A Dictionary

of the English Bible

and its Origins

The Biblical Seminary 67

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 A Dictionary
of the English Bible
and its Origins

Alec Gilmore

Sheffieald
Academic Press
 Copyright © 2000 Alec Gilmore

Published by Sheffield Academic Press Ltd

Mansion House
19 Kingfield Road
Sheffield SI 19AS
England

Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain

by Bell & Bain Ltd
Glasgow

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available

from the British Library

ISBN 1-84127-068-7
 CONTENTS

Introduction 7
Abbreviations 11

Dictionary Entries 13

Bibliography 189
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 INTRODUCTION

Why a Dictionary?
Several factors have contributed to this book. One is the good biblical
tradition of British nonconformity in which I grew up, with a sound
emphasis on the importance of biblical scholarship and a firm rejection
of anything approaching bibliolatry or fundamentalism, both of which I
associated with people who had either got on the wrong bus or not been
sharp enough to alight in time and strike off in a different direction. So
it was something of a shock to discover highly intelligent beings prepar-
ing themselves for Christian ministry and seeking to explain, let alone
defend, many of the issues which for me had never been a problem.
A second factor was a fascination with biblical languages, biblical
texts, textual transmission and the growth of the canon which I wanted
to share with everybody else. I thought that if only people knew how it
all came together they would handle it differently, enrich their under-
standing and avoid many a heartache. But how? Most people were not
going to learn Greek, never mind Hebrew. 'Text and Canon' sounded
just about the dullest topic you could imagine. Somehow they needed
the fruit of scholarship to arouse their interest.
A third factor was the discovery that once the light began to shine
many of them did want to know more. Some were the product of very
conservative environments from which they longed intellectually to
escape. Some were in congregations finding new light and interpretation
and wondering whether they could safely believe what they were being
told. Some were Bible students who wanted to distract me from what I
was trying to say and force me back to first principles.
A fourth factor undoubtedly was a change of climate. In Britain, unlike
the USA, from the launching of the Revised Standard Version shortly
after the war new translations caught on. J.B. Phillips, William Barclay,
Ronald Knox and a few others saw to that. Not with everybody, of
8 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

course. There was, and still is, a significant rearguard movement, though
nowadays, apart from a tiny if vociferous minority, it amounts to little
more than a choice between the New International Version, the Revised
English Bible and the Good News Bible. So where did all these new trans-
lations come from? People began to argue which was the best, which the
most reliable, and how they could decide which one to use.

Why Another Dictionary?

The story has of course been told before, many times. But it is usually
told in two parts, as the bibliography amply demonstrates. The first part
deals with original manuscripts, their production, compilation and
recognition, and tends to be left to a fairly limited number of specialists.
The other part is the story of the English Bible, from Tyndale to the
New Revised English Bible. This Dictionary brings the two together so as
to see the story whole.
Furthermore, instead of simply telling the story, it offers a work of
reference. Students coming to the subject for the first time and finding
themselves confronted with a mass of technical terms can find them
alphabetically. The curious, wondering what part Coverdale played in
Bible translation and where he fits into the scheme of things, or trav-
ellers wondering whether there is anything of interest in Alcala or
Soncino can check it out before they go. Readers confronted with more
translations than they know what to do with can find potted summaries
to help them to make their own assessments. And those with time on
their hands can work their way through the cross-references and make
their own connections.

Explanations
It is not of course complete. It is of necessity selective, and scholars and
readers with a knowledge of the territory will want to challenge the
selection of topics, and in some cases the explanations given and the
information presented. Nor is it a final and definitive tool. On many of
the issues there is considerable difference of opinion among profes-
sionals and it was never my intention even to reflect them all, never
mind address them. What I have tried to do is to avoid error, acknowl-
edge variety, cover what seemed essential to an understanding of the
issues and encourage readers to use it with an open mind and then pur-
 Introduction 9

sue more detailed and varied study in other places.

The biographical notes, for example, are not intended to be compos-
ite biographies. Many of the people included, particularly scholars of
recent vintage, have many more credits and achievements, including
some relating to the Bible, than have been listed. What I have tried to
do is to note their contribution to the origins and development of the
English Bible, adding only such other details as were readily available to
put that contribution in context.
Text in boxes is of two kinds. In some cases it is anecdotal, legendary,
relevant but peripheral. In other cases it provides examples of the way
in which variant readings occur in manuscripts and therefore affect
translations and interpretations. Since it was not my intention to analyse
and classify the various translations no attempt has been made to list the
differences in the English versions, but where it was helpful differences
between two or three translations, mainly AV and NRSV, have been
noted. Readers who wish to pursue the study further can readily do so
by consulting other translations for themselves.

Appreciation
To the discerning and undiscerning alike it will be obvious that none of
this is the fruit of my own research. My debt to others is considerable
and I make no hesitation in acknowledging it in general terms. I am
indeed grateful for all the careful and painstaking work done by others
and for making my task of compilation so much easier.
The bibliography is intended primarily to acknowledge my sources,
particularly one or two on which I have drawn fairly heavily, and if occa-
sionally their writers can hear themselves speaking this is less my reluc-
tance to paraphrase and more my concern to achieve accuracy of con-
tent by using the writings of those who have worked at it so much
longer and more deeply than I and to make the fruit of their scholarship
available to others who may never find their specialist works. I trust any
who may feel that they have been 'used' will accept this explanation in
a work where regular identification of sources and frequent footnotes
would have been inappropriate. I am indebted to the Cambridge Bible
Handbook (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), for the
'Early Curiosities' (p. 35) and to Edwin Robertson, Taking the Word to the
World (Cambridge: Nelson, 1996), pp. 58-59, for Eugene Nida's African
experience with translation (p. 123).
10 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

At the same time I have included a number of reliable, more popular

and inexpensive works for further reading, most of which are marked
with an asterisk. These are intended for people coming to the subject
for the first time who want to explore the subject further, and in a more
coherent form, but more or less at the same level, and for those who
wish to go one stage further.
My other debts are: to Sheffield Academic Press for their initial
encouragement and for trusting me with the venture as well as for many
helpful suggestions in the course of production; to Richard Coggins, a
friend of many years who has given freely of his time, knowledge, wis-
dom and experience, sometimes to prevent me from making mistakes,
sometimes to point me in the right direction for further information and
sometimes with straight positive suggestions for improvement; to Edwin
Robertson, another long-standing friend whose own writings on the
English Bible have contributed so much to the subject and who read
through the manuscript and also made a number of suggestions for
improvement; to Gerard Norton for technical help with the entries on
Codex Aleppo, Codex Leningrad, Codex Petersburg, Biblia hebraica and
the Hebrew University Bible Project; to Sarah Dobson, Librarian at the
Athenaeum; to Christina Mackwell, Senior Assistant Librarian at Lam-
beth Palace; to several members of the library staff at Sussex University;
to the Bible Societies and many others who have responded to my
enquiries for details, particularly in the biographical entries. Without all
this help the book could not have been what it is. For the errors and the
failures, as one always says, the responsibility is mine.
My hope is that readers will find it interesting and enjoyable as well
as useful, that it will enrich their appreciation of the Bible, and that it
will stimulate them to pursue the subject in more detail for themselves.

Alec Gilmore
North Lancing
 ABBREVIATIONS

ABS American Bible Society

ASV American Standard Version
AV Authorized Version
b. born
BCE Before the Common Era
c. circa
CE Common Era
d. died
DSS Dead Sea Scrolls
fl faloret
Heb. Hebrew
JB Jerusalem Bible
KJV King James Version
lit. literally
LXX Septuagint
ms. manuscript
MT Masoretic Text
NASB New American Standard Bible
NEB New English Bible
NIV New International Version
NKJV New King James Version
no. number
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NT New Testament
OT Old Testament
pi. plural
prelims preliminaries
REB Revised English Bible
rev. revised
RSV Revised Standard Version
RV Revised Version
UBS United Bible Societies
v. verse
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 A

Abbott, Thomas Kingsmill (1829- eties*. From 1967 to 1978 he was Direc-
1913). A biblical scholar, originally trained tor of the Office for Common Bible
in mathematics, who held successively Work at the Vatican and one result was
the chairs of Moral Philosophy, Biblical The Common Bible*, 1973.
Greek and Hebrew in the University of
Dublin, and who worked with WH. Fer- Additions. Scribes by tradition, particu-
rar* in the discovery of Family 13 . larly when copying* the OT, copied only,
and precisely, the text, with no amend-
Abbott, Walter Matthew (1923-). A ments, alterations, additions or cuts.
Jesuit who wrote an article in America (an Anything other than the text required a
American Roman Catholic journal) in marginal note. The most common addi-
October 1959, shortly after the publica- tions are glosses , corrections , harmo-
tion of the RSV*, entitled, 'The Bible is a nizations*, variant readings* and scribal
Bond', pointing out that a common changes*, both intentional and accidental.
translation of the Bible 'would be a great They may be remarks, notes on content,
achievement in the history of Christian- sectional headings, interlinear or mar-
ity' and reporting that a group of British ginal corrections and interpolations*,
Roman Catholic scholars had examined though it is not always clear whether
the RSV and found that with no more some interpolations took place during
than 20 changes it could be completely the literary growth of a book or in the
acceptable to Catholics. Robert M. Grant later stages as a result of transmission.
of Chicago University, and President of Scribal changes, however, did occur and
the American Society of Biblical Litera- were of many kinds. Some scribes were
ture and Exegesis, responded by saying not averse to adding words where they
that it would be 'hard to over-estimate' felt something was missing. Some made
the 'unifying force' of such an agreed ver- additions or changes, possibly due to
sion among Christians. Further progress familiarity with the text being copied,
awaited the Second Vatican Council*, possibly having already encountered it in
1962-65, after which Abbott received the other forms in other mss. or translations,
imprimatur for his book on the Council possibly because that was how it appeared
and was appointed personal assistant to in the liturgy of their church. (See Addi-
Cardinal Bea to implement the Council's tions, p. 14.)
proposals for Bible Study with a view to
closer cooperation between the Roman Adulterous Bible, 1631. Another name
Catholic Church and the Bible Soci- for the Wicked Bible*.
14 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Additions
Examples of additions are more obvious in some translations than others.
They are not always apparent in English but sometimes help to explain dif-
ferences between different English renderings.
The addition of one letter to the Hebrew "OQtin (tsmny) ('thou hast
delivered me') could give another word ''Dlfttin (tsmrny) ('thou hast
kept me'). Could this explain the difference between 2 Sam. 22.44
and the parallel Ps. 18.43, reflected in some English translations.
The addition of one letter in Isa. 63.2 could have changed the
more meaningful "JCJlD*? (Ibusk) (fWhy is thy garment red?') to
Jff\±h (llbusk) (Why is to thy garment red?').
The addition of one letter to the Greek et)8oKia ('peace, good-
will toward men') in Lk. 2.14 could give e\)8oKia<; ('peace among
those whom he favours') and so explain differences in translation
(see NRSV*) and interpretation and leave us wondering which Luke
wrote.
Some mss. add 'openly' in Mt. 6.4, 6, some add 'to repentance'
in Mt. 9.13 (perhaps following Lk. 5.32), some add 'the scribes' in
Mt. 27.41, while one actually changes Mt. 12.36 altogether by
adding, 'will render account for every good word they do not
utter'.
Some mss. omit the words, 'And Philip said, "If thou believest
with all thine heart, thou mayest." And he answered and said, "I
believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God" ' (Acts 8.37), leading
some scholars to question whether they were added from some
familiar liturgy which candidates for baptism were expected to
utter.
Col. 1.23 describes Paul as a 'diakonos' ('servant', 'minister').
Later mss. call him 'a herald and apostle', and some 'herald and
apostle and minister'. Did later scribes feel the need to enhance his
status?

Aelfric (c. 953-c. 1020). Abbot of Eyn- Agrapha. Lit. 'unwritten things'. As
sham, Oxfordshire, who became Arch- many as 256 sayings attributed to Jesus
bishop of Canterbury and produced the but lying outside the four canonical
West Saxon Gospels*. gospels have been identified by scholars.
Sometimes referred to as 'unknown' (or
Agnus Dei, An, 1601. One of the non-canonical) sayings. Some occur in
smallest Thumb Bibles*, 1.25 x 1 inches, other parts of the New Testament but
containing 128 pages, each with 6 lines most are found in apocryphal gospels*
of text, a running title and a catchword. and other non-canonical sources. Their
The text is a rhyming account of the life connection with the historical Jesus is
of Jesus by John Weever (1576-1632). uncertain and scholars are divided as to
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 15

Some Unknown Sayings of Jesus

1. As you are found, so you will be led away [sc. to judgment]
(Syriac Book of Steps).
2. Ask for the great things, and God will add to you what is
small (Clement of Alexandria*, Stromatas 1.24.158).
3. Be competent [approved] money-changers! (Clementine,
Homilies 2.51; 3.50; 8.20).
4. On the same day he [Jesus] saw a man working on the sab-
bath. He said to him, 'Man, if you know what you are doing,
you are blessed; but if you do not know, you are accursed
and a transgressor of the law! (Lk. 6.5 in Codex Bezae*).
5. He who is near me is near the fire; he who is far from me is
far from the kingdom (Gospel of Thomas).
6. [He who today] stands far off will tomorrow be [near to
you] (Oxyrhynchus*).
7. And only then shall you be glad, when you look on your
brother with love (Gospel of the Hebrews).
8. The kingdom is like a wise fisherman who cast his net into
the sea; he drew it up from the sea full of small fish; among
them he found a large [and] good fish; that wise fisherman
threw all the small fish down into the sea; he chose the large
fish without regret (Gospel of Thomas).
9. How is it then with you? For you are here in the temple. Are
you then clean?... Woe to you blind who see not! You have
washed yourself in water that is poured forth, in which dogs
and swine lie night and day, and washed and scoured your
outer skin, which harlots and flute girls also anoint, bathe,
scour, and beautify to arouse desire in men, but inwardly
they are filled with scorpions and with [all manner of ev]il.
But I and [my disciples], of whom you say that we have not
[bathed, have bath]ed ourselves in the liv[ing and clean]
water, which comes down from [the father in heaven]
(Oxyrhynchus*).
10. Lift the stone and you will find me, cleave the wood and I
am there (Oxyrhynchus*).
11. They that are with me have not understood me (Acts of
Peter).
16 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

their value. One argues that no more into Old English, thus providing one of
than 18 are authentic and another says the first examples of Bible translation into
not more than 10 are to be taken seri- English. He also had a gift for music, and
ously and of those probably no more legend has it that when people did not
than 4 or 5 are likely to be authentic. (See care for his sermons he used to sing his
Some Unknown Sayings of Jesus, p. 15 message dressed like a minstrel and
and Apocryphal Gospels, p. 21). standing on a bridge over which people
had to pass.
Ainsworth, Henry (1571-1622). A
Hebrew scholar, educated at Eton and Aleppo, Syria. Home of a Jewish com-
Caius College, Cambridge, who fled to munity that kept Codex Aleppo* for cen-
Holland where he became minister of a turies.
separatist English congregation in Ams-
terdam, 1593-1622. He translated the Alexander, Alexander (d. c. 1807).
Pentateuch*, the Psalms and the Canti- Member (and apparently founder) of an
cles. His renderings were often too lit- English family of printers and translators
eral to be good English but the Pilgrim going by the Hebrew name of Ben
Fathers took his version of the Psalter Judah-Loeb. One of the earliest Jewish
with them to America. translators of the Pentateuch* into Eng-
lish, 1785. Pioneer of the Hebrew Press
Akibah, Rabbi (d. 132 CE). A Jewish in London and a printer of Hebrew and
scholar whose contribution to the English works for many years, including
restoration of Judaism after the fall of the an edition of the Ashkenazi prayer book
Temple in 70 CE was to fix the Hebrew with English translation, followed by a
consonantal text. He was martyred in the Haggadah (a book of Jewish moral theo-
second Jewish revolt (132-35 CE). logical interpretation) in two editions
and many other liturgical works.
Alcala, Spain. First Greek New Testa-
ment printed here (then known as Alexandria, Egypt. Capital city of
Complutum) under the direction of Egypt in the third century BCE, a centre
Cardinal Ximenes* in 1514, after which for both Semitism and Hellenism, and
it became part of the Complutensian headquarters of commerce and literature
Polyglot*. in the East following the conquests of
Alexander the Great. Traditionally the
Alcuin (735-804). A biblical scholar city where the LXX* originated, also in
who lived at\brk* and was invited by the the third century BCE, in response to the
Emperor Charlemagne to visit France needs of a significant colony of Jews in a
and to prepare a revised and corrected Greek environment. Centre for the lit-
edition of the Latin Bible. French texts erary activities of the early church and
of the Vulgate* being corrupt as a result home to the well-known Catechetical
of frequent copying, Alcuin sent to York School, first under Clement* and Ori-
for more reliable mss. He finished the gen* and later Athanasius* and Cyril of
work in 801 and presented a copy of the Jerusalem*.
restored text to Charlemagne on Christ-
mas Day. He then carefully supervised Alexandrian Text. An early text-type,
subsequent copying. identified by Westcott* and Hort*, dating
from the third century, and found in a
Aldhelm (d. 709). First Bishop of Sher- small group of varied authorities, all from
borne, Dorset, who translated Psalms Egypt, of minor importance and not
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 17

always distinctly recognizable, but at one Allen, William (1532-94). Fellow of

time regarded by many scholars as the Oriel College, Oxford, who refused to
best and most reliable. Most readily rec- accept the Elizabethan Settlement and
ognized in Codex Ephraemi*, the Coptic went to Flanders, where in 1568 he
Versions*, and the quotations of the founded the English College at Douay
Alexandrian Fathers, Clement, Origen , for the maintenance of the Roman
Dionysius, Didymus and Cyril. Once Catholic cause and especially for the
thought to be a fourth-century recension, benefit of refugees who wanted to train
papyri (especially #366 and #)75) now show for the priesthood. In 1578, when the
it to go back to a second-century arche- college moved to Rheims*, Allen left
type. Shorter than some other text-types, Flanders for Rome, where he founded
with few grammatical and stylistic revi- another English College and became a
sions, and noted for its correctness of Cardinal. In 1593 the earlier College
grammar and syntax, style and polished returned to Douay, but whilst it was at
language. Rheims, Gregory Martin* translated the
Douay-Rheims Bible* into English for
Alford, Henry (1810-71). Dean of the benefit of the Roman Catholics.
Canterbury who produced a magnifi-
cent edition of the Greek NT with copi- Allestry, Richard (1619-81). One of
ous notes and worked, like Lachmann*, three Oxford dons responsible for a Para-
to move away from an excessive rever- phrase on the Epistles of St Paul*, 1675.
ence to the Textus Receptus* in order to
discover a more authentic one. One of
American Bible Society. Founded in
five clergymen who worked with Ernest
1816 to translate, promote and distribute
Hawkins* to produce the Authorised
the Bible in areas where USA missionar-
Version of St John's Gospel, revised by
ies were serving. Their decision not to
Five Clergymen*, 1857, and similar revi-
include the Apocrypha* caused much
sions of some of the epistles. In 1869 he
controversy, dating from the Council of
issued a revision of the NT in the AV*
Trent* and the publication of the Kjv* but
and hoped his work would lead to the
setting up of a Royal Commission to changed in the mid-1960s, as a result of
revise the AV. In 1870 the Convocation which there is today considerable coop-
eration between Roman Catholics and
of Canterbury set in motion such a revi-
Protestants in Bible translation. Member
sion which later appeared as the RV*.
of the United Bible Societies*.
Alfred the Great (848-901). More lit-
erary than most kings and one of the ear- American Standard Version, 1901. An
liest English translators of the Bible. American response to an invitation to
Towards the end of his life he published share in the translation of the RV , carried
a code of laws introduced by English ver- out by the American Revision Commit-
sions of the Ten Commandments, fol- tee, set up in 1871, who reviewed the RV
lowed by further extracts from Exodus text as it became available and suggested
21-23. Thought to have been engaged in amendments to make it more suitable for
a version of the Psalms when he died but the American market, resulting in a ver-
no copy has survived. The British Library bal equivalence* translation, not includ-
holds a ms. called King Alfred's Psalter, ing the Apocrypha*, and published by
giving the Psalms in Latin with an Eng- Thomas Nelson and Son, Nashville.
lish translation between the lines, but it is The American Revision Committee
really from a later time than Alfred. consisted of 32 members, representing
18 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

nine different churches (Baptist, Congre- Andrewes, Lancelot (1555-1626). One

gationalist, Friends, Methodist, Presby- of the translators of the AV*, responsible
terian, Protestant-Episcopal, Reformed, for the panel which translated Genesis to
Lutheran and Unitarian), with Philip 2 Kings. Born in London, 1 of 13 chil-
Schaff* of Union Theological Seminary dren, described as a brilliant child of
as President, William Green of Princeton 'honest and religious' parents, probably
Theological Seminary as Chairman for with Puritan leanings. Educated at Cam-
the OT and Theodore Woolsey* of Yale bridge, well-grounded in Latin and
University as Chairman for the NT. Greek, with a lifelong passion for lan-
Terms were agreed by 1875. The guages and subsequently competent in
British agreed to the Americans adding Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic and 15
an appendix to the British edition, set- modern languages. Appointed Dean of
ting out the readings and alterations Westminster, 1601, Bishop of Chichester,
which the British translators rejected, 1605, and Bishop of Ely, 1609. Present at
and America agreed not to publish their the Hampton Court Conference*, 1604.
own edition for 14 years.
As with the RV the underlying Greek Annotated Paragraph Bible, 1838. A
text for the NT is Codex Sinaiticus* and publication of the Religious Tract Soci-
Codex Vaticanus*, reflecting the work of ety, celebrating the 300th anniversary of
scholars like Tischendorf*, Westcott* the placing of a copy of the English Bible
and Hort*. There is little influence from in every parish church.
papyrus mss. because most of them had
not then been discovered. Antiochan Text. See Syrian Text.
Major differences included 'Jehovah'
in place of 'Lord' or 'God', the improve- Antwerp, Belgium. Gave its name to
ment of marginal notes and paragraph- the Antwerp Polyglot*, 1569-72.
ing, a greater consistency of translation Once thought the most likely place for
where Hebrew and Greek words had the the publication of the first English edition
same meaning, avoidance of some bad of the whole Bible, probably Cover-
and outlandish Hebraisms, and the aban- dale's*, but Cologne* is now thought to
donment of certain archaisms of vocabu- be more likely.
lary and diction. Home of the printer, Daniel Bom-
berg*, and probably where the first edi-
Amplified Bible, 1958 (NT), 1964aaa tion of Matthew's Bible was printed
(complete). A verbal equivalence* trans- and published by Richard Grafton*, as
lation based on Westcott* and Hort's* well as a later edition of Tyndale's Trans-
Greek text in the NT and the Masoretic lation and some of the translations of
Text* in the OT, produced by a commit- George Joye .
tee of 12 editors working on behalf of the Home of John Rogers*, who was serv-
Lockman Foundation in California. Am- ing as chaplain to the Merchant Adven-
plified' in the sense that it explores a turers, and where he first met William
range of meaning for each word, thus Tyndale .
adding words to the text and including Tyndale* was kidnapped here prior to
alternative translations to bring out the his imprisonment at Vilvorde in May
meaning instead of making better use of 1535. Antwerp was a free city, but the sur-
the margin or footnotes. More a com- rounding territory belonged to Charles V
mentary than a translation. Published by Holy Roman Emperor. Tyndale's ene-
Zondervan, Grand Rapids. mies could take no action against him in
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 19

Antwerp, but they could charge him with at the Council of Trent*, 1546, reserving
heresy in the Emperor's domains. 'Apocrypha' for a further collection of
texts not included in the Vulgate* or the
Antwerp Polyglot, 1569-72. Eight vol- LXX*, for which Protestants use the word
umes in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Syriac 'Pseudepigrapha'*. This division, and the
with a Latin translation. Mainly an expan- fact that Protestants and Catholics have
sion of the Complutensian Polyglot*. been fairly consistent in their use of
apocryphal texts has, however, led to the
Apocrypha. A collection of sacred texts, widespread impression that the Apoc-
covering roughly the period between the rypha exists as a single collection and
end of the OT and the beginning of the appears in one, two or (if we include the
NT, not included in the Hebrew canon Pseudepigrapha) three forms. This is not
but accepted by the hellenistic Jews and the case. Apocryphal books originated in
taken over by the church as part of the different places, at different times, in dif-
LXX*, plus 2 (4) Esdras, extant only in ferent languages, and with different liter-
Latin and oriental versions. The texts fall ary forms; they also have different rela-
into three categories: tionships with the Hebrew Bible, some
like 1 and 2 Maccabees starting there,
narrative: historical (e.g. Maccabees)
others like Daniel 13-14 being added and
and legendary (e.g. Tobit and Judith).
at least one (the Song of the Three Y^ung
prophetic (e.g. Baruch).
Men in Dan. 3) being inserted. Further-
didactic (e.g. Ecclesiasticus).
more, early Greek Bibles varied in the
Allusions in the NT to books of the number of apocryphal books they con-
Apocrypha are few though the early tained.
church Fathers seem to have treated them Early translators into English adopted
as on a level with the Hebrew Bible*. different attitudes to the Apocrypha.
Greek and Latin Bibles interspersed them Wycliffe* repeated Jerome's* statement
among the canonical books. Protestant that the Hebrew canon alone was of
practice was either to omit them alto- divine authority, but then included the
gether or to print them as a single unit Apocrypha. Tyndale* omitted it except
between the two Testaments. for those passages used in the liturgical
The word 'apocrypha' comes from epistles. Coverdale* put it as a single unit
the Greek, meaning 'hidden' or 'con- between the two Testaments, except for
cealed', and was applied to certain texts Baruch which he put beside Jeremiah.
possibly because they were intended to Matthew's Bible , reprinted Coverdale's
be kept from the public on account of the Apocrypha, adding the Prayer of Man-
doctrines and wisdom they contained, or asseh.
perhaps because, appearing as they did in Controversy in England started when
days of persecution, it was both judicious the Council of Trent, 1545-63* accepted
and necessary to 'hide', 'conceal' or it, grew, with its inclusion in first editions
'code' the meaning. Over the years, how- of the AV*, intensified, in 1615 when
ever, Protestants and Catholics used the Archbishop Abbot forbade anyone to
word differently issue the Bible without it on pain of one
Protestants use it to describe those year's imprisonment, and reached some-
books which are not included in the thing of a climax when Protestants who
Hebrew canon. Catholics describe as (along with the Jews) regarded those
'deutero-canonical' those which were books as inferior, rejected them and
subsequently recognized and authorized printed a version without it following the
20 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Calvinist Synod of Dort, 1618. In 1644 body of the OT whereas the other keeps
the Long Parliament, much under Puri- them in a separate section between OT
tan influence, decreed that only the and NT. Catholics and Protestants, how-
canonical books should be read in church, ever, have always agreed on the main cor-
and three years later the Westminster Con- pus of the canon* and even among
fession of Faith classified the contents of the Catholics the apocryphal books have
Apocrypha as human writings, a policy never been as highly regarded as the rest.
which prevailed in the Church of Scot- Hence, what we have is not so much
land and (on the whole) among the Free controversy as agreement at the centre
Churches. The Church of England there- with some diversity at the margins.
after accepted the books 'for example of At the time of the RV* special commit-
life and instruction of manners' but not tees were set up (1879-84) to handle a
'to establish any doctrine'. revised translation of the apocryphal
Most Protestants today take a more books resulting in the RV of the Apoc-
liberal view and, thanks to a change of rypha, 1894. In 1913 a group of scholars,
policy by the British and Foreign Bible led by R.H. Charles, produced two large
Society and the American Bible Society volumes, The Apocrypha and Pseude-
in 1964 and 1966 respectively, both of pigrapha of the Old Testament, in English, in
which had previously refused to print the the case of the Apocrypha mostly but not
Apocrypha, 1 in 3 out of 500 UBS* Bible entirely following the translations in the
translation projects in 1989 had Roman RV in volume 1, and in 1938 Edgar J.
Catholic participation. As a result differ- Goodspeed* published The Apocrypha: An
ences between Catholic and Protestant American Translation, in modern English.
Bibles today are less sharp, though the In 1952, on the initiative of the Protestant
one still tends to include the books in the Episcopal Church, the National Council

Books of the Apocrypha

When the NRSV and the NEB list books of the Apocrypha they list 15, which might
almost be described as the Protestant Apocrypha. None of these is in the Hebrew
Bible. All are in Latin mss. of the Bible and all except 2 Esdras are in copies of the
Septuagint.
They are:
1 and 2 Esdras Baruch
Tobit Letter of Jeremiah
Judith The Prayer of Azariah and the
Additions to the Book of Esther Song of the Three "Young Men
Wisdom of Solomon Daniel and Susanna
Ecclesiasticus (also called Wisdom Daniel, Bel and the Snake
of Jesus son of Sirach, or ben The Prayer of Manasseh
Sirach) 1 and 2 Maccabees
Roman Catholics regard 1 and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh as apocryphal.
The Orthodox Churches, at the Synod of Jerusalem, 1692, declared Tobit,
Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiaticus, Daniel and Susanna, Daniel, Bel and the
Snake, and 1 and 2 Maccabees as canonical.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 21

of Churches of Christ in the USA autho- to be the Onkelos Targum*. Valuable

rized a further revision of the Apocrypha because its literalism enables us to trans-
which resulted in The Revised Standard late back into Hebrew and so check
Version of the Apocrypha, 1957, the work of other translations but it has survived
ten scholars on the same principles as only in fragments. Irenaeus refers to it
those for the RSV*, with Luther A Weigle* c. 177. Found in Origen's Hexaplar*.
as chairman and Bruce Metzger* as secre-
tary. A further revision appeared with the Arabic Versions. Origins of Arabic ver-
NEB*. (See Apocryphal Books, p. 20.) sions of the Bible are uncertain. They
probably date from the seventh century
Apocryphal Gospels. A number of since prior to that the language of Chris-
writings dating from the same period as tians in Arabia was Syriac, but the oldest
the four gospels (and later), preserving texts are ninth century or later.
many sayings of Jesus (agrapha ) and sto-
ries about him which circulated, first Aramaic Language. One of the Semitic
orally and then in written form, in vari- languages*, closely related to Hebrew,
ous churches and cities in the first cen- originating among the Arameans of
tury but which did not acquire a suf- North Syria, with inscriptions going back
ficiently wide circulation or credibility to to the ninth century BCE and spoken from
find a place in the NT. Many, of uncertain then until the present day. Increasingly
date and origin and often only in frag- the everyday language of the Jews when it
mentary form, came to light in the period replaced Hebrew after the Babylonian
of archaeological exploration beginning at exile in the sixth century, and the spoken
the end of the nineteenth century, espe- language of Jesus and his contemporaries.
cially at Oxyrhynchus* and Nag Ham- Forty fragmentary Samaritan business
madi , and have some value as a reflection documents on papyrus , found in a cave
of early Christianity and the literary nine miles north of Jericho in 1962, illus-
world in which the writings of the NT trate the Palestinian Aramaic script c.
took their shape. Besides 'Gospels' (ac- 375-35 BCE and provide the oldest mss.
cording to Peter, Philip, Thomas , Heb- yet to appear in Palestine, providing an
rews, Egyptians, etc.) there are also Acts' important link in the history of the square
(ofJohn, Andrew, Paul, etc.), 'Epistles' (of Aramaic script between Elephantine* and
the Apostles, and to the Laodiceans), and the DSS*. ('Square' refers to the actual
various Apocalypses'. (See Apocryphal shape of the letters, rather like English
Gospels, p. 22.) capitals. The alternative, or cursive script,
looks more like English longhand.)
Aquila (second century). A disciple of
Rabbi Akibah and a convert to Judaism Arbuthnot, Alexander (d. 1585). An
(c. 125 CE) who made a translation of the Edinburgh* printer who obtained per-
OT from Hebrew into Greek, which mission to print the first Bibles in Scot-
subsequently became the official Greek land in 1575 and the following year was
version of the Old Testament for Jews granted exclusive rights of printing and
living in Palestine. A very literal transla- selling for ten years. In 1579 he pub-
tion, almost a recension or revision of lished the first English Bible to be
the LXX*, using the proto-masoretic printed in Scotland, a Scottish edition of
text*, and reproducing in Greek not only the Geneva Bible*, 1579, after which he
the sense but also the idiom, grammar was appointed king's printer, licensed to
and even the etymology, sometimes to print, sell and import psalm books,
the point of obscurity. Thought by some prayers and catechisms for seven years.
22 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Apocryphal Gospels
Sixteen of the more generally acceptable non-canonical gospels from the
first and second centuries:

Sayings
Gospel of Thomas
A collection of traditional wisdom sayings, parables, prophecies and
proverbs attributed to Jesus and dated c. 200 CE. Widely read and quoted
in the early church. Found at Oxyrhynchus.

