cure because the
chains are rigidly joined with strong covalent bonds; thermoplastics are
formable at high temperatures and pressure because the bonds are weak and
of the van der Waals type.
Typical examples of thermoset include epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, and
polyamide;

Thermosetting Plastic Advantages:

• More resistant to high temperatures
• Highly flexible design
• Thick to thin wall capabilities
• High levels of dimensional stability
• Cost-effective
Thermosetting Plastics Disadvantages:
• Can’t be recycled
• More difficult to surface finish
• Can’t be remolded or reshaped

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 Typical examples of thermoplastics include polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyether–ether–ketone (PEEK), and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS).

Thermoplastic Advantages:
• Highly recyclable
• High-Impact resistance
• Reshaping capabilities
• Chemical resistant
• Aesthetically superior finishes
• Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options
Thermoplastic Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Can melt if heated.

What are Current Manufacturing Methods of Polymer Matrix Composites?

1) Hand Lay-up Technique:

Hand layup is an oldest open-mold process used for the composite manufacturing.
This process is simple, and it is a low-volume and labor-intensive process. Large
components, such as boat hulls, can be prepared by this technique. Reinforcing
mat or woven fabric or roving is placed manually in the open mold, and resin is
poured, brushed, or sprayed over and into the glass plies. Squeegees or rollers are
used to remove the entrapped air manually to complete the laminated structure as
shown in Fig.1.3. The most commonly used matrixes are polyesters and epoxies
that can be cured at room temperature. The time of curing depends on the type of
polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy-based system,
normal curing time at room temperature is 24–48 h. A catalyst and accelerator are
added to the resin, which enables room-temperature curing of the resin. In order
to get high quality part surface, a pigmented gel layer is first applied on the mold

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surface. Hand layup is the most commonly preferred process for the manufacture
of polymeric composites. Composites were basically manufactured by hand lay-
up process, using a fiber-to-resin ratio of 40:60 (w:w).

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2) Vacuum Bag Molding
In vacuum bag molding, the entrapped air and excess resin are removed using
vacuum. After fabrication of the lay-up, a perforated release film or peel ply is
placed over the laminate. The bleeder ply, which is placed above the peel ply, is
made of fiber glass cloth, nonwoven nylon, polyester cloth, or other material that
absorbs excess resin from the laminate, followed by a breather ply of a nonwoven
fabric.The vacuum bag is placed over the entire assembly and sealed at the mold
flange as shown in Fig. 1.4.

A vacuum is created under the bag, and thus the laminate can be merged by
applying a pressure up to one atmosphere. This process provides a high
reinforcement, improved adhesion between layers, and great control of fiber
volume percent compared to the hand lay-up.
Major advantages of vacuum bag molding are higher fiber content in the laminate,
lower void content, better fiber wet-out, and reduced volatile emissions as
compared to the hand layup. Large cruising boats and racing car components can
be manufactured by vacuum bag molding. Disadvantages of vacuum bag molding
include expensive and disposable bagging materials, labor intensive, inconsistent

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performance, trapped air/volatiles, wrinkles, loss of seal, and requirement of
higher level of operator skills.

3) Pressure Bag Molding (or Autoclave )

Pressure bag molding or autoclave is identical to the vacuum bag molding except
that the pressure, usually provided by compressed air or water, is applied to the
flexible bag that covers the prepreg composite. The application of pressure forces
out the entrapped air, vapors, and excess resin. It also facilitates better wetting of
fibers.
Autoclaves are basically heated pressure vessels. These are usually provided with
the vacuum systems. The bagged lay-up is cured inside the autoclave as shown in
Fig.1.5.

The process of autoclave involves application of higher heat and uniform pressure
on the component during curing, which results in a denser and low void
percentage product. The autoclave equipment and tooling are expensive and it is

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only suitable for high-end applications. The pressures required for curing are
typically in the range of one to six bars and takes several hours to complete the
curing. This method accommodates higher temperature matrix resins having
properties higher than the conventional resins, such as epoxies. Component size
is limited by the autoclave size. It is mostly used in the aerospace industry to
manufacture high-strength/weight ratio parts from pre-impregnated high-strength
fibers for aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles.

4) Filament Winding
This process consists of a rotating mandrel on which pre-impregnated fibers or
reinforcement is wound in the preset patterns. The method provides the best
control of fiber placement.The wet method is shown in Fig. 1.6. Here,the fiber is
allowed to pass through a bath containing low-viscosity resin. In the dry method,
the pre-impregnated reinforcing layers are wound on the mandrel, and then the
component is removed and postcured.

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Conventionally, this process is used to make pressure vessels, rocket motor cases,
tanks, ducting, golf club shafts, and fishing rods. Recently, non-cylindrical and
nonspherical composite parts are also produced by filament winding technology.
Polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies, and phenolics are the typical thermoset resins
used in the filament wound parts. This process is best suited for parts with
rotational symmetry, but it is possible to wind odd-shaped parts using a robotized
winding. It requires special equipment and may result in variation in the part
thickness in case of tapered parts. The tooling and setup cost is high and it is only
suitable for a limited variety of components.

5) Resin Transfer Molding

Resin transfer molding (RTM) is a low-pressure closed molding process for
moderate- and high-volume production. This process basically involves
placement of the dry stack of reinforcement in the bottom part of the mold, and
then the other half is clamped over the bottom mold. For complex shapes,
preforms are used. After closing the mold, a low-viscosity resin containing
catalyst is pumped in, which displace the air through strategically located vents.
The resin/catalyst ratios are controlled by metered mixing equipment and injected
into the mold port as shown in Fig. 1.8.

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The commonly used matrix resins include polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, and
phenolics. Both injection and curing can take place at either ambient or elevated
temperature. In order to have optimum surface finish, a gel coat is applied to the
mold surface prior to molding. High-quality parts such as automotive body parts,
bathtubs, and containers are produced by this method. The variation in injection
pressure has no effect on the quality of moldings. A wide range of resin viscosities
has been successfully molded by this technique (RTM). It can produce laminates
having high fiber volume with very low void contents. It is safe for the health and
environment due to the enveloping of resin. Component prepared by RTM has
molded surface on both sides. The disadvantages of RTM process are need of
heavy and expensive tooling to withstand pressures, limitation in size of the
components, and very expensive scrap parts due to un-impregnated areas.

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