Dialogue of the Saviour

A fragmentary document purporting to preserve the sayings of Jesus in
conversation with Judas, Matthew and Mariam and dating possibly from
the second half of the first century. Discovered in 1945 at Nag Ham-
madi.

Gospel of the Egyptians

Sayings, strongly ascetic, attributed to Jesus in quotations from Clement
of Alexandria, dated towards the end of the second century.

Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840*

A single sheet of parchment containing the end of a conversation
between Jesus and his disciples and a controversy between Jesus and a
Pharisaic chief priest in the temple at Jerusalem, found in 1905 and dat-
ing from the fourth or possibly the fifth century.

Apocryphon of James
A teaching dialogue between Jesus and Peter and James, dating from the
second century.

Stories
Secret Gospel of Mark
Contained in a letter of Clement of Alexandria at the end of the second
century but dating from the beginning. The view that it might be an
early and fuller edition of Mark's Gospel (Mark's original text no longer
being available to us) has now been universally abandoned.

Egerton Papyrus 2
Three pages of sayings of Jesus, his miracles and stories of controversy,
dating from the first half of the second century.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 23

Apocryphal Gospels (continued)

Gospel of Peter
A gospel fragment containing a passion narrative, an epiphany story, a
story of the empty tomb and the beginning of a resurrection story, dating
from c. 200 CE.

Gospel according to the Hebrews

A Jewish-Christian document containing traditions of the pre-existence
of Jesus, his coming into the world, his baptism and temptation, some of
his sayings and a resurrection appearance, dating from the early second
century.

Acts of John
A literary romance about the activities of John, dating somewhere
between the end of the first and the middle of the third centuries.

Gospel of the Nazaraeans

An expanded version of Matthew's Gospel, possibly from western Syria,
and dating from the end of the second century.

Gospel of the Ebionites

A gospel harmony in quotations from the writings of Epiphanius (c. 390)
and dating from the middle of the second century.

Book of James
An infancy gospel describing the birth and dedication of Mary and the
birth of Jesus, dating from the middle of the second century.

Infancy Gospel of Thomas

Novel miracle stories purporting to have been wrought by Jesus before
his twelfth birthday, dating from the middle to end of the second century.

Epistle of the Apostles

A polemical document describing a special revelation of Jesus to his apos-
tles justifying their position as against that of their opponents in the
church, dating from the end of the second century.

Acts of Pilate
A Christian apologetic to introduce readers to the claims of the Christian
community, containing detailed accounts of the trial and crucifixion, dat-
ing from the late second or early third centuries and later incorporated
into the Gospel ofNicodemus.
24 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Aristeas, Letter of. A letter written in NT was increasingly being recognized as

the third century BCE, in Egypt, to his a canon of sacred scripture, and Athana-
brother Philocrates, describing the ori- sius was probably the first to use the term
gins of the LXX*. 'canon' in this connection. He also
included some other recommended writ-
Armenian Version. Eusebius reports ings for catechumens. Though very sim-
that the church was established in Arme- ilar in content to the list provided at the
nia by 250 and Armenia claims to be the same time by Eusebius*. Athanasius's list
first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its seems to have much firmer edges and
official religion. One of the most beauti- that of Eusebius more flexibility.
ful and accurate Bible translations,
sometimes called the 'Queen of the Ver- Augustine (c. 354-430). Bishop of
sions'. Except for the Vulgate more mss. Hippo and one of the early church
of this version are extant than any other Fathers. Objected to Jerome's* omission
early version, well over a thousand hav- of the apocryphal books from the Vul-
ing been identified (many in Russian gate* on the grounds that the LXX* and
libraries), covering all or part of the NT, the Old Latin* texts had always included
the earliest version apparently having them and Christian leaders and teachers
undergone a revision prior to the eighth had regularly cited them as scripture.
century. Jerome subsequently translated them
Translated from the Syriac by Patri- but called them 'apocrypha' and distin-
arch Sahug and Mesropius on the basis guished them from the books in the
of the Greek (alongside the liturgy), as Hebrew Bible*, thus according them a
an attempt to assert the national lan- 'lower' status, but since they appeared in
guage and as a reaction to the use of the the Latin Bible most people made no
Syriac in Armenian worship. Proverbs distinction and the whole Greek canon
was the first book to be translated, fol- became the official Bible of the Western
lowed by the gospels and the remainder church until the Reformation. Augus-
of the OT which was completed by 415. tine's canon consisted of 44 OT books,
It contains certain books which else- including each of the 12 minor prophets
where were regarded as apocrypha*, plus Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasti-
including the Testaments of the Twelve cus, Tobias, Esther, Judith, Maccabees,
Patriarchs and a third Letter to the the additions to Daniel and Esther, with
Corinthians. Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah as
part of Jeremiah.
Arundel, Thomas (1353-1414). Arch-
bishop of Canterbury responsible for the Authentic New Testament, 1955. A
Constitutions of Oxford*. translation made by the Jewish scholar,
Hugh J. Schonfield*, who, fearing that
Athanasius (c. 296-373). Bishop of the word 'authentic' in the title might be
Alexandria*. Followed Origen* in saying misunderstood, went out of his way to
that Christians should have all the 22 explain that he intended a translation that
books which the Jews had in their canon broke with convention and tradition and
and promulgated a list of NT books in was 'authentic in accent and atmosphere'.
his Easter Letter, 367, the first example of He did not wish to suggest that no other
such a list which includes precisely the translation was genuine or reliable.
books included today. For this reason it Mark's Gospel comes first, traditional
provides one of the early hints that the verse* and chapter* divisions are ignored,
 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins 25

there is some re-arrangement of passages for the Apocrypha), 2 meeting in West-

within books and the whole has more the minster, 2 in Cambridge and 2 in
appearance of a modern book than sacred Oxford, with authority to call on other
writings. Whilst agreeing that the official specialists as they wished. How they were
versions of the church need to convey appointed is not known, possibly in con-
religious language at its best, Schonfield sultation with the universities. Westmin-
says the original NT records have a ster was responsible for Genesis to Kings
diversity of style, many colloquialisms, and Romans to Jude, Cambridge for
an absence of literary grace and some- Chronicles to Ecclesiastes and the Apoc-
times an infelicity of expression, which rypha*, and Oxford for Isaiah to Malachi,
he is trying to convey in a translation that the gospels, Acts and Revelation.
is both vivid and forceful. Useful intro- The plan was for every translator to
duction and notes supply much helpful translate the same chapters, the whole
information on the Jewish references in panel then deciding which should stand,
the NT documents. after which each book would go to the
other two panels for comment, any differ-
Authorized Version of St John's ences being settled by a general meeting
Gospel, revised by Five Clergymen, of the senior scholars in each panel. What
1857. A revision initiated by Ernest appears to have happened was that 12
Hawkins* which paved the way for sim- scholars (2 from each panel) received the
ilar revisions of some of the epistles. whole, after which Miles Smith* (who
wrote the Preface) and Bishop Thomas
Authorized Version, 1611. Often Bilson* put the finishing touches to it and
known as the King James Version (KJV), saw it through the press. The work began
particularly in America. Prepared in the in 1607, was completed in two years and
England of Shakespeare's time and con- nine months, and was printed in London
taining some of the best English prose by Robert Barker, the king's printer.
and poetry. Most popular of all English Despite its name it was never formally
versions until the latter part of the twen- 'authorized' by anybody.
tieth century when more modern trans- The Bishops' Bible* was to serve as
lations took over for many, though by no the basis but Tyndale*, Matthew*, Cov-
means all, readers. erdale*, the Great Bible* or the Geneva
The result of a proposal made by John Bible* were to be followed when they
Reynolds* at the Hampton Court Con- were nearer the original. Approximately
ference*, 1604. Existing chapter* and 80 per cent of the words in the NT come
verse* divisions were to be retained, with from Tyndale. They also used the Douay-
new headings for chapters. Old ecclesias- Rheims Bible*, the Antwerp Polyglot*,
tical words were to be kept and names with a fresh Latin version of the Hebrew
were to be as close as possible to those in text by Arias Montanus, and Tremellius's
common use rather than transliterations Bible (1579). For the Greek NT they
of the Hebrew or Greek. Words not in worked mainly from Stephanus* and
the original but needed to complete the Codex Bezae though without any sure
sense were to be printed in italics. No principles of textual criticism* to guide
marginal notes save to explain Greek or them.
Hebrew words and to draw attention to After the title page the first edition
parallel passages. contained a fulsome dedication to James
The work of 54 scholars working in 6 I*, a defence of vernacular Bibles, an
panels (3 for the OT, 2 for the NT and 1 explanation of the methods used, various
26 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

tables, a map of Canaan, a table of con- before the AV won. In that time there
tents, chapter and headline summaries, were several editions: one in 1613 had
numbered verses, paragraph signs, mar- 400 variations from the first. In 1629
ginal notes (philological only) and cross there was a more serious revision to take
references. account of certain criticisms, followed by
The inclusion of the Apocrypha* a minor revision in 1638 and yet another
caused many tensions, particularly fol- in 1653, called for by the Long Parlia-
lowing the Council of Trent* and the ment. The more important changes
decisions of the British and Foreign occurred, however, in the eighteenth
Bible Society* and the American Bible century when spellings, punctuation and
Society* not to issue Bibles containing it expressions were all modernized, some
which meant that in practice it was rarely by Thomas Price* of Cambridge and
printed from the eighteenth century. Benjamin Blayney* of Oxford, two great
Change came slowly and not until the modernisers of the diction of the version
Second Vatican Council and a change of from what it was in the seventeenth cen-
policy in the Bible Societies in the mid- tury. In 1701 dates were introduced into
sixties. the margin based on the calculations of
Three folio editions,16 x 10.5 inches, Archbishop Ussher.
appeared in quick succession in 1611, the Its strength lay in the richness of the
first being called The He-Bible*. Heavy language and the vitality of English
punctuation marks were inserted to help poetry, probably best appreciated when
reading in public. There were many mis- read aloud. Its weaknesses were the
prints, one of which has continued to translators' limited knowledge of ancient
today: 'Strain at a gnat' should read 'strain languages and of more recently discov-
out a gnat' (Mt. 23.24). Other misprints ered and reliable manuscripts, the
were soon corrected, like 'he slew two growth of textual criticism*, and the way
lions like ["for lionlike"] men' (2 Sam. in which many English words have
23.20), 'the dogs liked ("for licked") his changed their meaning, some no longer
blood' (1 Kgs 22.38) and 'printers ["for even in use.
princes"] have persecuted me without a
cause' (Ps. 119.161), but three in particu- Autograph. The original copy of a
lar led to the Wicked Bible*, the Vinegar manuscript. No autograph of any bibli-
Bible* and the Murderer's Bible*. cal book is extant. The nearest we have is
It immediately superseded the Bish- the John Fragment* but this and other
ops' Bible for use in churches, but for papyrus* fragments dating from the first
private use it had strong competition in two centuries are evidence for the way
the Geneva Bible and the two versions the NT was being copied and circulated
vied with each other for half a century in the early Christian world.
 B

Babylonian Recension. See Recension. statutes and libels' for life, and 'all books
in Latin, Greek and Hebrew'. His most
Ballantine, William G. (1848-1937). important publication was the first edi-
Member of the YMCA College in tion of the AV*, including the Wicked
Springfield, Massachusetts. Translator of Bible*.
the Riverside New Testament*, 1901, one
of the few translators who referred to Barrow, John (1810-80). Principal of St
other modern translations, particularly Edmund Hall, Oxford, and one of five
Moffatt*, Weymouth* and Goodspeed*. clergymen who worked with Ernest
He saw the task of a translator as being Hawkins* to produce the Authorized Ver-
like a plate-glass window ('through which sion of St John's Gospel, revised by Five
the man who does not read Greek will see Clergymen*, 1857, and similar revisions
in English just what he would see if he of some of the epistles.
did read Greek') and like a pianist ('play-
ing on the piano what was written for the
Basel, Switzerland. The first NT with
violin').
the Greek and Latin side by side, 1516,
the work of Erasmus*, and subsequent
Barclay, William (1907-78). Scottish
editions, were printed here.
theologian and minister of the Church
of Scotland, educated at Glasgow and
Marburg, and Professor of Divinity and Basic English Bible. See Bible in Basic
Biblical Criticism in the University of English.
Glasgow. Widely read popularizer and
broadcaster. Creator and editor of the Bauer, Georg Lorenz (1750-1806). A
Daily Study Bible , which won interna- late-eighteenth-century scholar and one
tional acclaim and was published in of the first to talk about reconstructing
many languages. In 1969 he published the Hebrew text in its pre-masoretic form
his own two-volume translation of the by making comparisons with other bibli-
NT, The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles cal material and the ancient versions so as
and The Letters and the Revelation, together to get closer to the text as it left the hands
with a 45-page essay on translating the of the authors. Other scholars who had
New Testament. expressed similar views had gone unno-
ticed but Bauer's work was the inspira-
Barker, Robert (d. 1645). The king's tion for de Lagarde who took his ideas
printer, specially licensed 'to print all and applied them to the whole Bible.
28 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Baxter, Richard (1615-91). Leading Ben Sira, Jeshua (second century BCE).
Puritan divine who published New Testa- Author of Ecclesiasticus whose writings
ment with a paraphrase and notes, 1685, at throw some light on the nature of the
the time of the Restoration of Charles II. Hebrew Bible c. 180 BCE, in that he
reflects the order of books in the Torah*
Becke, Edmund (fl. 1550). Ordained and the Prophets*, knows the 'minor
1551, supervised editions of the Bible prophets' as The Twelve' and is aware of
with annotations, 1549 and 1551, and some of the Writings*, though not Eccle-
edited Bishop Becke's Bible*. siastes, Esther or Daniel.

Bede (672-735). A monk of Jarrow* Bengeljohann Albrecht (1687-1752).

who translated several parts of the NT A NT scholar who opened a new chapter
into English from the Vulgate*. Legend in the history of textual criticism*. A man
has it that when he lay dying on the eve of deep faith and personal piety who
of Ascension Day he was still busily studied at Tubingen, had charge of an
translating John's Gospel. One account orphan home at Halle, taught at a
says he had got as far as Jn 6.9. Another Lutheran Preparatory School for minis-
says that on the morning of Ascension ters and became Superintendent of the
Day he had only one chapter still to Evangelical Church of Wurttemberg.
translate which he did during the day As a student he was disturbed to dis-
and died that night. Unfortunately his cover the large number of variant read-
translation has not survived. ings* in mss. of the NT and decided to
procure all editions, as a result of which
he came to the conclusion that there
Belgica, 1561. A statement by the
were not as many real variations as at
Reformed Churches, following their
first appeared. Bengel was the first to
Confessio Gallicana*, 1559, in which Arti-
move away from the Textus Receptus*,
cles 4 and 5 set out a canon of the OT,
the first to argue that variants were to be
excluding the apocryphal books included
weighed, not counted, and the first
by Roman Catholics at the Council of
therefore to classify mss. into 'families'
Trent*. according to their importance and not
simply according to their number, thus
Belsham, Thomas (1750-1829). Uni- establishing the principle that a lot of
tarian minister in Worcester and Profes- mss. from a late date may be much less
sor of Divinity at Daventry and Hackney reliable than one ms. from an early date.
College, London. Editor of William He divided mss. into two groups:
Newcome's* translation of the NT to
achieve the Unitarian Version*. African, including the ancient author-
ities coming mainly from Egypt and
North Africa.
Ben Asher. The most famous family of Asian, including the great mass of later
the Masoretes* who worked on the mss. containing the Byzantine* or
Hebrew text for sk generations, the last Textus Receptus*, a clarification later
of whom, Aaron, perfected the Ben Asher extended by J.S. Semler*.
vocalization* system, a major branch of
the Tiberian system, most popularly used He published an edition of the Greek
for the Hebrew OT and first used in NT in Tubingen in 1734, based on the
Codex Aleppo*. The resultant text is Textus Receptus and not printing any
known as a Ben Asher text. reading which had not already been pub-
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 29

lished, indicating in the margin his esti- a translation of the OT, with Verkuyl as
mate of the value of the variants in five Editor-in-Chief, 1945-59, resulting in a
different categories: the original reading, similar translation, to give The Holy
possible improvements, just as good, less Bible: The Berkeley Version in Modern
good, and so bad as to be rejected. After English, published in the USA and in
his death his son-in-law published an London. Revised to become the Modern
enlarged edition of his critical apparatus . Language Bible, 1969*. Accurate and sim-
He also laid down some principles for ilar to the RSV* but more conservative,
textual criticism* such as lectio dijficilior*. with copious footnotes to clarify the text,
some of which approximate to moraliz-
Benisch, Abraham (1811-78). A ing observations.
Hebraist who was born in Bohemia and
studied medicine in Vienna. Editor of Beza, Theodore (1519-1605). Cele-
Jewish Chronicle, 1854-69 and 1875-78. brated French classical and biblical
Translator of Jewish School and Family scholar who succeeded Calvin as minister
Bible*, 1861. of the church in Geneva* and published
nine editions of the Greek New Testa-
Benoit, Pierre (1886-1962). Successor ment between 1565 and 1604, four of
to de Vaux* at the Ecole Biblique and which were independent and the remain-
one of the key figures in the production der reprints, with annotations, his own
of the Jerusalem Bible*, especially the Latin version, Jerome's Vulgate and tex-
New Testament. tual information drawn from his own
collection of Greek mss. It differed little
Bensley, Thomas (d. 1833). Printer of from Stephanus's* fourth edition, 1551,
the Murderer's Bible*. but Beza's work is noteworthy because it
popularized the Textus Receptus* and the
Bentley, Richard (1662-1742). Master editions of 1588-89 and 1598 were used
of Trinity College, Cambridge, English by the translators of the AV*. Owner of
classical scholar and literary critic, and Codex Bezae*, which he presented to
the first to accept the value of the ancient Cambridge University in 1581, and
versions as a way of approaching the Codex Claromontanus*, though he used
Greek. He planned a critical edition* of neither in preparing his Greek NT
the NT in both Greek and Latin on the because they departed too far from the
principle of preference for the oldest generally received text of the time. The
mss., but the task was too great for him first scholar to collate the Syriac New
and he never completed it. Testament, 1569.

Berkeley Version, 1945 (NT), 1959 Bible. Biblos, a Greek word meaning
(complete). The Berkeley Version of the originally the inner bark of the papyrus*
New Testament, a dynamic equivalence* plant, came to refer first to the paper
translation by Gerrit* Verkuyl*, 'to bring made from the bark and then to the
us God's thoughts and ways' in 'the lan- scroll* and the codex* and eventually to
guage in which we think and live rather the whole collection of Old and New
than that of our ancestors who expressed Testament books. Biblion (pi. biblia) was
themselves differently'. Called after Ber- the diminutive, meaning a scroll. In the
keley, California, where he lived, and LXX* both singular and plural were used
published by James J. Gillick, Berkeley. to denote any kind of written document,
Twenty scholars subsequently worked on but Christianity from the beginning
30 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

retained the plural to denote the Hebrew lical teaching. For as long as the Bible
scriptures plus the books which went to was thought of as one book readers not
make up the NT, thus creating a closed only expected consistency but also found
and fixed list of books (or canon*) with it possible to envisage it as 'word of God';
authority for faith, and usually referred to if on the other hand it were a collection,
as 'Scriptures'. John Chrysostom* appears then divergence was more acceptable and
to have been the first to use the word bib- 'word of God' language more difficult.
lia of the Old and New Testaments Recent discussion has centred on the
together in this way. fact that not only did the church estab-
What is less clear is which books the lish a canon but it also established it in a
early church included and excluded, and certain way. This means that not only do
if we are to judge by the way in which we have to pay attention to the content
different centres of Christianity dis- but also to the shape or form, so that, for
agreed on the subject and by the time it example, Psalms 1 and 150 are not to be
took the early church to come to a set- read as individual psalms but in relation
tled conclusion, there is good reason to to the rest for which they provide the
believe that they took a much more lib- beginning and the end. In other words,
eral view of what was 'in or out' than we arrangement and position modify, even
often imagine. Like the Jews before if they do not entirely dictate, meaning.
them (and like many of us!) they tended Translations* (or versions) in Latin*,
to respect old books, books associated Syriac and Coptic appeared as early as
with familiar and reputable authors, and c. 180 CE. Gothic* and Slavonic* transla-
books which they frequently heard read tions existed as a single version from the
in synagogue or church. start, but in the case of most others it is
Once the canon was determined there difficult to determine whether there was
was an inevitable tendency to interpret a single ancient version from which the
one part in relation to another part, thus others came or whether a variety of ver-
turning what began as a collection of sions converged into a single text.
books into a single, composite volume
with a special kind of divine authority. In Bible in Basic English, 1941 (NT),
some cases, it led to a search for consis- 1949 (complete). Basic English is a
tency and unity of message one might form of the English language, produced
reasonably expect to find in a book but by C.K. Ogden*, using only 850 English
which one would not necessarily expect words. For this version 50 special 'Bible
to find in a collection; on occasions, to words' were added plus a further 100
anxiety because it was not there, and needed for English verse, thus making
sometimes even to attempts to create it 1000 words in all. The translation was
artificially. This trend was re-inforced made from the original texts by a Com-
once the codex replaced the scroll, giving mittee under S.H. Hooke* and pub-
the appearance and in some cases the lished by the Cambridge University
reality of a unified statement, and in the Press.,
Middle Ages by the use ofbiblia as a fem-
inine singular rather than a neuter plural Bible in Modern English, 1895 (NT),
which persisted in European languages, c. 1903 (complete). A dynamic equiva-
giving us 'Bible' and its equivalents. The- lence* translation into modern English,
ological consequences then followed in considered by some to be a paraphrase*,
the Reformation and post-Reformation from the original Hebrew, Greek and
period with the new enthusiasm for bib- Aramaic languages, by Ferrar Fenton*,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 31

and published in London. Romans less widely used and with only Isaiah
appeared first (1882) followed by the completed, is the Hebrew University
epistles (1884). Despite being launched Bible Project*.
so soon after the RV* and amid much The first two editions of Biblia hebra-
controversy as to whether new transla- ica (1905 and 1912), based on the second
tions were needed anyway, the work had Rabbinic Bibles*, 1525, were superseded
considerable popularity, with two new by the third edition (1929-37) edited by
impressions in 1941 and 1944, despite Rudolf Kittel (widely known as BHK),
the Second World War. based on Codex Leningrad* (L) as pro-
The text is broken up by the insertion viding the earliest complete codex of the
of subject headings and there is some Hebrew Bible. Editions since 1951 and
introductory and explanatory material. Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia, 1977, edited by
Unusual features include: the translation K Elliger and W Rudolph (known as
of Gen. 1.1 where Fenton rejected 'In the BHS), contain details from the DSS* for
beginning...' on the grounds that the some books, but an edition incorporating
Hebrew word was plural and instead all significant readings from Qumran is
gave us, 'By periods God gave us that not yet available. BHS is somewhat less
which produced the solar system; then free with conjectural emendation* and
that which produced the earth'; some was used extensively by scholars prepar-
peculiarities of translation and spelling, ing the REB* and the NRSV*. A fifth edition
such as Mikah (Micah) and Zakariah to be known as BHQ is in preparation.
(Zechariah), because Fenton transliter-
ated names according to how they would Biblical Criticism. Biblical criticism is
sound in Hebrew; and an unusual reading the Bible as rational human
arrangement of books, the OT following beings, trying to appreciate its finer
the Hebrew canon but the NT putting points by paying attention to language,
John and 1 John at the beginning of the history and background, the local and
NT, because Fenton thought they were cultural circumstances in which it was
earlier than the other books and belonged written and the ever-increasing knowl-
together, thus allowing Luke and Acts to edge as a result of historical and archae-
stand together. ological research available to every gen-
eration, and then trying to relate its
Bible in Order, 1975. An edition of the message and meaning to the world we
Jerusalem Bible*, compiled by Joseph live in. Understood in this way biblical
Rhymer, with books in chronological criticism is as old as the Bible itself
order according to the dates at which Change came in the eighteenth cen-
they were believed to have been written, tury which serves as a watershed
and published in memory of Alexander between the pre-critical and critical peri-
Jones . ods, after which biblical scholarship
concentrated on the academic and
Bible Societies. See British and For- refused to accommodate its researches,
eign, American and United. discoveries, theories or interpretations to
church doctrine. The change was not
Biblia hebraica. One of only two cur- universal, varying from country to coun-
rently critical and complete editions of try, from church to church, and even
the Hebrew Bible, containing a selective from scholar to scholar. Issues at stake
critical apparatus* and occasionally a short tended to be textual* (or lower) criticism
evaluation of variant readings*. The other, and higher* criticism, which covered
32 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

topics such as the origins of the various by Parker to the bishops of his Province.
books, their date and authorship, their The revisers (mainly bishops) were only
reliability as history, the relationship to alter the Great Bible where the origi-
between OT and NT, and the interpre- nal texts showed it to be inaccurate and
tation of particular passages, notably were to check the Hebrew mss. by refer-
those relating to morality and miracles. ence to the early Latin translations. 'Bit-
In the last quarter of a century there ter' notes and controversial matters were
has been an increasing tendency to con- to be omitted.
centrate on the texts as they are in front There were 19 editions, plus 11 sepa-
of us rather than on their origin, history rate editions of the NT, 1586-1606. A
and development, resulting in a variety large page size, similar to the Great
of readings—liberation, literary, femi- Bible, but with verse division . Convo-
nist, and so on. cation of Canterbury, 1571, ordered that
every bishop and archbishop should
Bilson, Thomas (1546-1616). Born in have a copy in his house, and there was
Winchester, educated at Oxford and to be one in every cathedral and (if pos-
later Bishop of Winchester, responsible sible) every church, but it was never for-
with Miles Smith* for seeing the AV*, mally recognized by the queen and it
1611, through the press. never quite displaced the popular appeal
of the Geneva Bible, particularly for pri-
Bishop Becke's Bible, 1551. A mixture vate use.
of Taverner's* OT and Tyndale's* NT, Important in the chain of revision
compiled by John Daye and edited by because the 1572 edition, which was a
Bishop Edmund Becke , with a few sim- completely revised text, was used as the
ple notes in the earlier editions and a official basis of the AV*, though it was
dedication to the young King Edward VI, somewhat uneven because of the num-
instructing him in the duties of kingship, ber of people involved. The NT bears
and saying that if only people would more of the marks of scholarship than
devote an hour a day to reading the Bible the OT which follows the Great Bible
they would lead much better lives. somewhat slavishly, and the NT was
noticeably revised and improved in 1572
Bishops' Bible, 1568. A revision of the whereas the OT stayed much as it was.
Great Bible*, initiated by Elizabeth I in
1563 and carried out by Matthew Blayney, Benjamin (1728-1801).
Parker*, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Oxford Professor of Hebrew who pub-
other biblical scholars, with their own lished translations of the OT and played
marginal notes, intended to counteract an important role as editor in the 1762
the popularity of the Geneva Bible*, edition of the AV*.
thought by some to favour Puritan views
too strongly and to lack the official sup- Blyth, Francis (1705-72). Born in Lon-
port of the church establishment. A don of Protestant parents. Vicar Provin-
compromise, a dignified and 'safe' ver- cial of the English Carmelites, a convert
sion for public reading, in scholarship an from Protestantism who collaborated
improvement on the Great Bible, less with Bishop Challoner* in the work of
radical than the Geneva Bible but will- revising the Douay-Rheims Bible .
ing to learn from it.
Work began in 1561 with a proposal Bodley, John (b. c. 1575). Father of Sir
for revising the Great Bible, submitted Thomas Bodley, founder of the Bodleian
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 33

Library, Oxford, and one of the English taining 102 out of 144 pages, each
exiles in Geneva* at the time of the measuring 10.25 x 5.125 inches, is
appearance of the Geneva Bible . In 1561 more akin to Codex Vaticanus* and
he obtained from Queen Elizabeth I the for that reason of special interest at
exclusive right to print the Geneva Bible certain points to translators.
for a period of seven years.
In the same collection is a copy of the
66 Fourth Gospel in Coptic*, the most
Bodmer Papyri. Five NT papyri (§D ,
extensive Bohairic ms. so far to come to
£>72, $>74 and £)75), dated c. 175-200, dis-
light.
covered in 1952 at Jabal Abu Mana* and
possibly part of an earlier monastic library
Bologna, Italy. The Pentateuch in
in Egypt. Purchased by M. Martin Bod-
Hebrew was first printed here, 1482, and
mer from a dealer in Cairo* and pub-
it was probably here that the first portion
lished 1956-62. Currently in the Bodmer
of the Hebrew Bible (the Psalms)
Library of World Literature, Cologny*,
appeared in print, 1477.
near Geneva .
$)66 (Bodmer Papyrus II) is a codex of Bomberg, Daniel (d. c. 1550). A rich
John, dated c. 200, measuring 6 x 5.5 and well-educated printer, brought up in
inches, and containing Jn 1.1-6.11 Antwerp*, who studied Hebrew and
and 6.35b-14.15. moved to Venice where he set up a print-
#>72 is the earliest known copy of Jude ing press on the advice of Felix Pratensis*
and 1 and 2 Peter, dating from the and became one of the first and foremost
third century, measuring 6 x 5.75 Christian printers of Hebrew books. He
inches, and containing also Psalms 33 introduced a new era in Hebrew typog-
and 34 and some extra-biblical mate- raphy and in 1516-17 printed two Rab-
rial: the Nativity of Mary, the apoc- binic Bibles*, one edited by Felix Praten-
ryphal correspondence of Paul to the sis (1516-17) and the other by Jacob ben
Corinthians, the eleventh Ode of Chayyim (1524-25), for many years one
Solomon, Melito's Homily on the of the three main recensions* of the
Passover, a fragment of a hymn and Hebrew Bible* and a model for all subse-
the Apology of Phileas. Like g)66 its quent editions. He also published nearly
size suggests it may have been made 200 Hebrew books, many for the first
for private usage rather than reading time.
in church.
Bonner, Edmund (1500-69). Bishop
£)74 (Bodmer Papyrus XVII) has 264 of London and one of the first to set up
pages measuring 3 x 8 inches but in a Chained Bibles* in St Paul's cathedral,
poor state of preservation, dates from 1538, but later had reason to doubt the
the seventh century and contains
wisdom of it when he found 'Protes-
Acts, James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3
tants' reading the Bible aloud, holding
John and Jude.
services around it and sometimes dis-
£>75 (unlike the first three all of which rupting the regular worship.
reflect an Alexandrian* text) is a clear
and carefully executed uncial similar Book of Books, 1938. A translation of
to Chester Beatty* $)45), the earliest the New Testament sponsored by the
known copy of Luke and one of the United Society for Christian Literature
earliest known copies of John, con- to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the
34 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

placing of a copy of the English Bible in Bourke, Myles (1917-). Monsignor at

every parish church and the Centenary the St Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie,
of their own publication (as the Reli- New York, and chairman of the com-
gious Tract Society) of the Annotated mission responsible for the NT transla-
Paragraph Bible, 1838*. tion of the Confraternity Version*.

Book of Revelation, 1957. A para- Bowyer, Jr, William (1699-1777). The

phrase by J.B. Phillips* subsequently third generation in a long line of London
incorporated into The New Testament printers who, besides printing, often
in Modern English, 1958*. Published by contributed learned prefaces and anno-
Geoffrey Bles, London. tations to the work he handled. After his
father had printed editions of the Textus
Book Order. In English Bibles no Receptus* from 1715-60 Bowyer pro-
definitive order emerged until the inven- duced his own critical edition* in 1763,
tion of printing in the fifteenth century. based on Wettstein* but introducing
If you exclude the Apocrypha*, Prot- readings supported by better mss. and
estant and Catholic versions followed adding nearly 200 pages of conjectural
much the same order, but the Old Testa- emendations* on the NT.
ment differed at a number of points from
the Hebrew Bible* with its division into Bratcher, Robert Galveston (1920-).
Torah*, Prophets* and Writings*. In the American Bible Society translator
Hebrew Bible, for example, Ruth and responsible for the translation of the
Lamentations, along with Song of Songs, New Testament in Today's English Ver-
Ecclesiastes and Esther, form part of a sion*, 1976, the forerunner of the Good
single unit (the Five Scrolls), Daniel ap- News Bible*.
pears among the Prophets, and some of
the Writings come between the Former Breeches Bible, 1560. The popular
and the Latter Prophets. The order of name given to the Geneva Bible* because
books at the beginning of the Old Testa- Gen. 3.7 records that Adam and Eve
ment (Genesis to Kings) appears to have sewed fig leaves together and made
been determined partly by chronology themselves 'breeches'. (For other unu-
and partly by size, the larger books com- sual titles for Bibles, see Some Early
ing at the beginning, which may also Curiosities, p. 35.)
explain why some particularly long
books like Samuel, Kings and Chronicles Bristow, Richard (1538-81). Scholar
were divided in two. of Christ Church, Oxford, and member
In the early days of the NT book of the English College which William
order was not fixed. The gospels and the Allen* established, first in Douay* and
letters of Paul did not always appear in then in Rheims*, and succeeded him
the same order and many explanations when Allen moved to Rome. Worked
have been put forward for all of them. In with Allen in revising the translation of
the Codex Claromontanus* Acts appears Gregory Martin* which led to the
after Revelation, whereas the Chel- Douay-Rheims Bible* and was responsi-
tenham Canon and Codex Sinaiticus* put ble for the NT notes there.
it after the letters of Paul and before the
Catholic Epistles. From the sixteenth British and Foreign Bible Society.
century English Protestants have fol- The oldest of the Bible Societies,
lowed the order of the Great Bible*, 1539. founded in London in 1804 to translate,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 35

Some Early Curiosities

Printers' errors led to some early editions
earning special titles for themselves
The Bug Bible, 1551. Thou shalt not be afraid for the bugges [ter-
ror] by night. (Ps. 91.5) (For 'bugges' read 'bogies'.)
The Place-Maker's Bible, 1562. Blessed are the place-makers
[peace-makers]. (Mt. 5.9)
The Treacle Bible, 1568. Is there no treacle [balm] in Gilead?
(Jer. 8.22)
The Printer's Bible, 1702. Printers [Princes] have persecuted me
without a cause. (Ps. 119.161)
The Vinegar Bible, 1717*. The parable of the vinegar [vineyard]
in the heading to Luke 20.
The Ears to Ear Bible, 1810. He that hath ears to ear [hear], let
him hear. (Mt. 11.15)
The Unrighteous Bible. Know ye not that the unrighteous shall
inherit [not inherit] the kingdom of God. (1 Cor. 6.9)
The Murderers' Bibles*. An edition of 1795 has 'Let the children
first be killed [filled]' in Mk 7.27 and another of 1801 has These
are murderers [murmurers]' in Jude 16.

print, promote and distribute the Bible at lege and Professor of Divinity, Cam-
home and abroad. An interdenomina- bridge. Joint editor (with Norman
tional organization whose Board con- McLean*) of the Cambridge Septuagint*.
sisted of 36 lay people, including 15
Anglicans, 15 from other churches and 6 Browne, E.H. (1811-91). Bishop of Ely
from overseas. Responsible for translat- and Chairman of the OT panel of trans-
ing the Bible into many languages. Their lators for the RV*.
decision not to include the Apocrypha*
continued the controversy, dating from Bryennios, Philotheos (1833-1914). A
the Council of Trent* and the publication native of Constantinople* and Professor
of the AV*, but changed in the mid- 1960s, of Church History, who in 1873, in the
as a result of which there is today con- library of the Hospice of the Jerusalem
siderable cooperation between Roman Monastery at Constantinople, discov-
Catholics and Protestants in Bible trans- ered a group of ancient documents, one
lation. Member of The United Bible of which was copied in 1056 and con-
Societies*. tained a list of 27 OT canonical books,
with names in both Greek and Aramaic.
Brooke, Alan England (1863-1939). Its original date is uncertain but it is pos-
Biblical scholar, Provost of King's Col- sible that it contains the books of the OT
36 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

as they were known from the second to into English, including Erasmus* whose
the fourth century. The fact that they are text later became the Textus Receptus*.
in an unusual book order may suggest A fourth-century revision of several edi-
that though by this time agreement was tions of the later Greek NT mss., which
being reached on the books to be suffered from frequent revisions from
included there was still a good deal of the fourth to the eighth centuries and
flexibility and the idea of a fixed canon from corruptions* with years of copying.
had not yet solidified.. An elegant text which reads well and
the one that dominated the whole
Byblos, Lebanon. Now called Jubail. church throughout the Byzantine
Site of an ancient Hebrew inscription empire. Characteristics include a ten-
discovered in 1926 and thought to be the dency towards longer texts and double
earliest actual Hebrew writing yet dis- readings, correction of style, the addition
covered. Some scholars date it to c. 1200 of explanatory elements and moderniza-
BCE. The text contained over 100 charac- tion of the vocabulary. The discovery of
ters which suggests that each character papyrus* mss. $>45, £>46 and p66), which
represented a syllable rather than a letter. have readings only through the Byzan-
tine text, has proved its value but that
Byzantine Text. One of the most does not justify its being given an early
attested text-types in the minuscule* date.
mss., associated with Byzantium*, some-
times called koine Greek*, and the basis Byzantium. Ancient name for Con-
for many early translations of the NT stantinople*.
 c

Caedmon (c. 675). A labourer attached Cairo, Egypt. Home of the Cairo
to the monastery at Whitby*. Legend Geniza* and of the Karaite Synagogue
relates how, ungifted in poetry and song, and the Codex Cairo*, whence came its
he stole away from a party one night and name. Site for the discovery of an Old
went out to the stable for fear he would Syriac* ms. and the place where Charles
be asked to sing. He fell asleep and had a L. Freer discovered the Washington
dream. A man came and told him to sing. Codex* and where Martin Bodmer pur-
Caedmon asked what he should sing and chased the Bodmer Papyri*. The only
was told to sing of how things were cre- complete copy of the Coptic* translation
ated. So he did. When he awoke he of the Gospel of Thomas*, found at Nag
remembered all he had sung and wrote it Hammadi*, is in the Coptic Museum at
down. His gift was recognized and he Old Cairo. See also Old Cairo.
was invited to join the brotherhood as a
monk. As he heard the Bible stories he Cairo Geniza. In 1890, in the course of
turned them into verse. His songs renovating a geniza* in Cairo, some
became a kind of People's Bible and 200,000 ms. fragments were discovered
many people found they could memo- dating from as early as the sixth century
rize them and sing them for themselves. CE. Many more, found earlier, had been
One of the earliest paraphrases* of the removed to Leningrad in 1870. These
Bible in English. newly found ones, divided between
Cambridge University Library, the
British Library, the Bodleian Library,
Caesarea. Site of the completion of
Oxford and the John Rylands Library in
Origen's Hexaplar*. Gave its name to the
Caesarean text*. Manchester*, were studied initially by
PE. Kahle* and provide evidence of
masoretic transmission several centuries
Caesarean Text. A Greek text type earlier than anything previously available.
which got its name because Streeter*
noticed that Origen* had used it in his Cambridge, England. Home to the
work at Caesarea after 231 CE. Exem- archives of the British and Foreign Bible
plified in Family 1*, Family 13*, Family Society*, and to many ancient mss.,
Theta* and the Washington Codex*. Con- including Codex Bezae* and some mss.
tains a small number of unusual readings from the Cairo Geniza* in the University
and close affinities with Alexandrian* and Library, and a copy of the first edition of
Western* texts. the Great Bible* in St John's College.
38 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Cambridge Paragraph Bible, 1873. Canon.

The first really critical edition* of the AV*, Definition and Canonization.
in three volumes, by F.H.A. Scrivener*, A Greek word meaning 'a straight rod'
with the text in paragraphs and the verse (lit.) and then 'a measure', used in the
numbers in the margin, taking into ancient world in a variety of ways when
account the whole history of the text and referring to guides, models, regulations
what the printers had done to it over 200 and grammar, but first used in relation
years. to the Bible* by Eusebius* and then from
the fourth century CE, by both Jews and
Cambridge Septuagint, 1906-40. The Christians, to define the books recog-
nized as 'biblical'. A Jewish source
Old Testament in Greek according to the Text
defines the canon as
of Codex Vatuanus, edited by A.E. Brooke ,
N. McLean* and H. St J. Thackeray and [Books] accepted by Jews as authorita-
following the tradition of Swete*. Four tive for religious practice and/or doc-
volumes containing Genesis to Neh- trine, and whose authority is binding
upon the Jewish people for all genera-
emiah, plus Esther, Judith and Tobit,
tions. (S.Z. Leiman)
according to Codex Vaticanus* with some
assistance from Codex Alexandrinus* and By changing 'Jew' to 'Christian' Chris-
Codex Sinaiticus* and a critical appara- tians would have no difficulty with the
tus*. Used by scholars for precise re- definition, but there are significant dif-
search. ferences in understanding between the
Jewish and the Christian communities,
in that the concept itself arises primarily
Campbell, Alexander (1788-1866).
within the NT scene, Hebrew has no
Born in Ireland, emigrated to the USA in
equivalent word for 'canon', and phrases
1809 and became founder of the Disci-
such as 'defile the hands' in rabbinic dis-
ples of Christ. As a scholar in Bethany,
cussions, though similar, are not quite
'Virginia, he came across an 1818 transla-
the same.
tion of the NT which combined the skills
The means by which sacred texts
of Philip Doddridge*, George Campbell*
become authoritative is much more the
and James MacKnight*, which he then
result of a measure (or indeed several
used alongside Griesbach* to produce his
measures) being applied over a long
own translation, 1826, which was fre-
period ( probably 1000 years for the OT
quently revised and reprinted though
and 400 years for the NT) rather than
thought to be weak in its English diction.
any particular test, agreement or approval
at one point. Scholars recognize a five-
Campbell, George (1719-96). Theolo- fold process of composition, circulation,
gian, educated in Edinburgh and Aber- revision, collection and recognition (or
deen. Author of one of three popular canonization), and the final stage was
eighteenth-century translations, in this reached more easily in the case of some
case covering the gospels, the other two books than of others.
being Philip Doddridge's* translation of Opinions differ as to the precise
the NT, 1739-56, and James MacK- process. The prevailing view is that even
night's* A Translation of all the Apostoli- at the end it was gradual and more a
cal Epistles, 1795*. In 1818 a combined recognition of the status which certain
translation appeared in London, susbe- books had received than an actual choice
quently revised and published by Alex- of books to be included (with inclusion
ander Campbell*,1826. or exclusion hotly contested), that the
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 39

Synod of Jamnia* was not necessarily the worship, though here there were
final authority it was once thought to be, regional differences. For example,
and that there is evidence of different Revelation was more acceptable in
collections of books circulating and the West, Hebrews in the East, and
being accorded different authority in some churches used non-canonical
different places. books.
Signs of the final definitive list, both Inspiration, though it is often debat-
for OT and NT, emerged in the first and able whether books were placed in
second centuries from which it is possi- the canon because they were thought
ble to form some judgments about the to be inspired or thought to be
criteria being applied. inspired because they were in the
For the Jews, the overriding factors canon.
were authority and antiquity, which, in
In the case of Christianity, three other
the case of the Torah*, were fairly well
factors influenced the process of canon-
settled by this stage. Recognition of the
ization and to some extent hastened it:
Prophets* depended very much on their
the pressure from persecution and mar-
association with the prophets (or the
tyrdom, the need to distinguish Chris-
name of a prophet), and the test for the
tianity from Judaism as the Jews defined
Writings* was largely one of their capac-
their canon and the churches increas-
ity for inspiration, though 'canonicity'
ingly became a mixture of Jews and
and 'inspiration' were not regarded as
Gentiles, and as a defence against heresy.
synonymous. Other factors, which also
A fourth factor, in the case of the
applied to some extent to the NT, were
gospels, was the need to establish some
the extent to which texts were cited and
in order to discount others.
used, their consistency (both within
themselves and in relation to other texts)
The Hebrew Bible
and their relevance to the times com-
The Hebrew Bible appears to have
bined with their capacity for a wider and
come together in three stages: the Torah*
more universal interpretation.
c. fourth century BCE, the Prophets*
In the case of the NT the crucial test
c. 200 BCE, and the Writings* c. 100 CE.
was orthodoxy, faithful witness to the
How they actually came together is
apostolic faith, and being untainted by
unclear but a general view suggests that
the heresies of the first and second cen-
serious interest in texts and collections
turies. After that, four other factors
dates from Josiah and the Deuterono-
played a part though they were not of
mists in the sixth century BCE (certainly
equal status and the weight of authority
as far as the Pentateuch is concerned)
varied according to churches and their
and was well acknowledged by the time
leaders:
of Ezra. Jews in Palestine and elsewhere
The authority of Jesus. Books which appear to have had no difficulty 'adopt-
were clearly related to his life and ing' the Torah and a somewhat varied
teaching were more likely to be collection of other Writings but these
acceptable. were not clearly defined for several cen-
Apostolicity. Not necessarily apostolic turies. Tradition ascribes the decision to
authorship but ideally some connec- the Synod of Jamnia* at the end of the
tion with an apostle. first century CE but no such list or
Church usage. Books which had estab- record has been preserved, and it is likely
lished a special place in the life of the that final decisions came much later.
churches and were used frequently in Josephus*, for example, writing about
40 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

the same time as Jamnia, mentions 22 books, the Reformed stayed with the
books, including 4 that contain hymns Hebrew Bible, and the Orthodox main-
and offer guidelines for daily living, but tained various collections rather than a
does not specify what they are. single one.
2 Esdras, similarly and about the In the case of the NT, there appears
same time, refers to a sacred collection to have been no felt need for defining a
among the Jews dating from the return list of books until the middle of the
from Babylon, consisting of 24 books fourth century, the first indication being
which are regarded as 'special' or 'sacred' the Council of Laodicea* c. 363. The
(but again without specifying what they Muratorian Fragment* could not have
are), plus a further 70 'for the wise been promulgated by the Church of
among your people', thus giving rise to Rome c. 200 and is now generally
the idea of books 'on the edge of the thought to have been more than a cen-
canon' which became 'apocrypha'* or tury later, though by the end of the sec-
'hidden'. ond century the four gospels seem to
The book of Jubilees has several refer- have achieved a position of authority
ences to a 20-book collection, which comparable to that of the OT and could
may hark back to Josephus, but again almost be called scripture.
without specifying which they are so we As with Judaism, the NT achieved
cannot even be sure that they are refer- recognition in three stages:
ring to the same collection, much less
the first century, when the life and
the same books.
teaching of Jesus and oral tradition
Traditional Jewish literature for the
were more highly regarded than writ-
first 600 years into the Christian era
gives little indication as to how such a ing;
the second century, with the making
collection of books became 'sacred scrip-
of 'collections', such as the gospels
ture', though there are references to
and the letters of Paul, and with
books which 'soil the hands', seemingly
increasing recognition as they were
referring to books which have a specially
circulated, widely read and quoted;
sacred, but perhaps not necessarily
the fourth century, when, under the
canonical, character.
pressures of heresy and the threat of
persecution by the state, there was a
The Christian Bible.
need for clarification of belief, author-
Here the process of recognition was in
ity, a sense of unity and sacred texts.
two parts, giving a Canon of the OT and
a Canon of the NT. Once the canon was clear Christian
The early church accepted the Alex- scholars then turned their attention to
andrian canon (the LXX*) well before the the standardization of the text.
shorter rabbinic (Hebrew Bible*) canon The role of Church Councils*, inso-
was established, which may account for far as they were involved at all, and par-
the fact that the OT differs from the ticularly in the West, was generally late
Hebrew Bible, mainly in Book Order*, on the scene and always more a recogni-
and differs within itself as between tion of what was already a fact than a cre-
Roman Catholic, Reformed and Ortho- ative initiative. The various stages of
dox traditions. Subsequently, the debate and development therefore can
Catholic tradition accepted the Apoc- best be understood by a study of the
rypha*, though making a distinction writings of such early Christian scholars
between proto- and deutero-canonical as second-century Irenaeus*, Papias*,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 41

Polycarp*, Marcion*, Justin Martyr*, the biblical text in English in his transla-
Ignatius*, Melito* and Tatian*, third-cen- tion of The Golden Legend, but the Con-
tury Origen* and fourth-century Euse- stitutions of Oxford* were still in force
bius*, Cyril of Jerusalem* and Athana- and prevented him from printing and
sius*, though the fact that they list books, distributing the English Bible as a whole.
accepting some and rejecting others,
does not mean that they are defining a Centenary Translation of the New
'canon'; all they are doing is witnessing Testament, 1924. A dynamic equiva-
to a process of growth and development lence translation by Helen B. Mont-
over two to three centuries out of which gomery*, in the language of everyday life
the canon emerged from the fourth cen- without departing too much from trans-
tury onwards, and even after that, agree- lations already familiar and loved, to
ment is neither general nor final. mark the centenary of the American Bap-
tist Publication Society. Noteworthy for
Carbon 14 Test. See Radio Carbon dat- the introductions to the various books,
ing. the titles Montgomery gave to chapters
and paragraphs, and the indenting and
Castlebrae, Scotland. The home of italicizing of quotations for clarity. Pub-
two twins, Agnes Smith Lewes and lished by the Judson Press, Philadelphia.
Margaret Dunlop Gibson*, who found a
copy of the Old Syriac* version in Chained Bibles. In sixteenth-century
Sinaitic Syriac towards the end of the Britain, when many people were unable
nineteenth century. to read, when threats and persecution
had been handed out to those who trans-
Catholic Epistles. James, 1 and 2 Peter, lated the Bible into English, and when
1,2 and 3 John and Jude. 'Catholic' in the many clergy and laity were still resistant
sense of 'general' and therefore some- to the idea of Bible readings in church,
times called General Epistles, though not Edmund Bonner*, Bishop of London, set
grouped together under this title until up six copies of the Bible in English in St
the fourth century, and the Peshitta* Paul's, chained them to the pillars, and
omits 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and put a notice over each urging people to
Revelation. As with the Pauline Corpus*, read it quietly and reverently. Other bish-
for evidence of their significance for the ops followed his lead, including Nicolas
early church and for the way in which Shaxton*, Bishop of Salisbury, who in
they achieved recognition it is necessary 1538 required his clergy to chain an Eng-
to refer to the early church Fathers, and lish Bible to the desk in their parish
in particular to Polycarp*, Irenaeus*, Hip- church so that parishioners could either
polytus, Clement of Alexandria*, Tertul- read it for themselves or have it read to
lian*, Origen*, Cyprian, Eusebius* and them. Some churches chose Coverdale's*
Jerome*, and the Muratorian Canon*. translation and others Matthew's*. On 5
September 1538 a national injunction to
Caxton, William (c. 1422-91). Founder this effect was published in the name of
of English printing who set up his press the king and with the support of Crom-
in 1476 at the site of the Red Pole in the well*. Cromwell probably had the Great
Almonry at Westminster, on the site of Bible* in mind though at this time it was
the modern Tothill Street*. His output not quite ready. Unfortunately many
was huge, including Chaucer and Morte Protestants insisted on reading aloud,
d'Arthur, and he printed some portions of disrupting the services and even using
42 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

the content to challenge the authority of Charles I (1600-49). Presented in 1627

the clergy, so that by 1541 the Bishop of with a Greek ms. of the Bible which was
London was asking for the Chained older than any biblical ms. previously
Bibles to be taken out. available in the West. Dating from the
fifth century it became known as Codex
Chaldee. Since Aramaic was put into Alexandrinus* and led to much greater
the mouth of the Chaldeans in Dan. 2.4 accuracy in Bible translation.
it came to be called Chaldee, but as it
was realized that this was not so, since Cheke, John (1514-57). Professor of
the language of the Chaldeans was Akka- Greek at Cambridge and tutor to Edward
dian, the word was superseded by Ara- VI. Began a novel attempt at Bible trans-
lation in 1550 using only words of pure
English origin. 'Resurrection' became
Challoner, Richard (1691-1781). Born 'uprising', 'crucified'* became 'crossed',
in Sussex, son of a wine-cooper and rigid and so on. The ms. remained unpub-
dissenter . His mother was probably a lished until 1843 when it was edited and
practising Catholic and he was an Angli- published by James Goodwin.
can until he was 12. Financed by a fund
for poor boys, he went to Douay* to train Chester Beatty Papyri. A collection of
for the priesthood where he remained papyri, discovered by A. Chester Beatty
until 1730 when he returned to England of Dublin, an American collector of mss.,
to work among the poor, though contin- in Egypt, c. 1930, buried in jars in the
uing his studies and writings. Conse- ruins of an ancient building, possibly a
crated a Roman Catholic bishop, 1741, church. Though most of the biblical
Vicar Apostolic of the London district, books were represented, none was com-
1758, and a scholar who undertook a plete but they were a century older than
complete revision of the Douay-Rheims other known mss. of the Bible and throw
Bible* and published it in 1749, followed light on the conditions in which these
by five successive revisions of the NT, books were originally known and circu-
1749-72, and two of the OT, 1750 and lated. The greatest discoveries since
1763. A convert from Protestantism, his Codex Sinaiticus* and the Washington
familiarity with the language of the AV* is Codex*. Edited, with introductions and
reflected in his work. discussions, by EG. Kenyon, and cur-
rently in the Beatty Museum, Dublin.
Chapter Division. Early Hebrew, Eight are mss. of the OT, three of the
Greek and English mss. had neither NT and one of the Apocrypha*, all in
chapter nor verse* division as we know Greek. The earliest is a copy of Numbers
them. Chapter division in the Hebrew and Deuteronomy, c. 120-50 CE. Large
Bible is first mentioned c. 1330, largely portions of Genesis, Isaiah, Ezekiel,
the result of Christian practice brought Daniel and Esther are from the third cen-
about partly by the change from scroll* to tury. The NT books, published 1933-51,
codex* and probably originating in the are of special importance, four papyri in
Vulgate* where it is accredited to Lan- particular.
franc, Archbishop of Canterbury (d.
1089). Chapter division in the English $)45 contains the gospels and Acts,
Bible is attributed to Stephen Langton* probably in the order of the Western*
and as we know it today goes back to the text (i.e. Matthew, John, Luke, Mark,
pattern laid down by Felix Pratensis*. Acts), dates from the first half of the
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 43

third century, and consists of 30 of an Belgica, 1561, and the Thirty-Nine Arti-
original 110 leaves, 8 x 10 inches cles of the Church of England*, 1562,
(wide), with small writing in a single 1571.
broad column, 39 lines to a page.
^t)46 contains Romans, Hebrews, 1 and Clark, Kenneth Willis (1898-1979). An
2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Galatians, American NT scholar, educated at Duke
Philippians, Colossians and 1 Thessa- University, who researched documents
lonians, is the most significant piece in in the John Rylands Library, Manchester*
the puzzle of reconstructing the relating to The Twentieth Century New
Pauline Corpus*, demonstrating its Testament*, 1902, and published his
existence in the middle of the third findings in the Bulletin of the John
century, and consists of 86 near-per- Rylands Library, September 1955.
fect leaves out of a total of 104, 5.5 x
8.75 inches (wide), from a date not Clarke, Samuel (1675-1729). One of a
later than 250 CE. number of scholars who in 1701 pro-
$)47 contains 10 out of an original 32 duced a paraphrase* with bracketed ex-
leaves of Revelation, c. 250-300 CE. planatory material into the text of the AV*.
§352 is the John Fragment*.
Clay. Possibly the earliest form of writ-
Further importance arises from the ing materials* and used by the Sumeri-
fact that they are written on papyri* but ans in Mesopotamia. No reference to
in codex* rather than scroll* form, thus clay as writing material in the Bible, but
marking an intermediate stage between the Ras Shamra Tablets* provide a good
the papyrus scroll and the vellum codex. example.
Their evidence was added to the crit-
ical apparatus* of the 16th edition of the Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215).
Nestle text, 1936, and so influenced the Born at Athens of pagan parents and con-
translation of the RSV* at one or two verted to the Christian faith. Philosopher
points. and head of the famous Catechetical
School in Alexandria*. Accepted the
Chrysostom. See John Chrysostom. notion of four gospels as scripture, fol-
lowing Irenaeus*, and was the first to dis-
Church Councils. Church Councils tinguish John (a 'spiritual' gospel) from
played a less significant role in the growth the other three, known as the Synoptic
of the NT canon* than is often supposed Gospels*, which he regarded as more
and where they did it was more one of down-to-earth. Seems also to have rec-
recognizing a position already arrived at ognized and accepted Acts, 14 of Paul's
than actually creating anything new, so letters, including Hebrews, 1 and 2 John,
that their records are more important for 1 Peter and Revelation. In common with
the lists they endorse than for the deci- Tertullian* and the general opinion of his
sions they make. The three most impor- day he accepted Jude, though this came
tant in the early church are the Council to be challenged later by Eusebius* and
of Laodicea*, 363, the Council of Hippo*, Jerome* because of its use of apocryphal
393, and the Council of Carthage*, 397. books.
Further clarification came for Roman
Catholics with the Council of Trent*, Clement of Rome (64-96). Bishop of
1545-63, and the First Vatican Council*, Rome, known only for one letter
1869-70, and for Protestants with the (1 Clement), but around whose name
44 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

much early literature formed itself, in- Codex, (pi. Codices) A replacement for
cluding a sermon (2 Clement) probably the scroll*, dating from the second cen-
by a different author. Seems to have been tury CE, and the forerunner of the book
acquainted with a document in Rome as we know it, formed by taking one or
relating to the teaching of Jesus, similar to more sheets of papyrus* or vellum* and
the gospels (particularly Matthew and sewing them together at the spine. The
Luke) but not to be identified with them, Latin codex originally meant the trunk
and had a closer acquaintance with some of a tree but later was used of a block of
of Paul's letters in that he makes specific wood split into a number of tablets or
reference to Romans and Corinthians as leaves.
well as Galatians and Philippians, though The codex had many advantages over
it is not clear whether he had seen them the scroll: it was generally easier to han-
separately or whether at that time they dle, particularly when it came to finding
were part of a Pauline Corpus*. First to specific passages; it enabled several mss.
provide a definite allusion to Hebrews to be grouped together so that it was
and it is possible that he also knew James, possible, for example, to have all four
Peter and Acts. 2 Clement (c. 160) has al- gospels or all the letters of Paul in one
lusions to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Gala- format; and it was double sided, which
tians, Ephesians, Philippians, Hebrews, not only made it more economical but
and possibly James and Peter, but neither meant it could hold more.
1 Clement nor 2 Clement suggest the ex- Extensive use of the codex form by
istence at this time of a canon* of Scrip- Christians began in the second century.
ture. The early Christian community seems
to have found the codex more conve-
Clermont, France. Site for the discov- nient whilst at the same time its intro-
ery of Codex Claromontanus*. duction emphasized the break with
Judaism with its preference for a scroll,
Cochlaeus, Johannes (1479-1552). A so that by the third century most Chris-
vigorous enemy of Martin Luther and tian literature was commonly found in
the movement to reform the church. codex form, and of 172 fragments of
When he was at Cologne , seeing a book biblical texts 158 are from codices and
through the press, he heard the printers only 14 from scrolls.
boasting about the new successes being The Hebrew Bible in codex form for
won by the Reformers in England. Anx- non-liturgical use was well established
ious to know more, he invited the print- by the eighth century CE, but for liturgi-
ers to his home and when they were all cal use the scroll remained the norm.
well filled with wine they revealed they
were printing 3000 copies of Tyndale's Codex Aleppo, c. 925 CE. A good exam-
Translation* in English. Cochlaeus im- ple (perhaps the earliest) of a complete
mediately informed the authorities at Hebrew text, containing all 24 books,
Cologne who put a stop to the work, but with the Ben Asher* system of vocaliza-
Tyndale escaped with the printed sheets tion*, complete with masoretic notes,
to Worms*. Because Cochlaeus had sent a and preserved by the Jewish community
description of the work to England Tyn- in Aleppo. Used for many years as a stan-
dale put it on one side for the time being dard text in the correction of books
and issued a different edition. Of the because of its connection with Ben
quarto edition begun at Cologne there is Asher. Wrongly thought to have been
one fragment still in existence, in the destroyed by fire in 1948. Three-quarters
British Library. of it has been preserved, though not the
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 45

Torah*. Now in the Hebrew University, inches, written in a regular and beautiful
Jerusalem. hand with the first lines of each book in
red ink, dating from the eighth century,
Codex Alexandrinus. Complete ms. of written by order of Coelfrid* and sent as
the Greek Bible (save for some 43 leaves a gift to Pope Gregory II, 716. Located in
containing passages from Matthew, John the Laurentian Library, Florence.
and 1 Corinthians which suffered muti-
lation), and including the Apocrypha*, 1 Codex Argenteus. Sometimes known
and 2 Clement, Psalms of Solomon and as the Silver Codex. A deluxe edition of
3 and 4 Maccabees, written on pages of the Gothic* Version of the NT by
fine vellum in the first half of the fifth Ulfilas*, dating from the fifth to the sixth
century, probably in Egypt. It has 820 centuries, very literal and following a
leaves, each containing two columns and Byzantine* text with the gospels in the
bound in four volumes, and measures order of the Western* text (Matthew,
12.75 x 10.25 inches. Thought to be the John, Luke, Mark). It has 336 leaves,
work of two scribes. Usually known as A 7.625 x 9.825 inches, of which 188 have
and located in the British Library. survived. Located in Uppsala.
First uncial* ms. to be used by mod-
ern biblical scholars apart from the Com- Codex Bezae. A fifth or sixth century
plutensian Polyglot*. NT text is Alexan- ms. of the gospels and Acts, with a small
drian* except for the gospels which are fragment of 3 John, usually known as D,
Byzantine*, of which it is the oldest wit- principal example of the Western* text
ness. and located at Cambridge University, to
Complete edition of the OT pro- whom it was presented in 1581 by
duced by John Ernest Grabbe*, a Pruss- Theodore Beza*. Sometimes known as
ian scholar who settled in Oxford*, Codex Cantabrigiensis*. Published in
1701-20. Published with the NT in full in 1793 by the University of Cam-
1786, the first of three major codices of bridge, followed by a new edition in
the NT to be published, the other two 1864.
being the Codex Sinaiticus* and the The first and oldest preserved exam-
Codex Vaticanus*. Soon recognized as ple of a copy of the Bible in two lan-
one of the main Greek mss. of the Bible. guages (Greek and Latin on facing pages)
Cyril Lucar*, Patriarch of Constan- and one which varied from the usual text
tinople* and former Patriarch of Alexan- so much, with its own additions and
dria*, presented a copy to Charles I in omissions, that for a long time it was
1627 and it was kept at St James's Palace regarded with suspicion. The gospels are
until 1649. It represented a much more in the order of the Western* text (Matt-
reliable text than that which the transla- hew, John, Luke, Mark), the text of Acts
tors of the AV* had worked with. Unfor- is 10 per cent longer than in other mss.,
tunately it was too late for them to make Lk. 6.5 comes after 6.10, and between
use of it and its discovery was soon over- verses 4 and 6 there is one of the un-
shadowed by even earlier mss. such as the known sayings of Jesus*. See entry, p. 15.
Codex Vaticanus* and the Codex Sinaiti- Over 500 leaves, 10 x 8 inches, single
cus*. column, with the text in sense lines and
therefore with lines of unequal length.
Codex Amiatinus. The most reliable
complete extant ms. of the Vulgate*, Codex Cairo. A Hebrew ms., c. 895 CE,
1029 leaves of parchment, 19.5 x 13.5 containing Former and Latter Prophets,
46 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

usually known as C (though not to be known as C and located in the Biblio-

confused with Codex Ephraemi*) and theque Nationale, Paris*. Erased in the
located in the Karaite Synagogue, Cairo*. twelfth century and re-used for a Greek
translation of sermons by Ephraem, a
Codex Cantabrigiensis. An alternative fourth-century Syrian church Father.
name for Codex Bezae* because of its The writing is that of the fifth cen-
links with Cambridge University. tury, perhaps a little later than the Codex
Alexandrinus*, and it may well have
Codex Claromontanus. A sixth-cen- ranked with the greatest mss. if it had
tury ms. of the Pauline Letters, discov- not been defaced by some mediaeval
ered at Clermont, France, usually known individual in search of writing paper.
as D2, a Western* text and located in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris*. Greek Codex Koridethianus. See Family
and Latin, 533 beautiful vellum leaves, Theta.
9.75 x 7.75 inches, with text in sense
lines and very wide margins. Codex Laudianus, 1715. A good sixth-
Important for our understanding of to seventh-century ms. of Acts, used by
the growth of the canon* because in Bede*, usually known as E2 and located
addition to a Latin list of the books of the in the Bodleian Library, Oxford*. Greek
OT and NT, as recognized c. 300, it and Latin on facing pages, with very
includes lists of some non-canonical short sense lines. Similar in some ways
early Christian literature. Books also to Codex Bezae but in general more
appear in a different order from usual. Byzantine* than Western*. The earliest
John follows Matthew, Acts follows known ms. to contain the Ethiopian's
Revelation, the Pastoral Epistles come confession of faith in Acts 8.37.
before Colossians, and Philippians is
missing altogether. Barnabas follows Codex Leningrad. An ancient and
Jude, Shepherd of Hermas, the Acts of complete Hebrew ms., c. 1009 CE, copied
Paul and the Revelation of Peter all come from a Ben Asher* ms., and with vocal-
after Revelation and Acts, and the OT ization* close to that of Codex Aleppo*.
contains 1, 2 and 4 Maccabees. The earliest complete codex of the
Hebrew Bible* which is closest to the
Codex Ephraemi. A fifth-century Ben Asher* tradition. The basis ofBiblia
palimpsest* discovered c. 1700, brought hebraica* and Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia.
from the east to Italy and from there to Known as Codex L and located in the
Paris*. Attention was first called to the Public Library, St Petersburg*.
underlying biblical text in the seven-
teenth century and in 1843-45 Tischen- Codex Petersburg. A Hebrew ms., c.
dorf* published all of the OT and NT 916 CE, containing Isaiah, Jeremiah,
that was decipherable. The original con- Ezekiel and the Twelve minor prophets,
tained the whole Greek Bible. NT text is in a Ben Asher* text but with earlier
mixed, mostly Byzantine*. Babylonian vowel pointing. Usually
It consists of 209 leaves, 12.5 x 9.5 known as P and located in the Public
inches, containing 64 (scattered) lines of Library, St Petersburg*.
the OT (including Ecclesiasticus, pro-
logue to Ecclesiasticus, and Wisdom of Codex Sinaiticus. A fourth-century
Solomon) and 145 (scattered) lines of Greek ms., usually known as N (aleph, the
the NT, one column to a page. Usually first letter of the Hebrew alphabet) or S.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 47

About 720 leaves (or 1440 pages), 15 x 1.1-46.28, Psalms 106-138, Hebrews
13.5 inches, with four columns to a page 9-14, the Pastoral Epistles, Philemon and
except for the Psalms and the poetic Revelation, but includes Baruch, Epistle
books which have two. Thought to be the of Jeremiah, Wisdom of Solomon, Eccle-
work of three scribes whose different siasticus, Judith and Tobit. One of the
strengths and weaknesses have been earliest examples of Greek mss. to break
identified. up the text into paragraphs. NT text is
The earliest complete NT (144 leaves) Alexandrian*.
and the only complete copy in uncial* In the Vatican Library as early as 1481
script. The original contained the whole but little noticed by scholars until
of the Greek Bible, including in its Napoleon brought it to Paris where its
OT Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, value was recognized by a German
Ecclesiasticus, 1 and 4 Maccabees, Letter scholar, J.L. Hug*. After the fall of
of Barnabas and Shepherd of Hermas, Napoleon it was returned to the Vatican,
but most of the first half of the OT had where a somewhat unsatisfactory edition
been destroyed before Tischendorf * got was published in 1857. NT text was not
hold of it. Of the OT 43 leaves are in published until after Codex Alexandri-
Leipzig*, 3 fragments in St Petersburg* nus* and Codex Sinaiticus*.
and 199 leaves in the British Library. NT Found (almost by accident) by Tis-
text is Alexandrian* with signs of West- chendorf* when he visited Rome in
ern* influence. 1843 but he was not allowed much time
Differs from many other mss. in that to work on it. When he returned he was
it brings Mark to an end at 16.8, omits the able to demonstrate that the 1857 edi-
woman taken in adultery (Jn 7.52-8.11) tion was not satisfactory and he pub-
and puts the doxology in Romans after lished the best edition up to that time in
16.23. 1867.
Discovered by Tischendorf * on a visit
to St Catharine's Monastery* on Mount Coelfrid (d. 716). Abbot of Wear-
Sinai in May 1844 where he had gone to mouth*. Responsible for the Codex Ami-
study ancient documents and, after an atinus* and for presenting it to Pope Gre-
intriguing story, presented by the Mon- gory II, 716, though he was unable to do
astery to the Tsar of Russia, where it was so himself because he died on the way to
published in 1862, at Russian expense, in Rome.
a luxury edition of 346 leaves plus schol-
arly commentary. Subsequently pub- Coggan, Frederick Donald (1909-).
lished in facsimile, 1911 (NT) and 1922 Archbishop of Canterbury, appointed
(OT) by Kirsopp Lake*. In 1933 the Vice-President of the United Bible Soci-
British Government bought 80 pages for eties*, 1956, and President, 1957. Chair-
£100,000. Now located in the British man of the Joint Committee for the
Library. (See Tischendorf and Codex NEB*, 1968, in succession to Alwyn PT.
Sinaiticus, p. 48.) Williams*, and for the REB*, 1989.

Codex Vaticanus. A fourth-century Colet, John (1467-1519). Dean of St

ms., usually known as B, 10.5 x 10 Paul's (1505) and founder of St Paul's
inches, two columns to a page in the School, 1510. Translated the Lord's Pray-
poetic texts and three in the others. Orig- er into English. A representative of the
inally complete but severely mutilated New Learning, his lectures in Oxford on
(759 out of 820 leaves), having lost Gen. Romans in 1496 explored new methods
48 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Tischendorf and Codex Sinaiticus

In 1844, on a quest for ancient Bible mss., a young German scholar,
Tischendorf, found himself staying at St Catharine's Monastery* at the
foot of Mt Sinai.
There 'I discovered the pearl of all my researches. In visiting the library
of the monastery... I perceived in the middle of the great hall a large and
wide basket full of old parchments; and the librarian, who was a man of
information, told me that two heaps of papers like these, mouldered by
time, had been already committed to the flames.

On examination, he found 43 sheets of fine vellum with the oldest

Greek writing he had ever seen, dating from c. 350 CE and containing
1 Chronicles, some of Esdras, all of Esther, part of Tobit, most of Jere-
miah and about half of Lamentations. It was part of the Septuagint*.
He would have been wise to conceal his excitement. His enthusi-
asm immediately roused the suspicions of the monks who realized
they were obviously sitting on something of great value. They refused
to let him see the other 80 pages which they said they had though they
did allow him to take away about 43 sheets and on returning to Europe
he published them, though concealing the place of discovery.
A second visit, in 1853, was equally unproductive, the monks still
refusing to let him see any more, but a glimpse of a fragment contain-
ing 11 verses of Genesis was sufficient to suggest to him that originally
the mss. had contained all the OT and he did not need three guesses
to work out what might have happened to the rest.
On a third visit, in 1859, still nothing of consequence emerged
until the last afternoon, 4 February, when he gained access to the rest:
199 pages of the OT and all the NT. This is how he describes it:
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 49

Tischendorf and Codex Sinaiticus (continued)

I was taking a walk with the steward of the convent in the neighbour-
hood, and as we returned, towards sunset, he begged me to take some
refreshment with him in his cell. Scarcely had he entered the room,
when resuming our former subject of conversation, he said, 'And I, too,
have read a Septuagint'... And so saying he took down from the corner
of the room a bulky kind of volume, wrapped in a red cloth, and laid it
before me. I unrolled the cover and discovered to my great surprise, not
only those fragments which fifteen years before I had taken out of the
basket, but also other parts of the Old Testament, the New Testament
complete, and in addition, the Epistle of Barnabas and a part of the Pas-
tor of Hermas. Full of joy which this time I had the self-command to
conceal from the steward and the rest of the community, I asked, as if in
a careless way, for permission to take the manuscript into my sleeping
chamber to look over it more at leisure. There by myself I could give
way to the transport of joy which I felt. I knew that I held in my hand
the most precious biblical treasure in existence.

Tischendorf spent the night copying. Next morning he asked per-

mission to take it away but was refused.
Subsequently, in Cairo, Tischendorf met the Abbot of St
Catharine's and pleaded for sight of the ms. The abbot not only agreed
but actually dispatched messengers to bring it to Cairo, and with the
help of two Germans (who knew Greek) and a couple of others, it was
copied, eight pages at a time. In two months the job was finished.
Still one more hurdle. The monks of Sinai were looking for a new
abbot for their most senior post. They needed support from the Czar
of Russia. Tischendorf suggested a gift might help. They saw the
point. And what better than the sacred text! Which explains how it
came to be in Russia before the British bought it in 1933.

(Quotes from I.M. Price, The Ancestry of our English Bible, pp. 60-61.)
50 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

of biblical interpretation, abandoning the the author or the place of origin, and
methods of the mediaeval scholastics and sometimes used to add a prayer or sim-
expounding the text in accordance with ply to express a scribe's feelings.
the plain meaning of the words viewed in
their historical context. Colet exercised a Common Bible, The, 1973. An edition
considerable influence on Erasmus*, on of the RSV* published by Collins and
Sir Thomas More*, particularly with re- approved for use in the Roman Catholic
gard to biblical interpretation, and on Church. Its roots go back to 1953 when
Tyndale*. the Catholic Biblical Association ap-
proached the RSV Committee with a view
Colines, Simon de (1480-1546). A Par- to 'making a few amendments' so as to
isian printer, stepfather of Stephanus*, enable its adoption in the Roman Cath-
responsible for publishing the first at- olic Church, but unfortunately securing
tempt to achieve a critical edition* of the Catholic approval took too long and had
Greek NT, using Erasmus and the Com- to wait for the new spirit created by the
plutensian Polyglot*, with the addition of Second Vatican Council*, 1963-65, by
some unique readings. which time some Roman Catholic schol-
ars like Walter M. Abbott* and Robert M.
Cologne, Germany. The city in which Grant had been quietly assessing the
Coverdale's Bible was printed and possi- issues and preparing the ground.
bly the most likely place for the publica- In 1965 Nelson published 'a Roman
tion of the first English edition of the Catholic edition' of the RSV New Testa-
whole Bible, probably Coverdale's. ment, followed in 1966 by the whole
Home of Peter Quentel* and where Tyn- Bible, with the OT unchanged, the Apoc-
dale started to print his English NT rypha* interspersed throughout the OT,
before his enemies threatened him and he as in the Vulgate*, and an appendix listing
fled to Worms* taking with him 64 pages 93 verses involving 67 verbal changes, but
of print, subsequently known as the it was still a Catholic edition of a Protes-
Cologne Quarto*. tant Bible rather than an agreed text.
The Common Bible, 1973, had no
Cologne Quarto. Tyndale's* translation
Catholic notes and divided the Apoc-
of Matthew and the beginning of Mark,
rypha into two sections, separating those
plus a prologue, printed at Cologne* by which Roman Catholics had always
Peter Quentel*. No more were printed regarded as deuterocanonical from the
because the authorities stopped the work
rest.
on information received from Johannes
After a few more changes, and an
Cochlaeus*. Tyndale managed to prevent agreed common text under the leader-
them being destroyed and fled to ship of Martini* and Holmgren*, an
Worms*. The first 64 pages appeared in expanded edition from Oxford Univer-
1834 bound up in a volume with another sity Press in 1977 secured further sup-
work and are now in the British Library. port from the Eastern Orthodox, thus
Cologny, Switzerland. A suburb near producing what is described by some as
Geneva* and home of the Bodmer Lib- the first truly ecumenical edition of the
rary ofWorld Literature which houses the Bible in English.
Bodmer Papyri*.
Common Translation Corrected,
Colophon. A note, often found in 1718-24. A revised text of the AV* by
ancient mss., giving information about Edward Wells*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 51

Communication Theory. A recent point. Local or contemporary circum-

development in translation work giving stances sometimes required a particular
more attention to the impact made on emphasis.
the readers, recognizing, as with dynamic
equivalence*, that meaning depends on Complete Bible: An American
readers as much as on translations. Ear- Translation, 1927,1935 (revised), 1938
lier translators paid most attention to the (Apocrypha), 1939 (complete). A
intent and meaning of the work for the dynamic equivalence* translation, begin-
original author. Communication theory ning with The New Testament: An
raises the question of 'correct (transla- American Translation*, 1923, by Good-
tion) for whom', recognizing that differ- speed* to which was added first the OT
ent cultures, races, ages, etc., all read and by J.M. Powis Smith* and three other
understand differently. Adults differ scholars, including T.J. Meek* who was
from children, scholars from general responsible for the revised edition, and
readers, and so on. Words even have dif- (later) Goodspeed's translation of the
ferent meanings for different people and Apocrypha*. Powis Smith gave two rea-
at different times. 'Freedom (from slav- sons for making a new translation of
ery)' means something different for a the OT: one, a greater knowledge of the
slave from what it does for a free man. Hebrew language than the earlier transla-
'Grace' means something different today tors had, and, two, a greater awareness of
from what it did in the Middle Ages. the uncertainty of the Hebrew text and
the developments in textual criticism*
Compilations. Though some books of which enabled safer guesses to be made as
the Bible seem to have been written as a to the original. Translators mainly fol-
single, composite unit, such as Ruth or lowed the Masoretic Text* but were free
the letters of Paul, and some indeed with to adopt generally accepted conjectural
a specific purpose, such as Deuteronomy emendations .
or the Fourth Gospel, many appear to be Each book had a short introduction
compilations of material going back to and words like 'thee', thou' and 'doth'
much earlier times, Psalms and Proverbs were avoided altogether in the NT,
perhaps being the most obvious exam- though retained in the OT when refer-
ples from the Old Testament, and the ring to God. Widely popular among stu-
rest falling somewhere in between. dents and very refreshing to many oth-
Scholars, for example, have long recog- ers. The layout is that of a contemporary
nized the Pentateuch* as a compilation of book, with poetry printed as poetry and
material over many centuries, two (if not recovering some of the stylistic qualities
three or more) sources are thought to of poetry in the Hebrew. Published by
make up Isaiah, and many other books the University of Chicago Press.
suggest similar compilations.
In the case of the gospels the stories of Complutensian Polyglot, 1522. A
Jesus were obviously circulated and used printing of 600 copies of the complete
in worship in slightly different forms, Bible with the NT in Greek and Latin
and for different purposes, in the differ- and the OT in Hebrew, Greek and Latin,
ent centres of early Christianity and this all in parallel columns, plus a Greek-
helps to explain some of the variations Latin lexicon of the NT and a Hebrew-
between them. Nor were the compila- Latin dictionary with a Latin-Hebrew
tions altogether neutral. Editors and index and an etymological dictionary of
compilers often had their own view- biblical proper names, deriving its title
52 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

from the place of publication, Alcala* in times called variant readings* but in its
Spain, then called 'Complutum'. A tri- more sophisticated forms conflation may
umph of pre-Reformation scholarship result in two accounts of an event being
and the culmination of 50 years of print- blended together to form a consistent,
ing the Bible in ever-increasing scholarly though not always wholly consistent, nar-
form. rative. Identifying conflation is part of
The Hebrew text was based directly textual criticism*. The later the ms. the
on ms. tradition without relying on ear- more prevalent it is. See Conflations,
lier printed editions and was the first p. 53.)
edition of the text of the Hebrew Bible*
to be published under the direction and Confraternity Version, 1941. Based on
authority of Christian influences. current Roman Catholic Canon Law*, a
The earliest complete printed edition decision in the 1930s to undertake a fresh
of the Greek NT. Work started on the ms. translation of the Vulgate* led to a revi-
as early as 1502 by Cardinal Ximenes*, sion of the NT of the Douay-Rheims
Archbishop of Toledo, and it might have Bible* amounting almost to a new trans-
been the first Greek Bible to be published lation, carried out by the Episcopal Con-
had it not been beaten by Erasmus*. fraternity of Christian Doctrine and pub-
Though printed in 1514, publication was lished in the USA under the title, The
delayed until the whole work (6 vol- New Testament of our Lord and Savior Jesus
umes) was completed in 1517 and then Christ. Based on the latest Greek and Vul-
further delayed until 1522. gate texts, with special reference to those
The forerunner of the Antwerp*, places where the Greek and the Vulgate
Paris and London polyglots, all of which differ. Diction, grammar and syntax have
depended on it, and on the second Rab- been modernized but the form 'thou'
binic Bible*, but they too were all based remains. A start was made on a new
on mediaeval mss. of recent date and translation of the OT based on the best
scant critical worth. Hebrew texts, beginning with Genesis in
1948, and the rest was published in four
Concordant Version, 1926. A version volumes, 1952-59.
based on the principle that every word in Following the Second Vatican Coun-
the original should have its own English cil*, which authorized direct translation
equivalent, but it is rarely the case that from the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek,
the original word can always be translated the Episcopal Confraternity of Christian
by the same modern word, particularly Doctrine (which held the copyright)
when dealing with ancient languages. authorized an entirely new translation
from the original texts which resulted in
Confessio Ga//tca«a,1559. A statement the New American Bible*, 1970.
by the Reformed Churches relating to
decisions concerning the Apocrypha* at Conjectural Emendation. A practice
the Council of Trent, 1545-63*. by scholars (some would say a last
resort), much less common than it was
Conflation. The process by which 50 to 60 years ago, to determine what a
scribes, confronted by two different texts corrupt text, a text which seems not 'to
or two slightly different versions of the work', or one that is markedly out of line
same text in two different sources, pre- with other mss. or versions, might have
ferred to include both rather than choose read before it was corrupted, usually
between them. Simple cases are some- resulting in a new reading. Sometimes it
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 53

Conflation
Mk 13.11. Jesus counsels his disciples not 'to be anxious' beforehand
when facing their persecutors, but some mss. urge them not 'to prac-
tise beforehand' as does the Lukan parallel (21.14). Many mss. give
both.

Lk. 24.53. Some early mss. have 'in the temple praising God' (as in
NEB*) whereas others have 'blessing God' (as in NRSV*). Some later
mss. have 'praising and blessing' (as in AV ).

There is also evidence for the addition of'fasting' especially relating to

prayer, as the habit became more common, e.g., Mk 9.29; Acts 10.30;
1 Cor. 7.5.

Acts 20.28. Some early mss. have 'church of God' whereas others have
'church of the Lord'. Some later mss. have 'church of the Lord and
God'.

requires a change of a word, more often Sometimes what was once proposed
a consonant and occasionally only a as a conjectural emendation will come to
vowel. By definition, most emendations light in a newly discovered ms., as, for
require an element of guesswork or example, in the DSS*, at which point it
intuition and are of three kinds: ceases to be an emendation and becomes
a variant reading*.
Contextual Changes derived from a
specific understanding of the overall Constantino I, the Great (275-337).
setting. These are by far the most Roman Emperor who gave official recog-
common form of conjectural emen- nition to Christianity, previously a perse-
dation, and though many are highly cuted religion, and ordered 50 copies of
disputed a few are now generally the Greek Bible to be written on vellum*
accepted. for his capital, Constantinople*.
Linguistic. Changes derived from an
understanding of grammar. These are Constantinople, Turkey. In ancient
less frequent and most disputed since times, Byzantium. Christian monks and
there are limits to our understanding scholars kept a library of classical mss.
of Hebrew grammar and we can never here, including some of the NT in
presume that everybody writes gram- Greek, for hundreds of years prior to its
matically all the time anyway. capture by the Turks, 1453. Capital of the
Metrical Changes derived from ancient Greek-speaking world and
scholarly theories relating to Hebrew source for the Byzantine* text. City of
poetry, metre, stress, etc. Most schol- the Jerusalem Monastery where Philoth-
ars regard these emendations with a eos Bryennios* discovered some ancient
high degree of scepticism. OT documents. Now called Istanbul.
54 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Constitutions of Oxford, 1408. Under ance of traditionally theological language

the leadership of Thomas Arundel, Arch- and biblical words like 'atonement',
bishop of Canterbury, a synod of clergy at 'redemption', 'righteousness' and 'sancti-
Oxford passed 13 provisions against the fication'.
Lollards*. One provision forbade anyone
to translate, or even to read, a vernacular Contextual Emendation. See Conjec-
version of the Bible without approval tural Emendation.
from the bishop. They remained in force
until the establishment of Reformed reli-
gion in England. Contractions. When copying mss.
scribes often used a system of contrac-
Contemporary English Version, 1991 tions for certain sacred words (nomina
(NT), 1995 (complete). A dynamic sacra*), such as 'God', 'Lord', 'Israel',
equivalence* common language transla- 'Saviour' and 'Jerusalem', and this some-
tion, following in the tradition of Today's times led to errors in copying*. In
English Version while recognizing the Hebrew, contraction often meant using
changes in the English language over the just the first letter followed by the equiv-
last 20 years. Initiated in the mid-1980s alent of an apostrophe, for example, V
by Barclay M. Newman*, one of the for Yahweh'. In uncial* Greek, contrac-
translators of the Good News Bible*, and tions may be the first and last letters, the
the American Bible Society*. After study- first two and the last, or the first and the
ing popular forms of modern English to last two, and so on, and were usually
determine how people were speaking identified by a horizontal line over both
and hearing Newman became interested letters, much as we might use a full stop
in how people 'heard' when listening to to convey the idea of an abbreviation,
something being read aloud and felt the e.g., 0E for 'God', using the first and last
need to eliminate the rhythm and ca- letters of 0EOE, ITMA for 'spirit', using
dence of the Hebrew and Greek from the first and last two letters of IINEYMA,
the modern English. A test carried out on and K& for 'Lord', using two letters of
illustrated Bible passages among children KYPIQI. (See Contractions, p. 55)
showed the version to be so popular that
he decided to translate the entire Bible. Coptic Versions. Translations for the
The NT appeared on the 175th anniver- Coptic Church in the language used by
sary of the American Bible Society and Egyptian Christians from the third cen-
the OT 4 years later. tury. Essentially the non-cultivated
In the tradition of the AV*, based on speech of rural folk at a time when the
Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia for the OT and Egyptian aristocracy used Greek, Coptic
the (UBS) Greek New Testament* for was not committed to writing until
the NT, with an emphasis on a text that is around the third century and then solely
faithful to the original, and capable of for the purposes of Bible translation.
being read aloud by an experienced reader Derived from hieroglyphics, it developed
without stumbling, of being understood a simplified alphabetic script of 31 letters
by someone with limited English and ap- in Greek characters, of which 24 were
preciated regardless of religious or educa- borrowed from the Greek uncial script.
tional background, and with meticulous Of seven dialects, only three were
attention to line breaks because that is known until the 1880s, the first two
where most readers pause. Committed to being the most significant for biblical
gender-inclusive language and the avoid- studies:
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 55

Contractions
2 Chron. 21.2 describes Jehoshaphat as 'king of Israel' instead of king
of Judah, which may suggest that what the scribe saw was 'king of J',
both Israel and Judah beginning with the same letter in Hebrew.

Judg. 19.18. MT has TTO (byhy) (my house) and the LXX agrees, but if
the final ** (y) is separated and taken as the first letter of 'Yihweh' we
have *> TO 'house of Yahweh [or "the Lord"])'. Both are equally
acceptable translations, one reflected in the NRSV* and the other in the
AV , especially if you allow for scriptio continua*.

Jon. 1.9. MT has "HDU ({bry) ('a Hebrew') where the LXX appears to have
read *> "DU ('bdy y) ('a servant of the Lord'), treating the final ** (y) as a
contraction* for 'Yahweh' and then reading (or misreading) the "1 (r) as

Jer. 6.11. MT has TIDn (hmty) and the LXX translates 'my wrath', but
some mss. have 'the wrath of Yahweh' by making a word division*
before the final ** (y) and treating it as a contraction* for 'Yahweh'.

Rom. 12.11. Some scribes appear to have read KQ, a contraction* for
KYPIQ ('Lord'), as KPQ (a contraction of 'the opportune time'), as in
the RV margin.

Sahidic: in the south (Upper Egypt), John Fell* in his Greek edition of the
in the second to the third centuries CE, NT, 1675.
the standard literary language over the Fayyumic: in the region of Oasis
whole of Egypt from the fourth century Fayyum.
and the language of educated people
until the eighth to ninth centuries, when Coptic versions of the OT were made
it was superseded by Bohairic. The old- from the LXX* and the John Rylands
est version of the Sahidic is 270 CE and Library, Manchester*, has a Bohairic
by 370 CE all the books of the Bible had Coptic text of Job and a Sahidic Coptic
been translated into it. text of Ecclesiasticus both going back to
Bohairic: in the north (Lower Egypt), the fourth to fifth centuries. It is not
in the third century CE, which took over known when the earliest Coptic transla-
from the Sahidic in the fourth century, tions of the NT were made but probably
gained mastery in the ninth and contin- by the end of the second or the beginning
ues to be used as the only dialect in the of the third centuries. The most exten-
liturgy of the Coptic Orthodox church. sive Bohairic ms. to come to light is one
Bohairic mss. are numerous though late, of the Fourth Gospel, part of the Bod-
twelfth to fourteenth centuries. Used by mer* Collection, dated from the fourth
56 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

century, containing 239 numbered pages, ficent facsimile edition. Interest in Cop-
though the first 22 are badly damaged. tic versions of the NT was stimulated by
Coptic versions of the Bible appeared the discovery of a library of Coptic writ-
only in fragments until the beginning of ings at Nag Hammadi* in Upper Egypt
the twentieth century and this is still in 1945.
largely the case, but in 1910, in the ruins The standard edition of the Bohairic
of the monastery of Archangel Michael, Coptic is that of George W Horner, four
archaeologists found a large collection of volumes published in London, 1898-
ancient and complete Sahidic mss. dated 1905, complete with introduction, criti-
somewhere between the first half of the cal apparatus and full English translation.
ninth and the latter half of the tenth The Coptic Orthodox Society published
centuries. Fifty-six were biblical works a one-volume edition of the Bohairic NT
and included six complete books of the in 1934, using Tattam's text published by
OT (Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, SPCK, 1847-52. (See Coptic, below)
1 and 2 Samuel and Isaiah), three com-
plete gospels (Matthew, Mark and John), Coptos, Egypt. Now known as Qift.
fouteen letters of Paul, 1 and 2 Peter, and Site of the discovery of an ancient
1,2 and 3 John. They were subsequently papyrus* mss., dated c. 200, by John Vin-
acquired by the Pierpont Morgan Library cent Scheil* in 1889.
in New \brk and published in a magni-

Coptic
The origins of Christianity in Egypt are obscure. If the words, 'in his
own country', in Codex Bezae* (Acts 18.25) are accepted as reliable they
suggest that Christianity had reached Alexandria (as it had Rome) by 50
CE. There is certainly evidence of a number of Christian documents
(mainly apocryphal gospels* and the like but including the John Frag-
ment*) circulating there in the second century, and the Chester Beatty*,
Oxyrhynchus* and Bodmer papyri* are all conservatively dated in the
early third century.
Monasticism dates from the third century, possibly beginning with
Anthony (251-356) who decided in 271 to give all he had to the poor
and go into the desert to live the life of a hermit. Athanasius, his biog-
rapher, says it all started one Sunday when he heard Mt. 19.21 read in a
little village church in southern Egypt. And when Pachomius, the
founder of coenobitic monasticism in Egypt, composed his rules c. 320
he required all aspirants to be able to read 20 psalms or 2 epistles or
some other parts of the scriptures, and those who could not read were
to learn it by heart, all of which suggests that most of the NT and the
psalms already existed in the vernacular at that time.
Coptic* represents the final stage in the development of ancient
Egyptian, the language of Egypt long before the Christian era, the word
being derived from the Arabic Qobt, a shortened form of the Greek for
Egyptian.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 57

Copying. The copying of ancient mss. Corinthians and part of Ephesians. The
among Jews was a skilled and disciplined work was published in 1937 under the
procedure. Corruptions occured, never- title, St Paul from the Trenches*, 1937.
theless, and if a scribe made a mistake or
found anything which he considered to Corrections. See Corrections, p. 59.
be a mistake, either by a previous scribe See Copying.
or by a reader, there were recognized pro-
cedures for correcting it. These included Corruptions. A technical term for mis-
cancellation dots, erasure, additions above takes in mss., usually due to copying*
the line, a note in the margin, reshaped and of two kinds: accidental and inten-
letters or brackets. Sometimes additions tional.
were made and corrections set alongside In the OT accidental corruptions may
an error were always liable to creep into be due to damage to the papyrus* or vel-
the main text at a later date lum*, unclear handwriting, word spaces
The same rigidity did not apply to or boundaries to text, similar letters*,
early Christian scribes, many of whom similar sounds*, dittography*, doublets*,
were not professional scribes but edu- haplography*, homoioteleuton*, homoio-
cated people making copies for their arcton* or the transmission from early
church, friends and family, some of Hebrew cursive script to the later square
whom felt free to exercise their individu- characters. Intentional corruptions may
ality or give rein to their inspiration. be due to deliberate (though often ran-
Moreover, particularly in the early days, dom and sometimes thoughtless) textual
they were expecting the imminent return transmission. Issues, however, are rarely
of Christ and did not see themselves as clear-cut and what looks like corruption
producing sacred text. From the fourth to one may be regarded as correct (or
century onwards, with help from the even an improvement) to another.
state, scriptoria were set up where one In the NT, accidental corruptions
person dictated the text and several arise for similar reasons and account for
scribes wrote it down. As the text became the vast majority of the variant readings*.
more established and recognized as NT texts, however, are more prone to
'sacred' copying procedures improved intentional changes, which may be addi-
and copied texts became remarkably sim- tions* from different oral or liturgical tra-
ilar, but errors of sight and sound, addi- ditions, from groups with a special inter-
tions, omissions*, and variant readings* est (such as those who appeared anxious
all nevertheless crept in. Later mss. to stress fasting as well as prayer), by
tended to be copied more by monks pious scribes, the fruit of doctrinal bias
working alone in monasteries. (See or simply an attempt at harmonization*.
Copying and Correcting, pp. 58-59.) Most of them happened before the year
200 and as yet there is no means of get-
Cornish, Gerald Warre (1875-1916). ting back to earlier versions.
Born and educated at Eton and Cam- Some help with countering corrup-
bridge. Ordained priest. Master ofSun- tions can be gained from a study of par-
ningdale School. Lecturer in Greek at allel texts* or (because of their dating) the
Manchester University prior to being DSS*, but in neither OT nor NT can
killed in action in 1916. Among his one presume to get back to a single orig-
belongings was found a muddy copy- inal autograph* or urtext*. (See Corrup-
book containing a translation of 1 and 2 tions, p. 59.)
58 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

The Price of Copying

Copying* manuscripts was laborious, painstaking, time-consuming, not
particularly rewarding, and expensive. Scribes in a fourth-century scrip-
torium were normally paid per line. In 301 CE Emperor Diocletian set
the rate at 25 denarii per 100 lines for top quality production and 20 for
medium quality. On this basis Kendall Harris calculated that the cost of
producing one copy of the Bible (say Codex Sinaiticus) would be about
30,000 denarii.
But there was more to the cost of copying than money. There was
posture. As late as the Middle Ages scribes would stand or sit on a stool
or bench, holding the scroll on their lap and so coordinating knee, mss.,
right hand and stylus, but even at a desk or table sitting in that posture
copying for six hours a day month after month must have taken its
physical toll.
No wonder scribes occasionally worked off their feelings through a
note or colophon, like the one frequently found in non-biblical mss.
which says, 'He who does not know how to write supposes it to be no
labour; but though only three fingers write, the whole body labours'.
Other similar notes were.
Writing bows one's back, thrusts the ribs into one's stomach, and fosters a
general debility of the body.
As travellers rejoice to see their home country, so also is the end of a book
to those who toil [in writing].
The end of the book—thanks be to God!

Even the elements took their toll and in one Armenian ms. of the
gospels the scribe complains in a colophon that a heavy snowstorm was
raging outside, the ink froze, his hand became numb and he dropped his
pen!
As if that were not enough, there were also punishments for poor
workmanship. In one monastery in Constantinople, in the ninth cen-
tury, a scribe whose work suffered because he got too interested in what
he was copying was liable to be put on bread and water. Soiled or untidy
parchment called for 130 penances and the penalty for taking somebody
else's parchment or using too much glue, 50.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 59

Corrections
1 Sam. 18.10 refers to 'an evil spirit from God', which has led some
commentators to suggest that 'evil' may have been inserted in the mar-
gin by a scribe, unable to change the word 'God' but not wishing to
attribute some of Saul's behaviour to him, intending it as an alternative
or even a 'corrected' reading, but which then finished up in the main
text.
The quotation attributed to Jeremiah in Mt. 27.9 is actually from
Zechariah (11.12-13), which may explain why some mss. omit the
name and others appear to have changed it. Similarly, the quotation
attributed to Isaiah in Mk 1.2 is also in Malachi, which may explain why
some later mss. read simply 'in the prophets'.
'After three days' in Mk 8.31 seems to have presented problems to
some scribes so that it became 'on the third day'.
The discrepancy between Jn 7.8 where Jesus says he is not going up
to the feast and two verses later where he says he is apparently led some
scribes to change 'not' to 'not yet'.
Since Heb. 9.4 places the golden altar of incense in the Holy of
Holies (forbidden in Exod. 30.1-6), Codex Vaticanus* and the translator
of the Ethiopic version* move the words to v. 2 where the furniture is
simply being itemized.

Corruptions
Judg. 11.20 offers a good example of a double (or even treble) corrup-
tion, the result of homoioteleuton* and metathesis*.
MT has 'and Sihon did not trust Israel to cross his border' but some ver-
sions*, presumably working from an earlier Hebrew text, have 'refused
to allow'. So how could an early Hebrew 'refused to allow' ever become
the MT 'did not trust'?
First, by homoioteleuton , 'to allow' may have been overlooked by a
scribe because of its similarity to the following word or simply omitted
because it seemed not to make sense. Second, by metathesis, the acci-
dental transposition of two letters "* and K (y and ') into K and ** (' and y)
turns 'DR (my) ('he refused') into KIT (ym') ('he trusted'), and since that
makes no sense a later scribe added the negative to give 'did not'.

1 Sam. 1.24 offers a good example of a double corruption* as a result

ofmatres lectionis* and word division*.
MT (followed by the Vulgate*) has mztfTtf DnSD (bprym Slosh) ('with
three bulls'), as in the AV*, but if you omit the matres lectionis* * and 1 (y,
6) you have flti^C? D1DD (bprm $sh). A different word division* then
gives you JICD^Q "ISD (bpr mJ/J/i) ('a three-year-old bull'), as in the Syr-
iac*, the uoc* and the NRSV*.
60 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Council of Carthage, 397. Confirmed translated books from Latin and German
the biblical canon approved at the into English. Returned to England under
Council of Hippo*, 393, and possibly the Edward VI, became Bishop of Exeter in
first official endorsement of the 27 1551 and enjoyed two years of Bible
books which now make up the NT. translation, during which time he was
involved in later editions of the Great
Council of Hippo, 393. Set out a bibli- Bible*. Deposed under Mary Tudor in
cal canon for the OT similar to that of 1553 and went into exile for a third time,
Augustine*. Accepted the 27 books of this time in Geneva*, where he had con-
the NT, but separated Hebrews from the tact with the Reformers working on the
letters of Paul. The records were lost but Geneva Bible*. Returned to England in
were subsequently confirmed at the 1559 for the last time and took part in the
Council of Carthage*, 397. The Council consecration of Matthew Parker* as
of Carthage, 419, issued the same NT Archbishop of Canterbury.
list but included Hebrews with Paul. Besides Coverdale's Bible* he revised
Matthew's Bible* at the request of
Council of Laodicea, c. 363. Deter- Cromwell to produce the Great Bible*,
mined what psalms could be used in the published a revised NT with the Latin
churches and listed the books of the OT Vulgate* in parallel columns in 1538, and
canon, which was the same as that of his version of the Psalms is used in the
Athanasius* except that it combined Book of Common Prayer, 1662.
Ruth and Judges and followed it imme-
diately with Esther. Coverdale's Bible, 1535. The first com-
plete printed edition of the Bible in Eng-
Council of Trent, 1545-63. Deter- lish, probably published in Cologne*, and
mined the limits of the OT canon to quickly imported to Britain. A dedication
include the Hebrew Bible*, as accepted to Henry VIII* was added in the second
by Protestants, plus Tobit, Judith, Wis- edition (1537), printed in England.
dom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and 1 Henry sought the advice of the bishops
and 2 Maccabees, an addition which led and when they assured him that it con-
to Protestant reaction in the Confessio tained no heresy he assisted in its publi-
Gatticana* and Belgica*. cation and distribution; thus it became
the first English Bible to circulate freely
Coverdale, Miles (148&-1569). Born in without opposition from the ecclesiasti-
York*, educated in Cambridge, an cal authorities. In some churches it was
Augustinian friar (until 1528) and even- one of the first Chained Bibles*.
tually a bishop. Worked as an assistant to Unlike Tyndale*, Coverdale was
Tyndale* on the continent, 1528-35, more an editor than a translator and,
helping him with the translation of the knowing little or no Hebrew and Greek,
Pentateuch* and possibly following him made considerable use of Tyndale's*
from Hamburg to Antwerp*. Enjoyed translation and acknowledged his debt to
the patronage of Ann Boleyn and the Vulgate*, Luther, Zwingli and Pagni-
Thomas Cromwell* on his return in nus. His best work is in the poetical and
1535, but with Ann's execution and prophetic books and he provided the
Cromwell's fall he was in danger again translation of the Psalms for the Book of
and returned to the continent in 1540 Common Prayer, 1662. First Bible to
where he stayed until Henry VIIFs death introduce chapter summaries and mar-
in 1547, mostly in Strasbourg* where he ginal notes, and, following Luther, to
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 61

separate the Apocrypha* from the rest of Critical Edition. Since there is a wealth
the OT. Phrases from Coverdale which of mss. and textual data, since nobody
have survived in subsequent English can be competent enough in all areas to
versions include 'lordly dish' (Judg. do all their own evaluations, and since
5.25) and 'enter thou into the joy of thy years of scholarship is scattered around
Lord' (Mt. 25.21, 23). in commentaries, journals and mono-
There are two forms: an earlier form, graphs, it is necessary to have one basic
13 x 8 inches, printed in double columns text, complete with the most significant
in a German black-letter type, with 68 variations, known as a critical apparatus*,
woodcuts providing 158 illustrations, to which all can refer.
many ornamental letters and a map of the Bearing in mind everything to be
Holy Land, and a later one with the pre- considered there are basically two ways
lims in the English black letter. Reprinted of compiling such an edition. One way
(with some revisions) by James Nicolson is to take one ms. as being generally the
(1537), by Christoph Froschauer (1550) most acceptable (e.g. Codex Vaticanus*),
and by Richard Jugge (1553), but its true make that the basic text, and then fill in
successor was the Great Bible, 1539*. the gaps from other established mss. and
Two copies in the British Library. draw attention to variant readings , etc.,
in the margin or at the foot of the page.
Cranmer, Thomas (1489-1556). Arch- The other way is to collate all the avail-
bishop of Canterbury, 1533-56. Very able sources (mss., versions, quotations,
sympathetic to Bible translation and anx- etc.) and then choose what the editor
ious to secure royal authority for an Eng- considers to be the 'best' reading in each
lish version. In 1534, an attempt to secure case, thus producing an eclectic text.
approval for such a version from the Two critical editions of the Hebrew
bishops having failed, Convocation asked Bible are Biblica hebraica* and the
Cranmer to put the request to the king Hebrew University Bible Project*. In
and when Matthew's Bible* appeared the NT, Swete*, 1887-91, is a good
Cranmer worked for a royal licence and example of the single text, Rahlfs*, 1935
secured it. Wrote the Preface for the 1540 and later editions, the eclectic. Other
and subsequent editions of the Great critical editions of the New Testament
Bible . Executed in the period of reaction include Souter*, 1910, von Soden*, 1913,
that followed the accession of Mary* to and Nestle*, 1898, revised 1979, which
the throne. led to the (UBS) Greek New Testa-
ment*.
Cranmer's Bible, 1539. Another name
for the Great Bible*. Cromwell, Thomas (1485-1540).
Chief minister of Henry VIII*. Sup-
Critical Apparatus. Editions of the ported Coverdale* in his Bible translation
Hebrew Bible*, the LXX* and Greek Tes- by financing him and thereby financing
taments* are either based on one partic- the very first Bible to be printed in Eng-
ular source or are a reconstruction from lish, 1535. Cooperated with Cranmer* in
several sources, but in both cases variant the production of Matthew's Bible* and
readings* in other sources are noted in received from the king in 1539 the exclu-
the margin and in some cases evaluated. sive right for five years to grant a licence
This information forms the critical for the printing of the Bible in English.
apparatus and the result is known as a Directed the preparation of the Great
critical edition*. Bible* and saw it through to its comple-
62 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

tion, motivated in part by what he saw as invention of the alphabet, which in the
the weakness of the two English Bibles case of the Phoenician script amounted
already in existence: Coverdale's, because to 22 letters, written from right to left, c.
it had been compiled from various 1150 BCE.
sources and was not a translation from
the Hebrew and Greek, and Matthew's Cureton, William (1808-64). Born at
because it was a compilation of transla- Westbury, Shropshire, and educated at
tions of varying value whose marginal Christ Church, Oxford. Ordained a
notes at points reflected controversy. priest. Sub-librarian at the Bodleian
Cromwell secured the services of Cov- Library, Oxford*, and then Assistant
erdale to prepare a revised Bible free Keeper of Ancient Manuscripts at the
from these objections. Became Earl of British Museum, where he prepared a
Essex in 1540 and was beheaded soon classified statement of Arabic mss. When
afterwards on Tower Hill. Unsuccessful a batch of Syriac mss. which had come to
in his attempts to save Tyndale*. light in a monastery in Egypt arrived in
the British Museum he learned the lan-
Cruden, Alexander (1699-1770). Born guage and in the course of classifying
and educated in Aberdeen* and pre- them recognized a previously unknown
vented by ill health from entering the version of the gospels in Old Syriac*.
Presbyterian ministry. Instead he went
into teaching at the age of 21 and, after Curious Hieroglyphic Bible, 1784. A
several tutorships, moved to London in second printing of the first English
1732 where he opened a book shop in hieroglyphic Bible, copying earlier vol-
the Royal Exchange. In 1737 he began umes in Latin, German and Dutch, rep-
working on his Complete Concordance to the resenting select Bible passages with
Old and New Testaments, described as 'a emblems and adding a short account on
dictionary and alphabetical index to the the lives of writers of the gospels. It ran
Bible', based on the AV*, and containing to several editions.
over 225,000 references, first published
in 1844 and today renowned throughout Cursive. A 'running' form of writing
the English-speaking world. There was a Greek, mainly for non-literary purposes
major revision by William Youngman in such as personal letters, accounts, bills,
1920 followed by another by C.H. Irwin, receipts, deeds and petitions, etc., and
AD. Adams and S.A Waters. Published very popular in the early days of Chris-
from 1839 by the Religious Tract Society, tianity. Some of Paul's letters, especially
subsequently the United Society for those addressed to individuals, may have
Christian Literature, and Lutterworth been written in this way. It was a
Press. modification of the uncial* script by
rounding off the letters and joining
Cuneiform. The oldest form of writ- them up. In the eighth or ninth cen-
ing, probably invented in Mesopotamia turies it led to another form of cursive,
c. 3400 BCE. A pictographic system writ- the minuscule*.
ten with a stylus on clay, originally in
vertical columns starting at the top right- Cyril of Jerusalem (315-86). Bishop of
hand corner and working left. Adopted Jerusalem, from c. 349. In his catechism
and modified in Akkadian c. 3000-2500. of 348 he claimed that the OT canon*,
Vertical writing continued until c. 1100 consisting of 22 books, was the Jewish
BCE when it was superseded by the Scriptures as found in the LXX* plus
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 63

Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah. Judith, Tobit and Susanna, were to be
Other books, including 2 and 3 Mac- regarded as permitted reading. In the NT
cabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Psalms and he accepted the four Gospels, Acts, 14
Odes of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Esther, letters of Paul and the Pastoral Epistles.
 D

Daily Study Bible, 1954-57. Seventeen the Plymouth Brethren, who are its main
volumes of Bible readings and commen- users, of a version which had already
tary by William Barclay*, published by appeared in French as the Pau Bible*, and
the St Andrew Press, to give the general in German as the Elberfeld Bible*, closely
reader the benefits of modern scholar- shadowing the AV* and paying particular
ship in a form which is precise and mean- attention to the different ways of refer-
ingful, yet free from technical and theo- ring to God in the OT. The NT con-
logical terms and able to demonstrate its tained a full critical apparatus* and was
relevance for today. Each volume con- consulted by the revisers of the RV*, but
tains a new translation into modern Eng- the OT was incomplete when Darby
lish so as to provide text and comments died and was finished from the French
side by side. Followed by an OT series by and German versions.
a wider variety of authors.
Dead Sea Scrolls. Sometimes described
Damasus I (304-84). Controversial as 'the greatest ms. discovery of modern
pope who did much to resist heresy and times', mainly because of the light they
strengthen the position of the see of throw on ancient Bible texts and the evi-
Rome. Invited Jerome* in 382 to make a dence they provide for writing*, literary
fresh translation of the Bible into Latin. activity in general and a variety of textual
traditions.
Darby, John Nelson (1800-82). Born The original discoveries by an Arab
in London and educated at Westminster boy in 1947 were 11 scrolls of ancient
School and Trinity College, Dublin. leather and bronze in earthenware jars,
Called to the Irish Bar but then got him- some containing literary compositions,
self ordained and became one of the and now located in the Hebrew Univer-
leaders of the Brethren Movement. sity in Jerusalem.
Worked and travelled extensively in Subsequent excavations showed them
Europe and North America and was to be part of a collection of about 800
involved in hymn writing and in Bible texts, mostly fragmentary, in Hebrew,
translations into German and French, Aramaic and Greek, biblical and extra-
subsequently adapted into English and biblical, found in the Judean Desert,
known as Darby's Translation , 1871—85. 1947-56, the most important being in
Cave 4 at Qumran*, half-a-mile away
Darby's Translation, 1871-85. An Eng- from the first discovery, and probably
lish adaptation, by one of the founders of copied somewhere between 250 BCE and
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 65

150 CE. Most of the biblical scrolls are light on the state of the Hebrew text at a
now thought to belong to the first cen- time for which there was no previous
tury CE though some may go back to the evidence and assist our understanding of
second century BCE. the history of the Hebrew language.
Among the early discoveries was an Similarity to the Pre-Samaritan Texts*
almost complete copy of Isaiah in has helped scholars to distinguish
Hebrew, subsequently used by the trans- between the text of the Samaritan Penta-
lators of the RSV*. Fragments of all the teuch and the earlier texts which gave it
books of the OT except Esther were dis- birth. (See The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 65).
covered subsequently, though most were
small. Little is known about their origin Defective Reading. A Hebrew word
or how they came to be there, but where one or more of the mains lectionis*
because they come from different places is missing.
and belong to different periods they pro-
vide scholars with an interesting textual de Lagarde (1827-91). A nineteenth-
variety. century scholar who took the views of
Texts, which represent a stage in the Bauer* regarding the possibility of an
Hebrew tradition roughly contemporary urtext* for the Hebrew Bible and applied
with the consonantal text of Rabbi them to the Bible as a whole, classifying
Akibah* but prior to vocalization*, pro- mss. according to their recensional fam-
vide some contrasting surprises. Some ilies* in order to make a judgment on
from Cave 1, for example, show a sur- their variant readings* with the intention
prising agreement with the Masoretic of arriving at a text corresponding more
Text of the ninth and tenth centuries, closely to the original.
thus testifying to a considerable consis-
tency in transmission. Others from Cave de Vaux, Roland (1903-71). French
4 differ from the Masoretic Text but Dominican, Director of the Ecole
agree significantly with the LXX*, thus Biblique, nick-named the 'mountain
reflecting a Hebrew text that differed goat' because of his restless and energetic
from the Masoretic Text and so demon- manner. An archaeologist involved in
strating the existence of considerable excavations and discoveries at Qumran*,
textual pluralism. one of the leaders in the translation of La
By focusing attention on the Hebrew Bible deJerusalem in 1946, and a key figure
texts at a time when almost as much value in the production of the Jerusalem
was placed on Greek, Latin and Aramaic Bible*, especially the Old Testament.
sources as on the Hebrew, they increase
our understanding of Jewish interpreta- Deuteronomy Fragment. Eight papy-
tions, of the relationship between the var- rus fragments of Deuteronomy in Greek,
ious textual witnesses, and of the histori- six of which give readable text from
cal process of the translation of the Bible Deuteronomy 23-28, a pre-Christian
into other languages. portion of the Greek Old Testament, dat-
By ante-dating previous biblical texts ing back to the second century BCE and
by several hundred years, and so provid- therefore earlier than any other mss. of
ing a picture of the biblical text which the Greek Bible. After being abandoned
may go back as far as the second century as a literary text some of its blank sides
BCE, especially those texts from which were used for financial accounts, and
the Masoretic Text and the Samaritan later still the papyrus sheets were used as
Pentateuch* emerged later, they throw packing round a mummy! Unlike most
66 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Shortly before the end of British rule in Palestine, late 1946 or early
1947, a shepherd boy, who enjoyed searching for caves and was mind-
ing his sheep on the shores of the Dead Sea, amused himself by throw-
ing stones at an opening in the cliffs. All at once, one of the stones went
into a cave and he heard the sound of broken pottery.
Neither he nor his two companions thought any more of it, but two
days later, unbeknown to the others, one of them got up early and
squeezed himself into the cave where he found ten jars, each about two
feet high, all but two of which were empty. One of the two contained
nothing but dirt. The other had three scrolls, two of which were
wrapped in linen. They were later identified as a copy of Isaiah, a Man-
ual of Discipline (setting out rules for a community) and a commentary
on Habakkuk. Four additional scrolls were found later and removed.
They took them to an antiquities dealer who shared his find with St
Mark's Monastery in Jerusalem, but at this point nobody had any idea as
to their value, so a deal was made whereby the Bedouin would receive
two-thirds of what the antiquities dealer received. But the whole opera-
tion at this stage was low-key rather than secretive, and there is a famous
story of how when the Bedouin kept an appointment at the monastery
to complete the transaction the door was answered by a monk who was
unaware of the arrangement and turned away 'the poorly dressed tribes-
men', thus nearly depriving the monastery of a chance to acquire such
treasure. Fortunately the error was soon rectified and the monastery pur-
chased four scrolls for about £25.
The monastery needed professional help to evaluate what they had
purchased and turned, among others, to Professor Sukenik of the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The British Mandate was almost at an
end. Palestine was a dangerous place to be. Travel was difficult. But
when Sukenik heard that a dealer in Bethlehem had 'some ancient
scrolls' he made a secret visit on the very day that the United Nations
created the State of Israel and bought the three remaining scrolls. Two
months later he was shown the four scrolls held by the monastery
though he did not then know they had come from the same place. He
tried to buy them. The monastery refused to sell, so that from the
beginning the Dead Sea Scrolls were split into two groups and pub-
lished under different auspices.
The discovery was announced by the press in 1948. The first archae-
ological excavation was in 1949, and led to further discoveries and fresh
information concerning the Dead Sea Community, the Essenes and
ancient texts at a time of considerable significance in Christian history.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 67

surviving copies of the LXX*, which are twice instead of once, sometimes as a
Christian in origin, this ms. is unam- result of parablepsis , and so producing a
biguously Jewish and close in time to the different word or meaning. The opposite
original translation of the Torah into is haplography*. (See Dittography, below)
Greek. Now located in the John Rylands
Library, Manchester*. divinatio. The Latin term for conjectural
emendation*.
Dissenter. A general term (still in popu-
lar use) to refer to nonconformists at the Documents of the Christian Church,
time of the Reformation, mainly Bap- 1934. An independent translation of the
tists, Congregationalists and Presbyteri- books of the NT, expanded and with
ans, arising from the fact that two from explanatory phrases in italics, in what
each of these three churches formed the their author, G.C. Wade, believed to be
Dissenting Deputies in 1732, an official their chronological order, plus historical
lobby to deal with the civil disabilities and critical introduction and notes.
which they suffered as a result of the Test
and Corporation Acts, 1662. Dodd, Charles Harold (1884-1973).
Born in Wrexham, son of a school
Dittography. The copyist's error of teacher, and educated at University Col-
writing a letter, word, verse or passage lege, Oxford, where he got a Double First

Dittography
Isa. 30.30. Some mss. repeat 'shall make heard'.
Isa. 31.6. Some mss. repeat 'to him'.
Jer. 51.3. Some mss. repeat 'draw'.
1 Thess. 2.7. Some mss. read 'we were gentle' (eyevf|6r|jiev f|7iioi), as
in AV and NRSV, whereas others read 'we were infants'
(eyevr|0T|jLi£v vf|7iioi), as in NRSV margin, a difference
readily appreciated if a scribe accidentally repeated the let-
ter V, particularly if there was no word division*, and
even more understandable if the error is found mostly in
later mss. or in versions* which used them.
Mt. 27.17. Some mss. insert 'Jesus' before 'Barabbas', as in NRSV, and
others omit it as noted in NRSV margin. What is not clear
is whether it is dittography*, the last two letters of the pre-
vious word, i)^dv, ('for you') being repeated and then read
as an abbreviation for 'Jesus', or haplography*, which may
explain its absence from other mss.
Mk 12.27. Some mss. repeat 'God'.
Acts 19.34. Codex Vaticanus* repeats 'Great is Diana of the Eph-
esians'.
68 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

in Greats. After a short spell teaching in Latin. The Vulgate was chosen because
Leeds and Oxford, he was ordained to the Council of Trent*, 1545-63, had
the Congregational ministry and settled determined that the ancient and vulgar
in Warwick before becoming Principal of version should be regarded as authentic.
Mansfield College, Oxford, followed by The order of books in the Vulgate is fol-
professorial appointments in Manchester lowed, which means that the books of the
and Cambridge. Vice-Chairman of the Apocrypha* are not collected together as
Joint Committee and Convenor for the in Protestant Bibles.
NT panel of the NEB*. Appointed Gen- The NT was re-printed in 1600,1621
eral Director for the whole translation in and 1633 and the whole Bible in 1635 but
1949. there was no thorough revision until the
fifth edition by Bishop Richard Chal-
Doddridge, Philip (1702-51). Author of loner* in 1738, which he saw not so
one of three popular eighteenth-century much as an editing of the text as a revi-
translations of the NT, 1739-56, the other sion, the language of the earlier version
two being George Campbell's* translation being largely unintelligible to English
of the gospels and James MacKnight's* Catholics, and it is this version which is
translation of the epistles. In 1818 a com- commonly referred to as the Douay-
bined translation appeared in London, Rheims Bible, though it might more
subsequently revised and published by properly be called the Rheims-Challoner
Alexander Campbell* in 1826. or Douay-Challoner. Contains many
annotations, mainly to interpret the text
Douay, France. Home of the English in line with the faith as the editors under-
College for Roman Catholics founded stood it. Five further editions of the NT
by William Allen*. followed, 1749-72, and two editions of
the OT, 1750-63. In 1810 the Challoner
Douay-Challoner. See Douay-Rheims Bible was authorized for use by the Eng-
Bible. lish-speaking Roman Catholics of Amer-
ica. Many other revisions followed, some
Douay-Rheims Bible, 1582 (NT), originating in Britain and others in
1610 (complete). A translation made America.
from the Latin Vulgate*, begun in 1578 by In 1941 a group of 27 Catholic schol-
many prominent Roman Catholics who ars undertook a new translation of the
fled to France to avoid persecution when NT from the Latin, a revision of the
Elizabeth I* succeeded Mary* Tudor. Challoner-Rheims Version. It takes the
Gregory Martin* was the main translator, older versions of the Vulgate into
with revisions by William Allen* and account and refers to the Greek varia-
Richard Bristow* and notes by Thomas tions in the notes. Modern paragraphing
Worthington*. The NT was published is used and poetic forms are recognized.
first at Rheims and the OT subsequently
in two volumes at Douay*, though the Doublets. A form of conflation* as a
OT was actually translated first. Later result of repeating or combining two or
revised, authorized by the Roman Cath- more different accounts of the same
olic Church for public and private use, event, sometimes done deliberately to
and used by many English Catholics. preserve different readings.
A fairly literal translation, sometimes
intelligible and sometimes meaningful Driver, Godfrey Rolles (1892-1975).
only to those who already understood the Son of S.R. Driver* and Oxford Profes-
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 69

sor of Semitic Philology. Succeeded sense' rather than verbal equivalence or

T.H. Robinson as Convenor for the OT 'word for word', first proposed by
panel of the NEB* in 1950 and Joint Eugene Albert Nida*, as an approach to
Director with C.H. Dodd* for the whole Bible translation to help translators in dif-
translation from 1965. ferent cultures, and developed by Cecil
Hargreaves who identified two main-
Driver, Samuel Rolles (1846-1914). stream movements in twentieth-century
Oxford Professor of Hebrew and a English Bible translations. One, a general
member of the Old Testament panel for idiomatic, or 'phrase by phrase', approach
the RV*, whose literary contribution to so as to produce the overall meaning of
the world of OT scholarship, and partic- the text in modern English, such as we
ularly his commentaries on Genesis, did find in Moffatt*, Goodspeed*, Phillips*,
much to make German Old Testament Knox*, the JB*, the NEB*, the REB*, the
scholarship better known and more New Century Version* and the New Liv-
acceptable to the English-speaking ing Translation*; the other, a common-
world. language approach which emerged as a
result of the efforts by the American
Dublin. Home of Chester Beatty, an Bible Society* to use linguistic analysis to
American collector of mss. and discov- translate the Bible in international mis-
erer of the Chester Beatty Papyri*, and sion contexts, such as we find in Today's
location of the Beatty Museum. English \fersion , the Good News Bible*
and the Contemporary English Version*.
Dynamic Equivalence. A method of Some similarities to communication
translation* which aims at 'sense for theory*.
 E

Eadfrith (seventh century). Bishop of Egerton Papyrus 2. A fragment, some-

Lindisfarne and scribe of the Lindisfarne times known as The Unknown Gospel'
Gospels*. because of its similarity to the four
gospels (John in particular) and dating
Edinburgh, Scotland. Home of from c. 150.
Alexander Arbuthnot*, a printer who
secured permission to print the first Egyptian Recension. See Recension.
Bibles in Scotland, 1575, subsequently
appointed king's printer, and of Andrew El Bahnasa, Egypt. The modern name
Hart , another Bible printer. for the ancient city of Oxyrhynchus*.

Edward VI (1537-53). Studied at Cam- Elberfeld Bible, 1871. The German

bridge under Sir John Cheke , Professor name for Darby's Translation*.
of Greek, and interested in Bible transla-
tion. Affirmed his devotion to the Bible Elephantine Papyri. A collection of
at his coronation. Reacted against the writings in Aramaic, on papyrus*, from
reactionary trends at the close of his Elephantine, a Jewish military colony on
father's reign and encouraged a pro- an island in the Nile, close by the mod-
gramme of reform. Ordered (in the first ern Aswan in Southern Egypt, and dis-
year of his reign) one copy of the Bible in covered in 1903. They consist mainly of
English to be installed in every parish legal documents such as marriage settle-
church and the Epistle and the Gospel in ments, records of lawsuits or deeds relat-
the Communion Service to be read in ing to property transfer, but they also
English. Made provision for the reading provide some evidence of correspon-
of a chapter from both OT and NT at dence between the Jews in Elephantine
Matins and Evensong. Editions of Tyn- and Jerusalem, one letter, for example,
dale*, Coverdale* and the Great Bible* relating to their failure to observe the
poured from the press during his reign Passover and another appealing to the
and many reformers who had fled to the Persian governor in Jerusalem after the
continent under Henry VIH* returned. destruction of their temple by the Egyp-
tians. Dating from the fifth century BCE
Egbert (d. 766). Bishop of Holy Island (the time of Ezra and Nehemiah) they
who made a translation of the gospels are useful not only as a reflection of the
c. 700, a copy of which is in the British life of that community but also for what
Library. they teach us about the habit of writing
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 71

at that time, being among the oldest English, E. Schuyler (1899-1981).

West-Semitic book scrolls and demon- Born in New York and educated at
strating that Hebrew scribes were writ- Princeton University and Wheaton Col-
ing and copying letters and documents lege. Chairman of the committee of nine
on papyrus and books on papyrus scrolls which was responsible for the New
at this time and probably earlier. Scofield Reference Bible, 1967*, and
author of Companion to the Scofield Refer-
Elizabeth I (1533-1603). Took steps to ence Bible, 1972. Joined the Curtis Pub-
ensure that the Bible in English was lishing Company, 1922, became a faculty
available in every church. Usually it was member of the Philadelphia School of
the Great Bible* but during her reign 60 Bible, 1935-1947, and President, 1936-
editions of the Geneva Bible* were also 39. Editor-in-Chief of The Pilgrim Bible,
issued. Initiated a revision of the Great Oxford University Press, 1948.
Bible which led to the Bishop's Bible*.
Epiphanius (315-403). Bishop of
Ellicott, Charles John (1819-1905). Salamis who produced a list of 27
Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. One of canonical books of the OT, the same as
five clergymen who worked with Ernest those in current Protestant Bibles and
Hawkins* to produce The Authorised similar to the list produced by Bryen-
Version of St John's Gospel, revised by nios* though in a more familiar order.
Five Clergymen*, 1857, and similar revi-
sions of some of the epistles. Chairman Erasmus, Desiderius (1466-1536). A
of the NT panel of translators for the RV*. Dutch humanist scholar who visited
England in 1511 and spent most of his
Elzevir, Louis (1540-1617). A Dutch- time in Cambridge, where he gave him-
man who founded a family printing self to a study of Jerome and the NT
business in Leiden* which ran through and laid the foundations for his own edi-
three or four generations. Bonaventura tion of the Greek NT, based on a very
and Abraham, son and grandson (though few minuscule* mss. none of them ear-
sometimes referred to as the Elzevir lier than the tenth century. The order of
Brothers), produced seven editions of books in his Greek NT was adopted by
the Greek NT, 1624-78, based on the Great Bible*, the AV* and other trans-
Stephanus* and Beza's* edition of 1565. lations after 1539. Printed the first NT in
The second edition (1633) contained in Greek and Latin side by side in Basel* in
its Preface the claim that it was received 1516. Other editions followed in 1519,
by all and free from error, and was subse- 1522, 1527 and 1535. One formed the
quently known as the Textus Receptus*. basis for Luther's German NT and for
Tyndale's* English NT, first printed in
Emphasised Bible, 1872 (NT), 1897- 1525. Despite being carried out with
1902 (complete). A very literal transla- some haste and suffering badly from
tion by J.B. Rotherham*, a competent typographical errors, despite being criti-
Greek and Hebrew scholar who added cized for the changes it made to the Latin
various signs to the text so as to bring text, and despite the fact that it was based
out the finer points of the original. The on Greek mss. that were late and of little
first two editions of the NT were based critical worth, it nevertheless laid the
on Tregelles's* text, the third on West- foundations for a standard Greek text
cott* and Hort*. One of the first versions which emerged by 1550 and was called
to render the name of God as Yahweh. the Textus Receptus*.
72 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Estienne, Robert. See Stephanus. Eusebius (c. 260-340). Bishop of Cae-

sarea* and a Christian historian, whose
Ethiopic Version. The early history of writings, c. 325, reflect the beginnings of
Ethiopia is shrouded in legend, the story scripture becoming a 'canon'*; possibly
of early Christianity there difficult to the first to use the word in that connec-
determine, and the date of the Ethiopic tion and one of the first to refer to the
Version uncertain, probably somewhere OT* and, later, the NT*. His Church His-
between the fourth and the seventh cen- tory contains a list of 'accepted books',
turies. including the four gospels (listed for the
The OT has been studied more than first time in the order in which we now
the NT but it is not clear whether it was have them), Acts, 14 of Paul's letters, 1
translated from the LXX* or the Syriac* Peter, 1 John and possibly Revelation.
and some scholars think they can find Unlike Athanasius*, whose list is very
traces of Hebrew influence. similar but with much firmer edges,
The NT is very mixed, sometimes Eusebius still has room for flexibility. He
very literal, sometimes very free and pre- sees the books in question falling into
dominantly Byzantine*. In the Pauline one of three categories: those universally
letters the agreement with Chester acknowledged, those which he believes
Beatty* (g)46) is striking. There are about to be spurious, and 'disputed' books. Of
300 Ethiopic mss. containing one or the 'disputed' books Eusebius accepted 1
more books of the NT, mostly from the Peter, questioned Jude, as did Jerome*,
sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, in and put 2 Peter on his 'disputed' list
Europe and America. Until recently the along with Hebrews, James, and 1,2 and
oldest was a copy of the four gospels in 3 John. His criteria for recognizing scrip-
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris*, ture include universal acceptance, cor-
thought to have come from the thir- rect doctrine and apostolic authorship,
teenth to the fourteenth centuries but though there may well have been some
several older mss. came to light in the rationalization and books may well have
1960s, mainly of individual books. been accepted or rejected first on other
The first printed edition of the NT grounds.
was in Rome, 1548-49, in two quarto
volumes, the work of a printer who did Exemplar. The ms. from which a scribe
not know the language and therefore is copying, not to be confused with an
containing many typographical errors. It autograph* or urtext .
is included in the London Polyglot* with
a Latin translation and there was an edi-
Expanded Translation of the New
tion published by the British and For-
Testament, 1956-59. A three-volume
eign Bible Society*, 1826-30.
translation by Kenneth S. Wuest*, to
Eumenes (d. 159 BCE). King of Perga- introduce readers without Greek to the
mon in Asia Minor who made Pergamon shades of meaning in the originals and to
a centre of learning. Wanting to create a bring out the theological and philologi-
library and unable to get papyrus* because cal nuances.
his rival King Ptolemy of Egypt refused to
allow it to be exported, Eumenes was the Eynsham, Oxfordshire. Home of
first to use vellum* for writing. Abbot Aelfric*.
 F

Family 1. A group of four minuscule* seems not to belong) and put it after Lk.
mss. with a text close to Theodotion*, 21.38.
dating from the twelfth to the fourteenth
centuries, subsequently numbered 1, Family Theta. A late-ninth-century
118, 131 and 209, allied to each other by uncial* ms. of the gospels in a monastery
certain similarities or curiosities at Koridethi* and first noticed by von
identified by Kirsopp Lake* in 1902. The Soden* in 1906. When it was published
numbers represent the arabic numbers in 1913 strong similarities with Family
allocated to minuscule mss. and the 1*, Family 13*, and some other minus-
Family bears the name of the first to be cules were noted as a result of which it
listed. Some connection also with Family was combined with these Families and
13* and the Caesarean* text current in the whole was given the title Family
the third and fourth centuries. Theta. The name is derived from the
Greek letter theta, used to identify the
Family 13. Four minuscule* mss., dis- uncial mss. Now located at Tbilisi*. B.H.
covered c. 1875 and published in 1877 by Streeter* pointed out that this kind of
two Irish scholars, WH. Ferrar* and T.K. text stood midway between Westcott*
Abbott*, known as 13, 69, 124 and 346, and Hort's* Western* and Neutral* texts
whose similarities suggested a common and was used by Origen* when he was at
ancestry. The numbers represent the ara- Caesarea*. Hence the name, Caesarean
bic numbers allocated to minuscule mss. text*.
and the Family bears the name of the first
to be listed. Subsequently a few other Fell, John (1625-86). Dean of Christ
mss. with similar characteristics (211, Church and Bishop of Oxford. Printed
543, 713, 788, 826 and 828) were added an edition of the Greek NT in 1675, the
to the Family. Apparently a connection first to be published at Oxford, in small
with the Old Syriac*. size (3.75 x 6.5 inches), in which he
Three of the originals were written in drew on the Elzevir* 1633 edition and
Southern Italy in the twelfth or thir- claimed to have used over 100 mss. and
teenth century and the fourth in England demonstrated how they varied. They
in the fifteenth century. included those used by Stephanus* and
The most notable characteristic is that Walton* but also some mss. from the
they remove the story of the woman Bodleian and some Coptic* and Gothic*
taken in adultery from John 8 (where it versions. Editor of the 1708 edition of
74 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Paraphrase on the Epistles of St Paul by Florence, Italy. Site of the Laurentian

Abraham Woodhead*, Richard Allestry* Library, home of Codex Amiatinus*.
and Obadiah Walker*, first published
anonymously in 1675. Form Criticism. A method of biblical
criticism* which concentrates on the pre-
Fenton, Ferrar (b. 1832). A London history of written documents or sources,
businessman who believed he was 'the classifying them according to their liter-
only man who has ever applied real ary form or genre (e.g. stories, sayings,
mental and literary criticism to the legends, pronouncements, etc.).
Sacred Scriptures' and that he had dis-
covered 'the Hebrew laws of Syllabic Four Gospels, a New Translation,
verse'. He translated Paul's epistles in 1933. A translation by Charles C. Tor-
1883, followed by other portions from rey* reflecting his view that an Aramaic
time to time leading eventually to The original underlay the text of the gospels.
Bible in Modern English*, 1903. One of Contains an essay on The Origin of the
the first to tackle the Bible single-hand- Gospels'. Revised in 1947.
edly, the forerunner of people like Mof-
Four Gospels, The, 1898. A new
fatt*, Weymouth*, Phillips* and Knox*,
Roman Catholic translation directly from
and significant for keeping alive the idea
the Greek, with reference to the Vulgate*
of continuous translation and moving it
and the ancient Syriac*, by F.A. Spencer*
forward.
and published in New \brk. The whole
New Testament was published posthu-
Ferrar, William Hugh (c. 1835-71). A
mously in 1937.
biblical scholar, Junior Dean of Trinity
College and Professor of Latin at Dublin Four Prophets, The, 1963. A para-
University, who worked with T.K. phrase of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1—35 and
Abbott* and c. 1875 discovered four Micah by J.B. Phillips*. Published by
minuscule* mss., subsequently num- Geoffrey Bles, London.
bered 13, 69, 124 and 346 and known as
Family 13*. Author of A Comparative Freer, Charles Lang (1854-1919). An
Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek and Latin American collector, with a museum in
(1869) and A Collation of Four Important Washington*, who visited Cairo* in 1906
Manuscripts of the Gospels (1877). and purchased a group of biblical mss.,
later to become known as the Washing-
First Vatican Council, 1869-70. Re- ton Codex*.
affirmed the decision of the Council of
Trent, 1545-63* regarding the extent of Full Reading. A Hebrew word contain-
the canon of the OT. ing matres lectionis .
 G

Geddes, Alexander (1737-1802). A Beza*, owner of Codex Bezae* and

Scottish biblical scholar and liberal- Codex Claromontanus*, who succeeded
minded Roman Catholic critic who Calvin as minister of the church.
studied in Scalan and Paris*. Trained for
the priesthood but was suspended from Geneva Bible, 1560. The Bible of the
his post for attending a Presbyterian ser- Reformers, John Calvin and John Knox.
vice and for hunting. Went on to make a The work of a group of Puritans, with a
new translation of the English Bible for good knowledge of Hebrew and Greek,
Roman Catholics, the Holy Bible, trans- who had fled to Geneva to escape the
lated from the Corrected Texts of the persecutions of Mary Tudor*. Their
Originals*, 1792-1807. names are not known but William Whit-
tingham was probably the main inspira-
Genealogical Evidence. A phrase used tion and editor, supported by Anthony
principally by Westcott* and Hort* to Gilby, Christopher Goodman, Thomas
express the idea that 'community of read- Sampson, William Cole and the ageing
ing implies community of origin', lead- Miles Coverdale*. The version with the
ing to the notion of 'families of manu- greatest influence on the AV* after Tyn-
scripts' and the drawing up of a 'family dale*.
tree'. The OT is a thorough revision of the
Great Bible*, especially in those books
Geneva, Switzerland. City of Cover- which Tyndale had not translated and
dale's* third exile in 1553 under Mary which therefore had not previously been
Tudor and where he became an elder of translated from the original texts, thus
the church and had contact with the bringing the existing versions of the
Reformers working on the Geneva Prophets* and the Writings* into line with
Bible , whence came its name. the Hebrew text, and even the Hebrew
Home of John Calvin, a Protestant idiom. The NT is Tyndale's latest edition
scholar of the Reformation who wrote revised in the light of the Codex Bezae*
many commentaries on the Bible, and Latin version. Words with no equivalent
the city where many Reformers, includ- in the original text but essential to the
ing William Whittingham* and other sense were printed in italics, as later in
exiles, fled to escape the Marian persecu- the AV*. The Apocrypha*, as in Cover-
tions because of its freedom from politi- dale , appeared as an appendix to the OT.
cal and religious restrictions. First printed in Geneva, there were 70
Home of Martin Bodmer, owner of editions of the complete Bible and 30 of
the Bodmer papyri*, and of Theodore the NT during the reign of Elizabeth I*,
76 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

with 150 editions altogether, the last in familiar to Western scholars. Its origins
1644. Costs appear to have been borne are unknown but its text is basically
mainly by John Bodley*. In 1576 a revised Caesarean*.
edition of the NT was produced by
Lawrence Thomson* and found its way Gesenius, Heinrich Friedrich Wil-
into subsequent editions of the Bible. helm (1786-1842). German biblical
The bishops seem to have welcomed it. scholar and professor at Halle University
A Scottish edition appeared in 1579, who contributed considerably to the
the first Bible to be published in Scot- knowledge of the Hebrew language. The
land, accompanied by an Act of Parlia- first person to prepare a critical classi-
ment requiring every person worth more fication of the differences between the
than a certain amount to have a Bible in Samaritan Pentateuch* and the Mas-
the common language, under penalty of oretic Text*, in 1815.
£10. Subsequently the version appointed
to be read in churches in Scotland. Gezer, Canaan. An ancient city on the
The first English Bible to have num- border of the Philistine Plain, some 20
bered verses, to be printed in roman type miles north-west of Jerusalem, on the
as against the black gothic letters, and to road to Joppa. The object of extensive
be regularly used in the home. Smaller archaeological excavation at the begin-
in size and cheaper than previous Bibles, ning of the twentieth century and best
and complete with maps, tables and known as the site of the Gezer Calendar*.
marginal notes which later achieved It was populated as early as the fourth
some notoriety because they annoyed millennium BCE, is mentioned in Egypt-
James I* so much. ian records in the fifteenth century and
Popularly called 'the Breeches Bible'*, was ceded by Egypt to Israel in the time
the Bible of William Shakespeare, and of Solomon who rebuilt it. Inscriptions
the household Bible of the English- go back to an early date, cuneiform tablets
speaking Protestants, as against the Great going back to the fifteenth and fourteenth
Bible* which became the Bible of the centuries, including one fragment of pot-
church. The version taken to America by tery containing three Canaanite charac-
the Pilgrim Fathers on the Mayflower. ters, scratched in clay before being fired,
possibly the earliest example of an alpha-
Geniza. A Jewish word meaning 'that betic script.
which is withdrawn' or 'stored' and can
refer both to the documents themselves Gezer Calendar. One of the earliest
and to the physical place where they are examples of ancient Hebrew writing
kept. In some cases mss. were withdrawn dating from the tenth century BCE. A
because they were thought to be hereti- small inscribed limestone tablet (4.25 x
cal; in other cases scrolls were withdrawn 2.75 x 0.625 inches), found in 1908 in
from common use, possibly due to age, Gezer*, which lists the appropriate agri-
and replaced by new ones, but in both cultural activities for successive months.
cases their sacred nature meant that they Written in an archaic Southern Semitic
could not be destroyed and they were dialect, similar to the one found in the
therefore placed in a geniza. One of the Siloam Inscription* (c. 700 BCE). Possi-
more well known where many ancient bly a schoolboy's tablet for learning to
fragments have been found is in Cairo*. write.

Georgian Version. One of the earliest Gibson, Margaret Dunlop (b. 1843).
versions of the NT and one of the least Twin sister of Agnes Smith Lewes*,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 77

sometimes described as the Ladies of to focus attention on the links between

Castlebrae*, who towards the end of the the Greek of the papyri and that of the
nineteenth century found a second copy NT. Spent most of his working life on
of the Old Syriac* version at St Cath- the staff of the Chicago University,
arine's Monastery , Mount Sinai, reflec- 1898-1936. Produced his own transla-
ting the Sinaitic Syriac text. tion of the NT in the American idiom,
The New Testament: An American
Gideon International. An organiza- Translation*, 1923, subsequently referred
tion of Christian business and profes- to as Goodspeed's Translation*. Did not
sional people committed to Bible distri- feel competent to tackle the OT, but
bution, founded in the United States at translated the Apocrypha* in retirement,
the beginning of the twentieth century, 1938, which was then included in The
established in the UK in 1949, and cur- Complete Bible: An American Transla-
rently distributing Bibles at the rate of a tion*, 1939.
million a week in over 150 countries.
Best known for placing Bibles in hotel Goodspeed's Translation. The name
rooms for the use of guests. popularly given to The New Testament:
An American Translation , 1923 and The
Glasgow, Scotland. Birthplace of James Complete Bible: An American Transla-
Moffatt*. tion*, 1939.

Glosses. Marginal or interlinear inter- Gospel of Thomas. One of the apoc-

pretations, usually made in the first ryphal gospels*. A collection of tradi-
instance by scribes in the process of tional wisdom sayings, parables, prophe-
copying* and carefully kept outside the cies and proverbs, probably read
main text, but sometimes becoming frequently in the early church and some-
additions* to the text at a later date and times referred to as 'the secret sayings
thus the subject of textual criticism*. which the living Jesus spoke', many of
Some are straightforward copying errors, which have parallels in the canonical
some are attempts at improvement or gospels. Three Greek fragments, found
explanation, some are self-defence, some at Oxyrhynchus*, are located in the
are errors of judgment and some would British Library, the Bodleian and Har-
appear to be errors through lack of judg- vard University. The only complete ver-
ment. (See Glosses, p. 78.) sion, a Coptic translation from the Greek
and found at Nag Hammadi*, is in Old
Good News Bible, 1976. A British edi- Cairo .
tion of Today's English Version*, 1976,
published by Collins. Gospel of Truth. A Coptic text on the
Christian life, recently discovered at
Goodspeed, Edgar Johnson (1871- Nag Hammadi , thought by some to be
1962). A contemporary of James Moffatt* the work of Valentinus, a second-cen-
and sometimes regarded as his American tury theologian, and showing an aware-
counterpart. Studied Greek from the age ness of the four gospels, several of Paul's
of 12 and was educated at the Old Uni- letters, Hebrews and Revelation. If such
versity of Chicago and Yile. Travelled in an early date could be established it
Europe for two years, joining an archae- would be one of the earliest pointers to a
ological party on a visit to Greece where collection of references to the OT and
he unearthed a mass of valuable (non- NT writings with a decidedly Western
biblical) papyri* and was one of the first orientation.
78 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Glosses
Attempts at improvement or explanation
Gen. 14.3.'that is, the Dead Sea'.
Gen. 36.1.'that is, Edom'.
Josh. 15.8/that is, Jerusalem'. This may also be an addition because it is
missing from the parallel passage (Josh. 18.16).

Error
Josh. 18.13. 'that is, Bethel' relates to Luz, not to the slope of Luz,
southward.

Explanation of a difficult word

Isa. 51.17 and 22. AV has 'cup' twice in each verse whereas some trans-
lations (e.g. NEB) have 'cup' the first time and 'bowl' the second. HIDp
(qb't) ('bowl') is a rare word, occurring only here. Some scholars have
therefore suggested that a scribe unfamiliar with the word inserted the
more familiar 'cup' in both verses. (Some would offer a similar expla-
nation for the use of'waters' in Gen. 6.17 and 7.6.)
Zech. 6.3. AV* describes the horses as 'grizzled and bay' but the sec-
ond word is not a colour and means 'strong', as suggested in the AV mar-
gin. One explanation is that 'and bay [strong]' was added as a gloss to
explain the Hebrew word translated 'grizzled' which was unknown in
1611 but which we now know means 'piebald' or 'dappled' as in NRSV*.

Possible glosses that worked their way into the main text
Jn 5.3b-4. 'for an angel went down at a certain season into the pool, and
troubled the water; whoever then first after the troubling of the water
stepped in was made whole from whatever disease he had' is not found
in all mss.
Rom. 8.1. 'who walk not according to the flesh but according to the
spirit' may also be a marginal gloss*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 79

Gospels, The, 1952. A paraphrase by the Latin Vulgate*. Owed its origin to
J.B. Phillips* subsequently incorporated Cromwell's* desire for a revision of
into The New Testament in Modern Matthew's Bible* and his request to
English, 1958*. Published by Geoffrey Coverdale to undertake it. Owed its title
Bles, London. to the size of its pages, 16.5 x 11 inches.
In the OT it is essentially Matthew's
Gothic Version. The Goths invaded (Rogers*, Tyndale, Coverdale) edition
and ravaged Asia Minor in the third cen- revised, with many of the controversial
tury and there were several instances of notes of Matthew dropped. In the NT it
evangelistic efforts by Christian priests is mainly Tyndale, based on the Vulgate.
whom they captured. Gothic is a dead Changes the order of the books of the
language which has come down to us in NT Earlier translations had followed
not more than 280 pages of texts, almost Luther in putting Hebrews, James, Jude
all translations of various books of the and Revelation at the end in a group by
NT (well over half is the gospels), plus themselves. The Great Bible follows the
three pages of Nehemiah, fragments of order of Erasmus in his Greek NT, a
Genesis 5 and two half-verses of Psalm practice followed by the AV* and other
52. The Gothic version of the NT, by translations after 1539.
several centuries the earliest surviving Printing began in Paris* by Grafton
literary monument in a Teutonic lan- and Whitchurch, producers of Matt-
guage, is a fourth-century translation by hew's Bible and noted for their devotion
Ulfilas who had to create an alphabet in and technical skill, but was delayed
order to do it. Six mss. are preserved, the because the French Inquisitor-General
most complete being the Codex Argen- forbade the printers to continue and
teus*. confiscated their sheets. Representations
were made and type, paper and printers
Gottingen Septuagint, 1931. A precise were transferred to England, but what
and thorough critical edition* of the LXX* had been confiscated was not released, so
in three volumes, edited by Rahlfs* and most of the work had to be done all over
others, containing the Pentateuch* and again.
all the Prophets*, plus Esther, Judith, An improved edition appeared in
Tobit, Ezra A, 1, 2 and 3 Maccabees, Job, 1540, with a preface by Cranmer* and
Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus, therefore sometimes referred to as Cran-
originally on the principles and methods mer's Bible, and containing at the foot of
established by de Lagarde*. Subsequently the title page the words, 'This is the
published in an abridged form by Rahlfs. Byble appoynted to the use of the
churches'. Five further editions appeared
Grabbe, John Ernest (1666-1711). A between July 1540 and December 1541.
Prussian scholar who settled in Oxford The fourth and sixth editions contain a
and produced a complete edition of the reference to Cuthbert, Bishop of Dur-
OT of Codex Alexandrinus*, 1701-20. ham. This is Cuthbert Tunstalf, for-
merly Bishop of London, who had
Grafton, Richard (d. 1572). Publisher resisted Tyndale.
of Matthew's Bible in Antwerp* and One of the first Bibles to be set up
one of the printers of the Great Bible*. officially in churches, often chained to a
pillar or lectern, and the basis for the
Great Bible, 1539. Translated by Cover- 1549 Book of Common Prayer. A copy
dale*, based on Tyndale's* translation and of the first edition, printed on vellum* in
80 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

block letters, is in the library of St John's printed were the Magnificat and the
College, Cambridge*. Benedictus, published together with the
Psalter, in 1481, in Milan*. The first
Greek-English Diglot for the Use of printed edition of the Greek text of the
Translators, 1958-64. Several slim vol- NT was in the Complutensian Polyglot*,
umes intended primarily for translators, completed in 1514 though not actually
covering about 18 books of the NT, under published until 1522, by which time
the directorship of WD. McHardy* and Erasmus* had published his. The earliest
distributed privately by the British and complete printed editions of the Greek
Foreign Bible Society*, each containing NT were not editions of early Greek
the Greek and English text on facing mss. but of later ones and represent a
pages. Forerunner of The Translator's revision which was undertaken in the
New Testament*. fourth century and became known as the
Byzantine text.
Greek Language. The language of Greek New Testament is also the title of
classical Greece and the NT. Similar to a critical edition* of the Greek NT, an
English in a way that Hebrew and Ara- eclectic text intended as a tool for trans-
maic* are not, many English words hav- lators, the work of an editorial interna-
ing Greek origins. By NT times the clas- tional committee under Bruce Metzger*,
sical age of Greek literature (sixth to Allan P Wikgren, Arthur Voobus, Kurt
fourth centuries BCE) had come to an Aland and Matthew Black, with 25 con-
end and the language had changed as a sultants, and published by the United
result of contact with other languages Bible Societies*, 1966, followed by a sec-
and cultures. NT Greek therefore is ond edition, 1968, with Roman Catholic
known as Koine (or common) Greek*, cooperation through Cardinal Martini. A
and there are different Koine styles in the third edition, 1982, a major revision with
NT. Revelation and Mark are very Koine full Roman Catholic participation, fol-
(or rough). Matthew and Luke, often lowed the new edition of the Nestle-
following Mark, are almost engaged in a Aland* text (the twenty-sixth) resulting
tidying-up process, whilst Hebrews is in the same text with different punctua-
very literary. Paul's letters fall some- tion and critical apparatus*. There was a
where in the middle. fourth edition, 1992.

Greek New Testament. The Greek Gregory, Caspar Rene (1851-1932).

NT began life not as a book but as a col- Native of Philadelphia, trained at Prince-
lection of mss. In 1989 there were 5488 ton and Professor at Leipzig University,
such mss., including 96 papyri*, 299 1899, where he prepared an edition of
uncials*, 2812 minuscules*, and 2281 in the Greek New Testament*, 1884. Build-
various ancient lectionaries. Only 59 are ing on Wettstein's* work of classifying
complete. 1500 contain only the gospels. mss. by letters and numbers he devised
Only 287 include Revelation. Most of the several other categories, listed papyrus*
papyri are only fragments, the smallest mss. separately from parchment or vel-
being the John Fragment and the most lum* by allocating to them a letter 'p' fol-
substantial being the Bodmer* and the lowed by a number, and, as the number
Chester Beatty*. Of the ones on parch- of uncial* mss. exceeded the number of
ment or vellum* the oldest are the Codex letters in the Latin, Greek and Hebrew
Vaticanus* and the Codex Sinaiticus*. alphabets combined, started to use Ara-
The first Greek texts of the NT to be bic numerals preceded by a zero.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 81

Gregory of Nazianzus (329-89). A its appropriate group. Like Bengel* and

theologian, son of the Bishop of Nazi- Semler he believed that the smaller
anzus and one of the Cappadocian Fath- groups of earlier witnesses were superior
ers who produced a list of 22 books to be in weight to the mass mss. in the Byzan-
regarded as the canon* of the OT, omit- tine* group. He classified mss. into three
ting Esther and dividing Judges and Ruth groups: Alexandrian*, Western* and
into separate books. Byzantine (corresponding to Hort's*
Neutral*, Western and Syrian* groups)
Grenfell, Bernard Pyne (1869-1926). and on this basis drew up a list of read-
Oxford Professor of Papyrology and ings which he thought superior to the
British archaeologist who researched in Textus Receptus*. Published a Greek edi-
Egypt, 1893-1906. Worked with A.S. tion of the NT, 1774-77, and another,
Hunt* in Oxyrhynchus* in 1897 in search 1796-1806.
of ancient documents and was among the
first to discover NT papyri* there.
Gutenberg Bible, 1456. Another name
for the Mazarin Bible*.
Griesbach, Johann Jakob (1745-1812).
An eighteenth-century German biblical
scholar, pupil of JJ. Semler* and profes- Guyse, John (1680-1761). Independent
sor at Jena, who laid the foundations for minister. One of a number of scholars
all subsequent work on the Greek text of who produced a paraphrase*, 1739-52,
the NT. By 1805 he had set out 15 canons with bracketed explanatory material into
of textual criticism*, including lectio brev- the text of the AV* in the eighteenth cen-
ior*, and taken Sender's classification of tury. His three-volume Exposition of the
mss. and added the increased material New Testament in the Form of a Paraphrase
collected by Wettstein*, assigning each to appeared in a sixth edition in 1818.
 H

Hagiographa. See Writings. including 17 Anglicans and 4 Presbyteri-

ans. Passed a resolution, proposed by
Hammond, Henry (1605-60). Angli- John Reynolds*, to make a new transla-
can divine, educated at Eton, Archdea- tion of the Bible from the original Greek
con of Chichester and President of Mag- and Hebrew mss., without marginal notes,
dalen College, Oxford, who prepared A to be used in divine worship. The result
Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Tes- was the KJV1611*, better known in Britain
tament, 1653, a pioneer work of English as the Authorized Version*, though never
biblical criticism*, often reprinted, the actually 'authorized'.
last reprint being in four volumes, 1865,
and who also assisted Walton in the pro- Haplography. The omission of a letter,
duction of the London Polyglot*. word, line or even a paragraph, usually
because of its similarity to what came
Hampden-Cook, Ernest (1860-1932). immediately before, and so producing a
A Congregational minister, educated at different word or meaning and becom-
Mill Hill School, Lancashire College and ing the subject of textual criticism*.
St John's, Cambridge, where he distin- Sometimes the result of parablepsis* and
guished himself in mathematics and not always easily distinguishable from
Hebrew. One of the translators of The dittography*. (See Haplography, p. 83.)
Twentieth Century New Testament ,
1902, who took Weymouth's New Testa- Harmonization. The result of scribal
ment* when Weymouth* died prior to changes , usually deliberate, so as to
publication, added some notes, includ- avoid apparent contradictions within the
ing a few opinions of his own, and saw it one ms. Sometimes it may be nothing
safely through the press. more than ensuring that a person's name
always appears in the same form; in other
Hampole, Yorkshire. A small village in cases it may mean bringing parallel texts*
South Yorkshire where Richard Rolle*, a into line with one another, and the more
hermit, translated the Psalms into the scribes became familiar with the various
northern dialect in the fourteenth cen- mss. and texts the greater the tendency.
tury. (See Harmonization, p.83.)

Hampton Court Conference, 1604. Harmony of the Gospels, 1756. A pop-

Summoned by James I* and made up of ular eighteenth-century translation by
leading churchmen and theologians, James MacKnight*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 83

Haplography
Josh. 21.36-37 is not found in some mss., possibly because the scribe's eye
jumped from 'four cities' at the end of verse 35 to the same phrase at the end of
verse 37.
Judg. 20.13 should probably refer to 'Benjaminites' or 'sons of Benjamin'
but 'Benjamin' stands alone in some mss, possibly because ^D (buy) ('sons of)
is identical with the beginning of p^D (bnymn) ('Benjamin'), so enabling a
scribe to overlook it and inadvertently to change the meaning.
1 Sam. 14.41 in LXX*, Vulgate* and the Old Latin*, reads,
And Saul said unto Yahweh, God of Israel, 'Why hast thou not answered thy servant
this day? If this iniquity is in me or in my sonJonathan, oh Yahweh, God of Israel, give Urim;
but if this iniquity is in thy people Israel, give Tummim.'

MT omits the words in italics, so did the scribe's eye jump from one 'Israel'
to the other, omitting everything in between?
!Kgs8.16reads
'I have not chosen.. .building a house where my name might abide, but I have cho-
sen David to rule my people Israel'. The parallel account in 2 Chron. 6.5-6 has
a fuller statement with two pairs:
I have not chosen.. .for building a house where my name might abide, nor did I
choose anyone to be the leader of my people Israel, but I chose Jerusalem where my name
might abide, and I chose David to rule my people Israel.

Chronicles is usually thought to be preferable because of its pairs (negative

and positive) and because the omission of the words in italics can be explained
as haplography.
Mt. 12.47 is missing from some mss., possibly because of its similarity of
ending to 12.46.
Lk. 10.32 is missing from Codex Sinaiticus*, possibly because it ends with
the same verb ('to pass by on the other side') as 10.31.
Lk. 14.27 is missing from more than a dozen mss., possibly because the last
few words are identical with the end of 14.26.
Jn 17.15 reads, 'I do not pray that thou shouldest take them from the world
but that thou shouldest keep them from the evil one'. Codex Vaticanus* omits the
words in italics to give, 'I do not pray that thou shouldest take them from the
evil one', an understandable omission* if you imagine two lines of Greek text,
I do not pray that thou shouldest take them from the
world but that thou shouldest keep them from the
evil one,

the scribe's eye easily slipping from the end of one line to the end of the next.
1 Cor. 9.2 is missing from Codex Alexandrinus*, possibly because it ends
with the same words as 9.1.
84 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Harmonization
Isa. 1.15. Is the one ms. which adds 'your fingers with iniquity' an attempt
to harmonize with Isa. 59.3?
Mt. 19.17. Earlier mss. have 'why do you ask me about what is good?'
Later mss. have 'why do you call me good?' Is this an attempt to harmonize
with Mk 10.18 and Lk. 18.19?
Lk. 11.2-4. The shorter form of the Lord's Prayer was assimilated in
many mss. of Luke to harmonize with the longer form in Mt. 6.9-13, seen
also as the most likely source for the addition of the phrase, 'but rescue us
from the evil one', found in some mss.
Jn 19.20. 'It was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin' appears in
many mss., possibly harmonizing with Lk. 23.38.
Acts 9.5-6 is adjusted in many mss. to harmonize with 26.14-15.
Rom. 13.9. Paul cites four commandments but some mss. add 'you shall
not bear false witness'.
Col. 1.14. Some later mss. add 'through his blood', as in Eph. 1.7.
Rev. 1.5 has 'washed' in some mss. and 'freed' in others, but since the
more reliable mss. have 'freed' a scribe may well have substituted 'washed'
because of a similar phrase in 7.14.
OT quotations in the New Testament are often enlarged or made to con-
form to the more familiar LXX wording.
Mt. 15.8 appears in a fuller version in later mss., probably inspired by
scribes familiar with Isa. 29.13.

Hart, Andrew (d. 1621). Edinburgh* Harvard, USA. Home to a fragment of

printer, responsible for an edition of the the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus*, in Harvard
Geneva Bible*, 1610, including Lawrence University Library.
Thomson's* revision of the NT, which
continued in use for 50 years with some Harwood, Edward (1729-94). A Non-
evidence that it was still being used in conformist minister, biblical and classi-
Aberdeenshire as late as 1674. cal scholar, and author of A Liberal
Translation of the New Testament*,
1768.
Hartman, Louis Francis (1901-70).
Professor at the Catholic University of Haupt, Paul (182&-1926). Baltimore
America and chairman of the commis- editor of The Sacred Books of the Old and
sion responsible for the OT translation New Testaments, more popularly known
of the Confraternity Version*, 1941. as the Polychrome Bible*, 1893.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 85

Hawkins, Ernest (1802-68). Educated tant but it is important to recognize that

at Balliol College, Oxford. Canon of they exist.
Westminster and Sub-Librarian of the The transmission of the text of the
Bodleian Library, Oxford. Secretary for Hebrew Bible, from its beginnings to
the Society for the Propagation of the where it is today, was in three stages.
Gospel who in 1856 brought together
from its origins (date unknown)
five scholars (Henry Alford*, John Bar-
until the destruction of the Second
row*, CJ. Ellicott*, WH.G. Humphrey* Temple (70 BCE), during which time
and George Moberly*) to undertake a there was considerable variation be-
revision of the Authorized Version of the
tween the various texts, though usu-
Fourth Gospel. The result was The
ally amounting to little more than a
Authorised Version of St John's Gospel,
letter, word or phrase;
revised by Five Clergymen*, 1857. Subse-
from the Second Temple to the
quently they went on to revise Romans,
eighth century CE, when there was
Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians and
very little change;
Philippians.
from the eighth century until the
end of the Middle Ages, with the
He-Bible, The, 1611. A by-name given
arrival of the Masoretic Text* around
to the first edition of the AV* because
the ninth century, by which time
it translated lhe went' (subsequently
there were many Hebrew mss., but
changed to 'she went') in Ruth 3.15. In
the work of the Masoretes*, incorpo-
the first three years of its existence the AV
rating many variants in early mss., had
was running two editions, the 'He' Bible
led to the emergence of a significant
and the 'She' Bible, according to the ren-
few and the Hebrew text became
dering of this text in Ruth.
standardized almost (but not quite)
completely.
Hebrew Bible. Mss. of the Hebrew
Bible are to be found from the ninth While substantially the same as the
century CE, with a few (mainly frag- English OT (in the Reformed tradition),
ments) going back to the beginning of the Hebrew Bible has a different book
the Common Era and a plethora coming order, with 24 books compared to 39 in
from the Middle Ages. None could be the OT, taking Samuel, Kings, Chroni-
described as the Hebrew Bible, though cles and Ezra-Nehemiah as single books
all may contribute. The study of these and the 12 'minor prophets' grouped
variations is part of textual criticism*. together in the Book of the Twelve.
The Masoretic Text* is the standard From the Renaissance to the end of
version, but here too there are differ- the nineteenth century three recensions*
ences, since the different printed editions of the Hebrew text were available. Dif-
reflect different Hebrew mss. and some- ferences were due to the limited possi-
times the views of different editors. bilities which Renaissance editors had
Errors also crept in even after the inven- for collating mss., the degree of attention
tion of printing, and these are sometimes they paid to punctuation, accents and
corrected in later editions. There are also masoretic notes, and the public for
variations between editions when it which the recension was intended. They
comes to book order*, chapter division*, were the Soncino edition*, 1494, the
verse division* and layout, or because Complutensian Polyglot*, 1514-17, and
one editor chooses a poetry format the second Rabbinic* Bible of Jacob ben
where another chooses prose. Most of Chayyim, 1524-25.
the differences are slight and not impor- Later editions of the Hebrew Bible,
86 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

offering a mixed text dependent on one or the best vocalization* system in the Ben
more of these three to varying degrees, Asher tradition and is therefore thought
included Kennicott (Oxford, 1776-80) by some to be of a better quality than
and de Rossi (Parma, 1784-88) in the Codex Leningrad . It also includes variant
eighteenth century, who attempted to col- readings* from the DSS*. Differs from
late all the variant readings* in the mss. Biblia hebraka in several respects: there
which had been preserved; Biblia hebraka are no conjectural emendations*, variant
(Halle/Berlin 1818, drawing mainly on readings* are not evaluated, and the criti-
Kennicott and de Rossi), Ginsburg (Lon- cal apparatus is in four parts (ancient
don, 1926), Biblia hebraka (third edi- translations, Hebrew texts from the Sec-
tion, Stuttgart, 1929-37), Cassuto (a cor- ond Temple period, and two selections of
rected Ginsburg, Jerusalem, 1952) and mediaeval codices, one with consonantal
Snaith (London, 1958), who in the nine- differences and the other with differences
teenth and twentieth centuries attempted in vocalization and accents).
to establish a reliable comprehensive text,
Biblia hebraka* becoming the one most Hebrew Writing. Early Hebrew writ-
used in the twentieth century. ing was similar in appearance to Phoeni-
In modern academic usage the term cian. The 'square' characters in the
'Hebrew Bible' is widely preferred to Hebrew Bibles of today emerged c. 400
'Old Testament' on account of the lat- BCE and thereafter became standard
ter's specifically Christian connotations. form for mss. of the scriptures. Here are
In the ancient world the Hebrew Bible some examples:
was translated into Greek (LXX*), Syriac
K a n D *> 0
(Peshitta*), Jewish Aramaic (Targumim*),
and Latin (Vulgate*).
Hendry, George Stuart (1904-). Born
Hebrew Language. One of the Sem- in Aberdeenshire, minister of the
itic languages*, similar to Babylonian, Church of Scotland, and Professor of
Assyrian, Chaldean and Phoenician, and Systematic Theology at Princeton Theo-
the language of the OT. Originally a cur- logical Seminary from 1949. The Repre-
sive script, known as archaic or palaeo- sentative of the Presbytery of Stirling
Hebrew, the written form subsequently and Dunblane who in 1946 proposed to
developed the square Aramaic alphabet the General Assembly of the Church of
characters with which we are now more Scotland that a new translation of the
familiar. An alphabetic script consisting Bible be made 'in the language of the
of 22 letters, written from right to left present day' which led to the NEB , and
and only in consonantal form until the subsequently Secretary of the Joint
arrival of the Masoretes*. Committee responsible for it.

Hebrew Scriptures Translated, 1865. Henry Vm (1491-1547). Gave encour-

A revision of the OT by Samuel Sharpe*. agement to the publication of Cover-
dale's* NT which was dedicated to him
Hebrew University Bible Project. One in 1535 and licensed by him in 1537.
of only two currently critical editions* of Made an unsuccessful appeal to Charles
the Hebrew Bible*, the other, more wide- V of the Holy Roman Empire for a stay
ly used, being Biblia hebraka . Based on of execution of William Tyndale*. In
the tenth-century Codex Aleppo* which, 1543 Parliament discussed Tyndale's
though incomplete, accurately represents translation, made it a crime for an unli-
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 87

censed person to read or expound the Hilary of Poitiers (315-67). One of

Bible publicly to others, and even for- the early church Fathers and Bishop of
bade the private reading of the Bible by Poitiers c. 353, whose list of books in the
people belonging to the lower classes of OT followed that of Origen* to which
society. In 1546 Henry went further and he added Tobit and Judith to give a 24-
declared that nobody was to receive, book canon. Like Cyprian and Ambrose
have, take or keep Tyndale or Coverdale's he combined Lamentations and the
NT. Large numbers of copies were col- Epistle of Jeremiah with Jeremiah.
lected and burned at St Paul's Cross*.
Historical Books. See Prophets.
Hereford, Nicholas of. See Nicholas
of Hereford. Holmgren, Laton E. (b. 1915-).
Officer of the ABS* for three decades
Hernias of Rome (second century). A and Chairman of the UBS* Council,
Jewish Christian, author of Shepherd, 1963-66, and of the Executive Commit-
which contains many allusions to OT tee, 1963-72. A diplomat and one of the
phrases. References to NT books are less architects of the changed relationships
clear though he does seem to have been with the Bible Societies* following the
aware of Ephesians. arrival of the UBS. Chief Protestant
negotiator with the Roman Catholic
Church (the opposite number to WM.
Hesychius (c. 300 CE). A bishop and
Abbott*) in discussions relating to coop-
biblical textual critic credited with hav-
eration in Bible translation and particu-
ing produced an Alexandrian recension
larly in compiling the 'Guiding Princi-
of the LXX*, corrected according to the
ples for Interconfessional Cooperation
Hebrew, with a view to finding the old-
in Translating the Bible' which he
est readings, eliminating accretions and
helped to shape in three principal meet-
removing grammatical errors in trans-
ings, 1967-68.
mission. It is not possible, however, to
identify a clear Hesychian text nor is it
Holy Bible from Ancient Eastern
clear whether it was made from the
Manuscripts, 1957. More popularly
Hebrew text or was simply a stylistic
known as Lamsa's Translation*.
revision.
Holy Bible, Translated from the Cor-
Hieroglyphic Bibles. An unusual Bible rected Texts of the Originals, 1792-
format, mainly for children, containing 1807. The work of a liberal-minded
brief verses of scripture and substituting Roman Catholic, Alexander Geddes*,
small pictures for some of the words. beginning with Genesis-Joshua (1792),
followed by Joshua-2 Chronicles and
Hieronymous. See Jerome. Prayer ofManasseh (1797) and the Psalter
(1807), posthumously.
Higher Criticism. A term rarely used
in contemporary scholarship to describe Holy Scriptures according to the
a method of biblical criticism* which Masoretic Text, 1917. A verbal equiva-
concentrates on the study of ancient lence* translation of the Hebrew Bible*,
documents to determine such details as similar in idiom to the AV*, and pub-
date, authorship, structure, and relation- lished by the Jewish Publication Society
ship with other books and mss. of America, Philadelphia. Followed by
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

A New Translation of The Holy Scriptures the Original Greek, a new text taking into
according to the Masoretic Text*, 1963. account all the variant readings* in the
available mss. The work appeared five
Homoioarcton. The omission of a sec- days before the RV of the NT. Volume 1
tion of text, sometimes the result of para- contained the Greek text and volume 2
blepsis*, where two words, lines or sen- an introduction and appendix setting out
tences with an identical beginning are so the critical principles in detail, including
close to each other that the copyist's eye the distinction between intrinsic proba-
accidentally slips from one to the other, bility* and transcriptional probability*.
omitting what conies in-between, thus Worked with B.F. Westcott on the
becoming the subject of textual criti- classification of mss., based on genealogi-
cism*. Similar to homoioteleuton*. cal evidence*, continuing the principles
already laid down by Griesbach*, where-
Homoioteleuton. The omission of a by all textual authorities were divided
section of text, sometimes the result of into four groups (or families): Neutral*,
parablepsis*, where two words, lines or Alexandrian*, Western* and Syrian*.
sentences with an identical ending are so Westcott and Hort then formulated rules
close to each other that the copyist's eye to evaluate the four groups. They re-
accidentally slips from one to the other, garded the Neutral as the main authority
omitting what comes in-between, thus and recognized the Alexandrian as very
becoming the subject of textual criti- similar. They regarded Western (with its
cism*. Similar to homoioarcton*. tendency to exercise a freedom of addi-
tion, and sometimes omission) as inferior
Hooke, Samuel Henry (1874-1968). and rejected the Syrian because of its late-
Professor of OT at the University of ness. No reading from the Alexandrian or
London and best known for his work on the Western was to be regarded as reliable
Myth and Ritual. Director of the Bible without some support from the Neutral.
in Basic English* translation.
Hug, Johann Leonard (1765-1846). A
Hort, Fenton John Anthony Roman Catholic professor at the Uni-
(1828-92). Born in Dublin and moved versity of Freiburg who worked on a
with his family to Cheltenham when he theory that at the beginning of the third
was nine. Entered Rugby, 1841, and Trin- century the NT text degenerated rapidly
ity College, Cambridge, 1846, where he to produce the Western*, text but his
was much influenced by F.D. Maurice. attempts to connect three recensions* of
Ordained, 1846, and became a country the LXX* with three types of NT text
parson. A medical condition prevented failed.
him from doing any parish work for two
years, 1863-65, and this gave him the Humphrey, William Gilson (1814-86).
time to study the NT in Greek. A return Vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields, edu-
to the parish led him to realize how cated at Cambridge, and one of five cler-
absorbed he had become in Greek and he gymen who worked with Ernest Haw-
became a lecturer in theology at Em- kins* to produce The Authorized Version
manuel College, Cambridge, 1872, and of St John's Gospel, revised by Five Cler-
Professor of Divinity, 1878. gymen*, 1857, and similar revisions of
One of the translators of the RV*, who some of the epistles.
was engaged at the same time with B.F.
Westcott* in their epoch-making edition Hunkin, Joseph Wellington (d. 1950).
nf the fireelc NT The New Testament in Bishoo of Truro and first Chairman of
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 89

the Joint Committee responsible for the sor of Papyrology who went with B.P
NEB* in 1947. Grenfell* to Oxyrhynchus* in 1897 in
search of ancient documents and was
Hunt, Arthur Surridge (1871-1934). among the first to discover NT papyri*
British archaeologist and Oxford Profes- there.
 I

Ignatius of Antioch (c. 50-c. 107 CE). able and sales were small, though the
Bishop of Antioch, whose seven letters, translation was excellent.
pleading for Christian unity and written
on his way to martyrdom, are important Ink. The use of ink for writing goes back
evidence for early Christian writings. He to the Egyptians, c. 3000 BCE. The word
also makes references and allusions to comes from the Greek for 'black', the
most of Paul's letters and some scholars earliest forms being carbon based, made
think that in a letter to the church at Eph- from soot, gum and water, and black in
esus in the second century he supplies colour. Improvements and changes took
evidence for the existence of a Pauline place over the centuries.
Corpus , possibly including 1 Thessalo-
nians, 1 Corinthians, Romans, Colossians International Bible Society. Founded
and Ephesians, but nowhere does he refer in New York, 1809, with a commitment
to 2 Thessalonians, Philemon or the Pas- to serve the church by distributing Bibles
torals and he appears not to have known and facilitating Bible translation around
2 Peter. Some suggest he may also have the world. Their first grant, in 1810, was
been aware of two or three gospels (Matt- $1000 to William Carey, a Baptist mis-
hew, John and perhaps Luke) but he did sionary in India, to translate the Bible
not regard them as scripture and at this into Bengali. Subsequently Bibles were
date no written document is likely to have distributed to soldiers, hospitals, prison-
been credited with ultimate authority. ers, hotels and Sunday Schools, with par-
ticular attention to immigrants at New
Immersion Versions. In a revision of York's Ellis Island at the beginning of the
the New Testament published in 1864, twentieth century and to Eastern Euro-
with further revisions in 1865 and 1891, pean countries at the end. Publisher of
the American Bible Union made a deter- the New International Version*.
mined effort to establish the word
'immerse' as the correct translation of International Children's Bible, 1983
the Greek word normally translated (NT), 1986 (complete). The work of
'baptize', following an earlier attempt by 20 scholars, some of whom had served as
Nathaniel Scarlett*. In 1883 they merged translators on the NASB*, the NIV*, the
with the American Baptist Publication NKJV* and the RSV , all from conservative,
Society and produced a further revision evangelical and Protestant denomina-
in 1913 using 'baptize (immerse)' as tions, inspired by the simplicity and read-
alternatives, but the idea was not accept- ability of an earlier translation for people
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 91

with hearing difficulties which had Asia Minor, who became Bishop of
emerged from the World Translation Lyons and one of the first to refer
Center. It avoided long sentences, used specifically to the Old Testament* and the
modern weights and measures, main- New Testament*. Stressed the impor-
tained a consistent and familiar use of tance of the OT for Christians, was the
place names, a vocabulary limited to the first to refer to four gospels and crystal-
Living World Vocabulary, a reference lized the belief in them with the idea that
guide used in the preparation of World there should be no more and no less.
Book Encyclopedia. Sometimes criti- Seems to have recognized and accepted
cized for its anti-Jewish phrases and sen- Acts, most of Paul's letters, though not
timents, particularly in the sub-headings. Philemon, and 1 John, and was the first
Forerunner to a similar translation, the to make extensive use of the Pastoral
New Century Version, 1991*, for adults. Epistles.

Interpolations. The insertion of text Istanbul, Turkey. The modern name

into the original by a copyist, sometimes for Constantinople .
intentionally, sometimes not, and the
subject of textual criticism*. Itacisms. Errors arising in mss. as a
result of dictation where two or more
Intrinsic Probability. Textual criticism* words sound alike but have different
often requires editors of ancient texts to spellings and meanings, or where
choose between two or more variant scribes, repeating the text to themselves,
readings on the basis of which looks simply mis-spell. In the case of the OT
more probable. Hort* coined the phrase there was always a danger of further
'intrinsic probability' for situations when confusion because of the similar ways in
he was appealing to what an author was which different Hebrew letters could be
likely to have written, as against 'tran- pronounced. In the NT itacisms some-
scriptional probability'* when he was times arose as a result of certain Greek
appealing to what the copyists were likely vowels and diphthongs losing their dis-
to have made of it. tinctive sound which occasionally
explains why one particular ms. appears
Irenaeus (c. 150-202 CE). One of the to be out of step with all the rest. (See
early church Fathers, possibly a native of Itacisms, p. 92.)
92 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Itacisms
Obvious English examples are 'there'/'their', 'sight'/'site'/'cite', 'hair'/'hare',
'night'/'knight', etc. Vfo and I1? (T/lo,) is a good example in Hebrew, meaning a
straight negative when spelt one way and 'to him (it)' when spelt another.
1 Sam. 2.16. 'No, hand it over now...' makes good sense, following the LXX
and the Qere*, but MT has the somewhat nonsensical 'to him'.
1 Kgs 11.22. 'But do not let me go' in some mss., as in RED and NRSV, seems
odd for a man who has been pleading to go, whereas 'let me go to it\ as in
27 mss., including the LXX, and reflected in AV and RSV seems to make bet-
ter sense. The Hebrew word is */o', but spelt one way it is the negative and
spelt another way it is 'its'. The sound is the same in both cases.
Isa. 9.3. Similarly, in a passage regularly read at Christmas, AV surprisingly
has, Thou hast multiplied the nation, and not increased the joy', whereas at
least 20 mss. including the LXX have, 'and increased its joy'.
Similarity in pronunciation of Hebrew letters also causes confusion. In
English 'c' sounds like 'k', the soft 'g' like 'j', 'b' and 'p' are very close, and
so on. In Hebrew K (aleph) (transliterated by ' and scarcely pronounced), H
(he) (a soft 'h'), n (heth) ('ch' as in 'loch') and V (ayin) (transliterated by '
and very close to heth) all sound very similar.
Gen. 31.49. MT has ilS^Q (msph) ('hear'). Samaritan Pentateuch has
(msbh) ('the pillar').
1 Sam. 17.7. Kethib* has f n (hs) ('arrow'). Qere* has p (';) ('shaft').
1 Kgs 1.18. MT has nntfl (w'th) ('and now'). The LXX obviously read
(w'th) ('and you').
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 93

Itacisms (continued)
Itacisms presented a new problem in the early Christian centuries when certain vowels
and diphthongs lost their distinctive sound. For example, the short 'o' and the long 'o'
(two separate letters in Greek, o and G>) merged, e and ai were pronounced with a
short 'e} sound, and T\, i, v, ei, 01 and w all tended to be pronounced like the Eng-
lish 'ee'. Dictated mss. therefore provided plenty of opportunity for variant readings,
mostly raising questions and allowing for a variety of interpretation but occasionally
helping to explain how one particular ms. came to be out of line with all the others and
obviously in error.
Mt. 11.16. Is it 'others' (Eiepoiq), as in NRSV*, or 'fellows' (Eidlpoiq), as in
AV*?

Jn 5.39. Jesus refers to 'they who bear witness' (ai jj,apTi)po\)aai) but Codex
Bezae has 'they are sinning concerning me' (d^aptavoi)aai).
Rom. 5.1. Is it 'we have' (E%o[iev), as in AV and NRSV, or 'let us have' (exc5-
fiev), as in NRSV margin?
1 Cor. 15.54. Is it 'victory' (viKoq) or 'conflict' (veiKo<;)?
Heb. 4.11. Is it 'disobedience' (djceiOeiaq) or 'truth' (dXf|0eia<;), as in
Codex Claromontanus ?
Rev 4.3. Is it 'rainbow' (ipiq) or 'priests' (iepeiq)?
More confusing in Greek is the similarity between 'our' (j\n®v, with a long 'e' and
'o') and 'your' (VVL&V), with similar confusion with 'we', 'you' (plural) and 'us'.
Gal. 4.28. Is it 'you', as in AV and NRSV, or 'we', as in NRSV margin?
2 Thess. 2.14. Is it 'did he call you' (or us)?.
1 Jn 1.4. Is it 'our joy', as in NRSV, or 'your joy', as in AV and NRSV margin?
 J

Jabal Abu Mana, Egypt. Site for the Jeremiah Fragment. One of the earliest
discovery of one of the Bodmer Papyri*, dated Hebrew mss. in existence, dated c.
not far from Nag Hammadi* the site of 964 CE, and now located in the John
similar discoveries. Rylands Library, Manchester*.

James I (1566-1625). James VI of Scot- Jerome (c.342-420). A monk and a

land. Summoned churchmen and the- scholar, the son of Christian parents,
ologians to the Hampton Court Confer- educated in grammar and rhetoric in
ence*, 1604, which passed a resolution to Rome and the best exegetical schools of
make a new translation of the Bible, the Greek orient, who learned Hebrew
resulting in the AV . from the rabbis and developed a feeling
for literary style as a result of studying the
Latin classics. Invited by Pope Damasus
Jamnia, Synod of. With the fall of I in 383 to make a new translation of the
Jerusalem in 70 CE, after which Judaea no gospels from the Greek into Latin,
longer existed as a nation, the Jews found though there is evidence that other schol-
it necessary to define their canon*. Much ars were involved and it is doubtful
discussion took place among rabbis, whether Jerome did the epistles, Acts and
though mainly only about one or two Revelation.
books, subsequently included in the Writ- Moved by what he called hebraka veri-
ings*, because by this time there seems to tas, Jerome saw that what was needed was
have been no doubt about the Torah and not simply a revision of the Old Latin*
the Prophets*. Discussion seems to have in relation to the Greek but (in the case
ceased after the Synod of Jamnia, c. 112 of the OT) a new translation from the
CE, which suggests that Jamnia was Hebrew*. He began work in 391 and,
responsible for the final decisions, though with the help of Jewish scholars, finished
this is seriously questioned by many in 405, working first in Rome and then in
scholars who believe that the most Jamnia Jerusalem. Again, it is important to dis-
did was to recognize a situation which tinguish between what Jerome translated
had already been arrived at. from the Hebrew and what he merely
revised. Not surprisingly, unlike Augus-
Jarrow, Tyne and Wear. Home of tine*, he paid no attention to the Apoc-
Bede* and one of two possible sites for rypha*. The Vulgate* was the result.
the copying of the Codex Amiatinus , Like the later Reformers he accepted
the other claimant being Wearmouth*. the Hebrew canon and then identified
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 95

two other categories: books which were ecumenical Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem*,
edifying and therefore suitable to be read and regularly consulted where questions
in churches but not canonical (in which of variants or interpretation arose. The
he put Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, work of Alexander Jones* (editor) and 27
Ecclesiasticus, Judith, Tobit, the Didache collaborators, and published by Darton,
and the Shepherd of Hernias), and apoc- Longman and Todd on an initiative by
ryphal books, to be avoided altogether. Frank Sheed* and Michael Longman*.
He wrote commentaries on most of Includes a translation from the intro-
the biblical books, revised the Old Latin duction and notes to La Bible de Jerusalem,
texts on the basis of the Greek texts and stating that its purpose is to elucidate the
the old Latin Psalter on the basis of the text rather than reaffirm traditional inter-
LXX* which appeared in 384 and was pretations, and those which reflected
known as the Roman Psalter to distin- Catholic doctrinal positions were re-
guish it from the Old Latin Psalter. He moved from the Reader's Edition, 1968,
met severe criticism and did not live the one with which most English-speak-
long enough to receive appreciation, but ing readers are familiar.
his version became the main Bible of all Special features are the use of Yah-
Western Christendom and was without weh' rather than 'God', pluralizing the
rival for 1000 years. word 'grace' (the only English language
translation to do so), superb typography,
Jerusalem Bible, 1966. A response to a with clear type, printed right across the
Roman Catholic desire for a Bible trans- page, poetry in metrical form, helpful
lated from the original languages rather tables and maps, though no modern
than the Latin. 'Catholic' in the sense equivalents for weights and measures.
that it was produced by Catholics, notfor The first edition may also be thought to
Catholics. In contemporary idiom (no have been accident prone: the Belgian
'thees and thous') whilst at the same printer apparently dropped the type on
time preserving the poetic and the sacral, the way to the machine and put it
and aimed from the start at general together hastily without a further proof
acceptance by all Bible readers, but par- read, as a result of which Gen. 1.1 has
ticularly by Protestants, psalm numbers 'siprit' for 'spirit', Ps. 78.66 (AV 'he smote
following the Hebrew rather than the the enemy in the hinder parts') reads
LXX* or Vulgate*, as in Protestant Bibles, 'The Lord woke up to strike his enemies
and proper names having the more on the rump', and one popular newspa-
familiar Protestant forms. The apoc- per couldn't resist drawing attention to
ryphal books are placed in their LXX or 'Pay for the peace of Jerusalem' (Ps.
Vulgate positions, except for Maccabees 122.6).
which are placed with the historical The first print run was 50,000 copies
books. The scholarship is that of the and by the time the New Jerusalem
1940s though some account is taken of Bible appeared sales were well over
the DSS*. three million.
A new dynamic equivalence* transla-
tion, based on Hebrew, Aramaic and Jerusalem, Israel. Location of Ecole
Greek originals, reflecting sound schol- Biblique which provided much of the
arship, inspired by La Bible de Jerusalem, a inspiration for La Bible de Jerusalem,
version made by Roman Catholic schol- which led in turn to the Jerusalem
ars, principally de Vaux* and Benoit* Bible . Home to some of the original dis-
building on the work of Lagrange*, at the coveries of the DSS*, in the Hebrew
96 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

University, and to many other ancient Chester Beatty Papyri* collection now
mss. located in the John Rylands Library,
Manchester*, which acquired it along
Jewish Publication Society Bible, with other papyri in 1920 but did not
1917. A translation of the Hebrew Bible fully recognize it and appreciate its
by USA Jewish scholars, led by Marcus significance until 1934.
Jastrow and sponsored by the Jewish
Publication Society of America. A Jewish Jones, Alexander (d. 1974). Senior Lec-
version of the RV*, 1885, and the standard turer in Divinity in Christ's College, Liv-
Bible of the American Jewish commu- erpool. Translator and General Editor of
nity until the New Jewish Version*. the Jerusalem Bible* which he began in
1957. Most of the scholarship came from
Jewish School and Family Bible, the Ecole Biblique but Jones translated
1861. An early Jewish translation of the and edited their notes with the help of 27
Hebrew Bible by Abraham Benisch*. colleagues. It is said that he devised 'a spe-
cial kind of semi-circular stall' in which
Johannine Corpus. The Fourth Gospel, he sat surrounded by Hebrew, Greek and
1, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation. Author- French texts plus English drafts from a
ship is attributed to John, the apostle, team of experts, comparing one against
though Revelation is the only one which the other, a process of revision and coun-
actually identifies him (1.4). Doubts were ter-revision that lasted eight years.
raised in the early church about the inclu-
sion of the letters on the grounds of dis- Josephus (37-100 CE). Jewish historian
puted authorship and Origen* and Euse- and the most important resource for
bius* had them on their 'disputed' list, Palestine in New Testament times, ex-
but Irenaeus* accepted 1 John and all pounded in The Jewish War and Jewish
three are listed in the Muratorian Canon . Antiquities. He believed Jewish culture to
Revelation was popular in the West in the be superior to Greek and in defending it
second century but the Eastern Church in his work, Against Apion, provided early
was questioning its inclusion in the evidence for the development of the
canon* until the fourth century when canon* by referring to a '22-book canon',
Athanasius* endorsed it and the Council sometimes said to consist of the Penta-
of Carthage*, 397, confirmed it. teuch and 13 books of prophets (proba-
bly Joshua to Kings and the Psalms),
John Chrysostom (347-407). Bishop though the evidence is unclear.
of Constantinople*, 397-407, and the
first to use the word biblia or 'Bible'* of Joye, George (1490^1553). Native of
the Old and New Testaments together. Bedfordshire, educated at Cambridge
and Fellow of Peterhouse. Early associate
John Fragment. The oldest witness to of William Tyndale* who produced a
the Fourth Gospel, the oldest example of translation of Martin Bucer's Latin ver-
a NT text and probably the earliest sion of the Psalms (1530 and 1534), Isa-
Christan extant writing. A small piece of iah (1531), Jeremiah (1534), Proverbs
papyrus codex, 3.5 x 2.5 inches, contain- and Ecclesiastes (1535). Except Proverbs
ing verses from John's Gospel (18.31-33, and Ecclesiastes, most of his work was
37, 38) and dated from the first half of printed abroad, probably in Antwerp*,
the second century, possibly as early as and such were his relations with Tyndale
125. Usually known as £)52. Part of the that it is not always clear just how much
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 97

was his. Lacking scholarship and a nicety to hostile feelings between Christians
of taste he has been described as 'an inter- and Jews were changed, the more famil-
esting minor figure in the story of the iar AV* text appearing in the footnotes.
English Bible'. When there was increas-
ing demand for Tyndale's Translation* Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 CE). A sec-
some pirate printings took place, often ond-century Greek apologist who came
with words altered. Joye was responsible from Palestine to Rome and suffered
for some of these and Tyndale admon- martyrdom, defended the OT as pointing
ishes him in the prologue to his revised to Jesus, made specific reference to the
NT, 1534. first three Gospels (or 'memoirs of the
apostles' as they were then called) and
Judaean and Authorized Version of their being read in worship alongside the
the New Testament, 1969. Intended to prophets, and the first to make direct ref-
be a version without any anti-Semitism. erence to Revelation, but provides noth-
Passages therefore which may give rise ing more than allusions to Paul.
 K

Kahle, Paul Ernest (1875-1964). Joint Kibworth, Leicestershire. Birthplace

editor of Kittel, Biblia hebraica*, third edi- of Ronald Knox*.
tion, 1929-37. A twentieth-century schol-
ar who studied some of the mss. found in Kilpatrick, George Gordon Dinwid-
the Cairo Geniza* and questioned the die (1887-1975). Oxford Professor of
possibility of the urtext* on the grounds Exegesis and successor to T.H. Robin-
that no recension* was the result of a sin-
son* as Convenor of the Apocrypha panel
gle act but rather the end result of much
for the NEB*.
editing and revision. Attributed agree-
ments between the LXX* and the Samari-
tan Pentateuch* to the fact that they came King James Version. See Authorized
from the same 'common' tradition. Version.

Kenrick, Francis Patrick (1797-1863). Kittel, Rudolf (1853-1929). Editor of

Roman Catholic Archbishop of Balti- Biblia hebraica .
more, Maryland. Born in Dublin and
educated in Rome, where he trained for Knox, Ronald (1888-1957). Born in
the priesthood and developed a love of Kibworth, Leicestershire, son of an Angli-
Greek and Hebrew, Kenrick established a can clergyman later to become Bishop of
seminary to train priests and made a revi-
Manchester. Educated at Eton, where he
sion of the Douay-Rheims Bible* which
began his literary career, and Balliol Col-
he published in six volumes, 1849-60.
lege, Oxford. Tutor and Fellow of Trinity,
Kethib and Qere. In some cases (any- leading to ordination. Became a Roman
thing from about 1000 to 1500), the Catholic, 1917, a Roman priest, 1919, and
Hebrew text instructs the reader to ig- Professor of Old Testament at St Ed-
nore what is written (kethib) and to read mund's, Ware, Hertfordshire, 1922-26,
(qere) what it says in the margin. In most when he moved to Oxford to become
cases the consonants remain intact but Chaplain to Catholic Undergraduates, a
the vowels change to give a different position he held for 13 years. Translator of
meaning. Kethib/Qere is used for a variety Knox's Bible* and author of On Englishing
of reasons, including the need to avoid the Bibk, a set of lectures and articles on
profanity, to correct error, or to offer a Bible translation setting out the principles
euphemism. on which he worked.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 99

Kethib/Qere*
The classic example of the Kethib/Qere is the divine name, but
there are others.
To avoid utterance of the divine name, Yahweh, the consonants of the
name (YHWH) were retained in the text as Kethib, but the vowels to
produce the Qere were those of 'adonai' ('a', 'o', 'a'), normally translated
and always pronounced in Hebrew as 'adonai' (never ^Vahweh') to give
the English 'Jehovah' CYaHoWaH'), a transliteration of the Kethib and
the Qere.
1 Sam. 5.6, 9, 12. 'Haemorrhoids' (Kethib) in the AV* has become
'tumours' (Qere) in the NRSV*. Cf. 1 Sam. 6.4, 5.
Deut. 28.30. 'He shall enjoy her' (Kethib) has become 'he shall lie with
her'(Qere). The Qere is a less obscene word in the Hebrew. Cf Isa.
13.16,Jer.3.2,Zech. 14.2.
2 Kgs 20.4. 'The city' (Kethib) has become 'the court' (Qere), as reflected
in the AV margin and some other translations.

Knox's Bible, 1945 (NT), 1949 (OT), lation, its strength lies in the fact that
1954 (complete). A Roman Catholic Knox was committed to dynamic equiv-
dynamic equivalence* translation into alence and as a translator has an uncanny
'timeless English' by Ronald Knox* and knack of getting the right word or phrase
published by Burns and Gates, London, in any given context. NT has copious
with extensive and accessible footnotes footnotes, discussing points of text or
to clarify difficult passages and provide rendering, especially where the Latin
references to particular Greek mss. deviates from the Greek.
Describes itself as 'a translation from Authorized for use in the churches by
the Latin Vulgate* in the light of the the hierarchies of England and Wales,
Hebrew and Greek originals'. This is the and Scotland, and until the arrival of the
Clementine Vulgate, authorized by Pope Jerusalem Bible* the best-known twen-
Clement VIII, 1592, and the standard tieth-century Roman Catholic version.
text for the Roman Catholic Church
Koine Greek. The Greek of the NT A
since that time. Knox felt unable to exer-
popular, or common, form of the Greek
cise the freedom of the revisers of the
language*, as distinct from classical
Confraternity Version* and go behind
Greek, spoken in the Hellenistic period
the Clementine Vulgate to the purer
from the time of Alexander the Great
Jerome* even where it was obvious to
until the sixth century Popularly known
him that the Clementine was corrupt. as NT Greek. Sometimes used to mean
Modern paragraphing, verse numbers the Byzantine* text.
in the margin, using much modern
vocabulary but not poetic forms and Koridethi. The site of a monastery near
retaining the use of 'thou' and thee'. the Caspian Sea where in 1906 von
Though inevitably suffering from the Soden drew attention to a ms. which
fact that it is still a translation of a trans- formed the basis for Family Theta*.
 L

Lachish Letters. Twenty-five pieces of too readily that the earlier mss. were
pottery, discovered in 1935 and 1938, let- more likely to be accurate and to ignore
ters written by a Judaean military com- the mass of late mss., as a result of which
mander to the Jewish forces defending his list of authorities was too small.
Lachish, 589 BCE, when Nebuchadnez-
zar (of Babylon) was attacking Judah 'Ladies of Castlebrae, The'. Popular
prior to his attack on Jerusalem*. They description of Agnes Smith Lewes* and
belong to the period of Jeremiah and Margaret Dunlop Gibson*, twin sisters
Zedekiah. who found a copy of the Old Syriac* ver-
sion in the Sinaitic script, taken from the
Lachmann, Karl Konrad Friedrich title of a lecture telling their story, and
Wilhelm (1793-1851). Professor of delivered by A Whigham Price to the
Classical Philology in Berlin who opened Presbyterian Historical Society in Dur-
a new era in textual criticism*, being the ham, 1964.
first to reject altogether the text as it is
(Textus Receptus*) and to attempt to Lagrange, Marie Joseph (1855-1938).
apply scientific principles to the study of A French Dominican who, after studying
the rest to reconstruct the text according Assyrian, Egyptian, Arabic and Talmudic
to the ancient authorities, thus establish- Hebrew in Vienna, was sent to Jerusalem*
ing the method of genealogical evidence at the age of 34 to do a feasibility study on
which has determined textual criticism a proposal to found a biblical school in the
up to the present day. Holy Land. He presented a positive report
He undertook a reconstruction of the and the School, the Ecole Biblique, op-
fourth-century Greek text of the NT ened under his leadership in 1890, reput-
(completed by Tregelles*) and printed a edly with only a table, a blackboard and a
small edition, 1831, and a larger edition, map. He also founded Revue Biblique,
1842-50, in which he also introduced 1892, and wrote several books, including
the practice of classifying the Old Latin* History of the New Testament Canon, 1933,
mss. by a lower case italic letter. and Textual Criticism of the New Testament,
At times, he tended to be unduly 1935, thereby laying the foundations for
mechanical and rigid in his methods and the Jerusalem Bible (French version),
though he undoubtedly made a contri- work on which started in 1946, some
bution to the study of the Bible, his work eight years after his death, though his
suffered because his preoccupation with writings and influence were not lost on
a fourth-century text led him to assume men like de Vaux* and Benoit*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 101

Lake, Kirsopp (1872-1946). A biblical rather than the Jewish communities in

scholar who discovered certain similari- that there is no evidence of the use of
ties among four minuscule* mss. (nos. 1, Latin in synagogue worship and insuffi-
118, 131 and 209) and so established cient evidence to assume that they origi-
Family 1*. In collaboration with Helen nated in the Jewish communities. Besides
Lake he also published a facsimile edi- providing the basic terms of Western the-
tion of Codex Sinaiticus*, 1911-22. ology and the formulas of the Latin
liturgy the Latin Bible is important as a
Lamsa's Translation, 1940-57. A ver- guide to the earliest Greek texts and even
bal equivalence* English translation of an some of the Hebrew readings , as well as
Aramaic text for the entire Bible, by assisting in an understanding of Latin as a
George Mamisjisha Lamsa, a native of language and of European language and
Kurdistan, whose mother tongue was literature.
akin to the old Syriac (Aramaic) language
and who had a high regard for the origi- Lattey, Cuthbert Charles (1887-
nality and accuracy of the Peshitta*, from 1954). A Roman Catholic scholar, gen-
which he had first translated the Aramaic eral editor of the Westminster Version*,
text itself Published as The New Testa- 1935.
ment According to the Eastern Text*,
1940, followed by the complete Bible, Law, The. See Pentateuch and Torah.
The Holy Bible from Ancient Eastern
Manuscripts, 1957, and published by AJ. Lawrence, Giles (1539-84). Oxford
Holman Co., Philadelphia. professor of Greek whose scholarly crit-
icisms of the Bishops' Bible*, particu-
Langton, Stephen (c. 1150-1228). larly the NT, led to its revision, 1572.
Archbishop of Canterbury and leader of
the barons in the struggle that gave birth lectio brevior. Where two possible read-
to Magna Carta. Responsible for the ings occur in different mss., apart from
division of the English Bible into chap- an obvious case of haplography , the
ters by installing them in the Vulgate*. shorter text is usually thought to be
Verse division was not applied to the preferable on the grounds that scribes
NT until 1551. were more likely to add than to omit.

Languages. Apart from ten chapters in lectio defectiva. The Latin term (some-
Aramaic (all in Ezra and Daniel) plus times referred to as scriptio defectiva) for
one verse in Jeremiah, the biblical lan- defective reading*.
guages are Hebrew (OT) and Greek
(NT). lectio difficilior. Where two possible read-
ings occur in different mss. the more
Latin Versions. The language of the difficult (or unlikely) reading is usually
Roman Church was Greek until the third thought to be preferable, on the grounds
century but Old Latin* versions of the that scribes were more likely to attempt to
Bible go back to the second century, first simplify or clarify a reading than to make
in Northern Africa and then in Italy, the it more difficult, but the principle is by no
Vulgate* being the most significant. Their means infallible. Sometimes two readings
origins are uncertain, though (with the are equally difficult, sometimes scholars
exception of the Pentateuch*) they are disagree as to which is the more 'diffi-
most likely to have been in the Christian cult', and sometimes an error in copying
102 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

may produce a lectio difficilior without it Leipzig, Germany. City of publication

necessarily being right, so there is a great for the first edition of KitteFs Biblia
deal of subjectivity when it comes to hebraica* and home to 43 leaves of the
making decisions. (See lectio difficilior, OT of Codex Sinaiticus*.
below.)
Letters of St Paul, 1901. A translation
lectio plene. The Latin term (sometimes of the epistles by Arthur S. Way*, omit-
referred to as scriptio plene) for full read- ting Hebrews in the first edition but
ing*. including it in a second revised edition
in 1906.
Leeser, Isaac (1806-68). US rabbi,
writer and lecturer. Born in Westphalia, Letters to Young Churches, 1947. A
educated at Munster and worked mostly paraphrase of the NT epistles by J.B.
in America where he moved in 1824. Phillips* subsequently incorporated into
Published the first Hebrew primer for The New Testament in Modern Eng-
children (1838), founded a Jewish news- lish, 1958*. Published by Geoffrey Bles,
paper, the first Hebrew High School London.
(1848) and the Jewish Publication Soci-
ety of America, and was the first Jewish Leviticus Scroll. Fragments of a tar-
translator of the Hebrew Bible* in the gum containing Lev. 16.12-15, 18-21,
USA, a translation which took him 17 dating from the second century BCE, and
years to complete, was published in 1845, found at Qumran* among the DSS*.
and became the standard American Jew-
ish Translation, accepted in all American Lewis, Agnes Smith (1843-1926).
synagogues until the Jewish Publication Twin sister of Margaret Dunlop Gibson*,
Society edition of 1917. A revised edition sometimes described as the Ladies of
was published in London in 1865. Castlebrae*, who towards the end of the
nineteenth century found a second copy
Leicester, England. Home of Nicholas* of the Old Syriac* version at St Cath-
of Hereford, Canon of the Abbey of St arine's Monastery*, Mount Sinai, reflect-
Mary of the Meadows, thought to be ing the Sinaitic Syriac text.
partly responsible for the translation of
Wycliffe's Bible*. Lewis, Clive Staples (1898-1963).
Born in Belfast, son of a solicitor, Fellow
Leiden, Netherlands. Home of the of Magdalen College, Oxford, 1925-54,
Elzevir* printing firm and the Textus and Professor of Mediaeval and Renais-
Receptus*. sance English at Cambridge, 1954-63.

lectio difficilior
In Lk. 14.5 Codex Sinaiticus* has, 'Which one of you, if his ass or his ox
fall in a well, will hestitate to pull it out, even on the Sabbath day?' Codex
Vaticanus*, Codex Alexandrinus and a few other mss. have, 'his son or
his ox', a more difficult reading. Two mss. combine the two ('his son or
his ass or his ox'), clearly not original. But was the more difficult reading
the original or was there a tightening up with the passing of time?
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 103

Popular writer and broadcaster and seventh century, from a text which
member of the Literary Panel for the Adrian, a friend of Archbishop Theodore,
NEB*. Recognized the importance of J.B. had brought to England in 669, and now
Phillip's* translation, Letters to "Vbung in the British Library. A monk, Ealdred,
Churches, encouraged its publication made an interlinear translation in the
and wrote an introduction in which he Northumbrian dialect, c. 950.
defended the importance of modern Originally kept at Lindisfarne, Nor-
translations of the Bible. thumbria, together with the remains of St
Cuthbert in whose honour the ms. had
Libby, Willard Frank (1908-80). An been produced, but in 875 the Danes
American chemist who worked on invaded and drove the monks to carry
research into the atom bomb, 1941-45, away both the body and the book. The
and became Professor of Chemistry at monks wandered for several years in nor-
Chicago where he worked for the thern England and eventually decided to
Atomic Energy Commission and was go to Ireland, but legend has it that the
awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in chem- saint was angry at being taken from his
istry for his part in the invention of the own land and the ship ran into a terrible
Radio Carbon Dating method of deter- storm in which the precious volume was
mining the age of an object. washed overboard and lost. Realizing that
they had incurred the wrath of the saint
Liberal Translation of the New Tes- the monks returned to England with
tament, 1768. A none-too-successful much penitence and one of them subse-
attempt by Edward Harwood* 'to trans- quently found the ms. washed up on the
late the sacred writings with the same shore almost uninjured by its immersion.
freedom, spirit and elegance, with which Doubters may take some comfort from
other English translations from the the fact that any precious book like this
Greek Classics have lately been exe- would only be allowed to travel in a very
cuted', otherwise described as a free ren- strong container, and several pages of the
dering or paraphrase* of the AV*, prior to book do in fact show some signs of hav-
the appearance of the RV*, possibly suf- ing suffered from water!
fering from the fact that reading was not Three of the gospels are identical with
a high priority for many people and the Rushworth Gospels*, a copy of which
those for whom it was were either not is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford*.
yet into the niceties of translations or
were opposed to the very idea. Once Lingard's Gospels, 1836. The first
described as 'a literary curio'. Catholic translation from the Greek, by
an English historian, published as 'by a
Lietzmann, Hans (1875-1942). A Catholic'.
church historian who studied philosophy
and theology and was a lecturer at Bonn Linguistic Emendation. See Conjec-
and a professor at Jena. Discovered three tural Emendation.
families of text in the Pauline letters: the
Koine1 (most recent), the Western* (of Literal Translation of the Bible,
great antiquity) and the Egyptian (often 1862. More popularly known as Young's
the most primitive). Translation*.

Lindisfarne Gospels. An interlinear Living Bible, 1971. An American para-

Latin copy of the gospels, written by phrase* of the ASV* (or AV*), 1901, by
Bishop Eadfrith* towards the end of the Kenneth N. Taylor* which began in
104 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

parts, 1962—70, and 'was published com- of the AV*. Tyndale's Bibles were burned
plete by the Tyndale House Press, USA, at St Paul's Cross* on the authority of the
including an edition in 1988 with the Bishop of London.
books in alphabetical order, beginning
with Acts and ending with Zephaniah. A London Polyglot, 1657-69. Eight vol-
British edition appeared from Kingsway umes, edited by Brian Walton*, some-
Publications, 1974, and there are several times known as Walton's Polyglot, con-
editions in other languages. Though the taining Hebrew (OT), Greek, Latin,
dangers of paraphrases are recognized Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Persian
the translator adopts a thoroughly evan- (NT), with Latin translations in all cases,
gelical position, aiming 'to simplify the plus the Samaritan Pentateuch* and var-
deep and often complex thoughts of the ious targumim* or paraphrases*. The
word of God'. Greek text is that of Stephanus*, 1550.
The first systematic collection of vari-
Lollards. A body of travelling preachers ant readings* and quite the most impor-
sent out by John Wycliffe* each of whom tant of all Polyglot Bibles*, mainly
carried a Bible in English from which he because in the notes Walton added read-
read to the people. They were unpopular ings from Codex Alexandrinus* and 15
with the church establishment and Arch- other mss., besides the 15 used by
bishop Courtenay, with the backing of Stephanus, and including Codex Bezae*
the king, took out sanctions against them, for the fifth-century gospels and Acts and
turning them into an underground Codex Clarimontanus for the sixth-
movement. In 1408 a Synod passed the century Pauline epistles.
Constitutions of Oxford* against them.
Many were burned as heretics. Longman, Michael (1916-78). A direc-
tor of Longmans Green who persuaded
London, England. Location of the his fellow-directors to follow up a pro-
British Library (formerly British posal from Frank Sheed* of Sheed and
Museum), Lambeth Palace Library, Dr Ward to negotiate with the French pub-
Williams's Library, King's College lishers, Editions du Cerf, for the rights to
Library, St Paul's and Westminster, most arrange for an English translation of La
of which have resources and documents Bible de Jerusalem with a view to publish-
relating to the English Bible. These ing the Jerusalem Bible* in England.
include 199 leaves of the OT of Codex
Sinaiticus*, a fragment of the Oxyrhyn-
chus* Papyrus, the Lindisfarne Gospels*, Lower Criticism. See Textual Criti-
King Alfred's Psalter, one copy of the cism.
West Saxon Gospels*, the Cologne
Quarto*, Coverdale's Bible*, Matthew's Lowth, Robert (1710-87). Bishop of
Bible*, King George Ill's copy of the London who discovered the principle of
Mazarin* (Gutenberg) Bible, two copies parallelism in Hebrew poetry, whereby
of Tyndale's Translation* and the Ves- the second line of a verse repeats the first
pasian Psalter*. The site of Caxton's* first in different but synonymous terms, and
printing press, in Tothill Street*, the in so doing opened up a new vista for the
home of the Ben Judah-Loeb family of interpretation and translation of the OT.
translators and printers, including Alex- In 1778 he published Isaiah: a new Trans-
ander Alexander*, of the king's printer, lation, with a Preliminary Dissertation, and
Robert Barker*, and site for the printing Notes.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 105

Lucar, Cyril (1572-1638). Patriarch, seem to reflect a Lucianic text before

first of Alexandria* and then of Constan- Lucian, it is not certain what Lucian him-
tinople*, who presented the Codex Alex- self carried out but the characteristics of
andrinus* to Charles I*, 1627. the Lucianic text are clear: additions* to
adapt it to the rabbinic Hebrew text,
Lucianic Text. Possibly the first major some stylistic improvements, explana-
recension of the LXX , with an eye on the tory notes, such as proper names, pro-
cultured reader, attributed to Lucian of nouns, etc., and the replacement of Hel-
Antioch, theologian, biblical scholar and lenistic forms by Attic equivalents.
founder of an exegetical school in Anti- It leaned more to the Western* text
och who died a martyr's death c. 311 CE. than the Alexandrian*, became the pre-
A collection of fragmentary, Greek, dominant text throughout the Greek-
minuscule* mss., discovered in the nine- speaking world from the fourth century
teenth century and reflecting some and (with minor changes) the Tex-
important Hebrew readings and striking tus Receptus* of the Greek Orthodox
agreements with certain Hebrew texts in Church and so the Greek version behind
the DSS*. the AV*.
Identified mainly in the prophetic
books, Judges, Samuel and Kings, and Luther's German New Testament,
recognizable in certain extant mss. and in 1552. Based on one of the editions of
the copious biblical quotations of John Erasmus's* NT.
Chrysostom* and Theodoret, but found
only in one uncial* and a few cursive*
mss., in the Gothic* and Old Slavonic* Lutterworth, Leicestershire. Home
versions, and in the first printed version ofJohnWycliffe*.
of the LXX*, the Complutensian Polyglot*.
Since the second-century Old Latin* LXX. Traditional way of describing the
and the first-century Josephus* texts Septuagint*.
 M

Mace, Daniel (d. c. 1753). A Presbyter- NT containing all 27 books and the orig-
ian minister whose free rendering of the inal documents for the Twentieth Cen-
New Testament resulted in The New tury New Testament*, 1902, in the John
Testament in Greek and English...cor- Rylands Library.
rected from the Authority of the most
Authentic Manuscripts*, 1729. Manuscript. A hand-written document
by which the text was conveyed long
MacKnight, James (1721-1800). Bibli- before the invention of printing*.
cal critic. Educated in Glasgow and Lei-
den. Author of A Harmony of the Gos- Marcion (c. 100-165 CE). A wealthy
pels*, 1756, and A Translation of all the ship-owner and church founder in Asia
Apostolical Epistles*, 1795, the latter Minor who caused dissension in the
being one of three popular eighteenth- church of the second century by becom-
century translations, the other two being ing a bishop but then created his own
Philip Doddridge's* translation of the community and was eventually dismissed
NT, 1739-56, and George Campbell's* as a heretic. In 140, in Rome, he rejected
translation of the gospels. In 1818 a com- the OT* and reduced the NT* to an
bined translation appeared in London, abbreviated Luke and his own edited ver-
subsequently revised and published by sion of ten letters of Paul, arranged as
Alexander Campbell* in 1826. Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans,
1 and 2 Thessalonians, Ephesians, Colos-
Mainz, Germany. City where John sians, Philippians and Philemon, though
Gutenberg invented printing with mov- in so doing he provides some early evi-
able type, c. 1454, and the site for the dence of a Pauline Corpus* and may have
printing of the Mazarin Bible*, the first been instrumental in encouraging the
major work to come from the printing more orthodox to re-examine their own
press, 1456. presuppositions and the church to define
its canon*.
Manchester, England. Home to a
Bohairic Coptic* text of Job and a Sahidic Mari Tablets. 20,000 tablets, excavated
Coptic text of Ecclesiasticus, some mss. since 1936 at Mari, on the right bank of
from the Cairo Geniza*, the Deuteron- the Euphrates, and dating from the eigh-
omy Fragment*, the Jeremiah Fragment*, teenth century BCE, round about the
the John Fragment*, the Titus Fragment*, time when the city was destroyed by the
a palimpsest of 1 and 2 Peter, a Syriac* soldiers of Hammurabi, king of Babylon,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 107

while it was undergoing a period of great tion was completed it was revised by
prosperity. William Allen and Richard Bristow*.
Mari features in the history of Meso-
potamia and, since the population was Martini, Carlo Maria (1927-). Cardi-
mostly Semitic, customs and language nal Archbishop of Milan, who argued
reflect the culture of Semitic life at that that the distancing of the Church from
time and so have much to offer towards the scriptures in order to establish its
an understanding of the OT. According authority was a relatively recent phe-
to Genesis, Mesopotamia is the country nomenon following the Council of
of Abraham and Terah and the texts Trent*, 1545-63, and that the affirma-
make reference to the Habiru who are tions of the Second Vatican Council*
thought by some to have a connection were a return to an earlier way of think-
with the Hebrews. ing. In so doing he prepared the way for
The tablets include letters written by closer cooperation with the Protestants
north-western Semites in a Babylonian and worked with Holmgren* and others
script full of West-Semitic words and to achieve a common text leading to the
grammatical usages. Thousands of proper Common Bible*, 1973.
names shed light on many OT names,
particularly some in the earlier books of Mary I (1516-1558). Came to the
the Bible, and in some cases the legacy of throne in 1553 and reversed the reform-
Mari has helped in an understanding of ing policies of her brother. Men like John
some previously obscure Hebrew phrases, Rogers* and Thomas Cranmer* were
such as 'cut a covenant' (Gen. 31.44). executed and many Bibles were burned,
but the Great Bible* remained unassailed
Martin, Gregory (d. 1582). Born in and could still be found in most chur-
Sussex, tutor in the Howard family, ches.
Scholar of St John's College, Oxford, and
Professor at the English College at Masorah. The origins of the word are
Rheims*, founded by William Allen*, uncertain and even its spelling is dis-
from 1570. Ordained to the priesthood puted, some preferring 'massorah', 'mas-
and taught Hebrew. Roman Catholic soretes', etc. One view is that it conies
translator of the Vulgate* into English for from *sr ('to tie'), the other that it comes
the benefit of English-speaking Roman from msr, a post-bibical word meaning 'to
Catholics, which led to the Douay- transmit'. Transmission is what it com-
Rheims Bible*. Beginning in 1578, he monly means. Its purpose is to preserve
translated two chapters daily, working the text in its entirety and to interpret it.
from the Latin but keeping one eye on Hence it consists of a collection of scribal
the Greek and even using some of the data or code of instructions, dating from
English versions which he had previously somewhere between 500 and 1000 CE, to
condemned. He translated the OT first accompany the Masoretic Text*, tradi-
and then the NT, but his NT appeared tionally going back to the time of Ezra
first, in 1582, when he was at Rheims and and continuing the work of the Soph-
is properly known as the Rheims New erim*, for preserving, copying* and read-
Testament. The OT appeared 1609-10 ing (aloud) the biblical text, including
when the College had returned to Douay kethib/qere*. In some cases notes deal with
and hence the name Douay Old Testa- doubts, possibly misunderstandings af-
ment, or Douay-Rheims Bible and was fecting a letter or word (such as matres tec-
followed by the Apocrypha*. As each sec- tionis*), accents or grammatical forms.
108 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

There are two masorah traditions, and word of each book so as to be alerted
one from Babylon and the other from when anything went wrong in the copy-
Palestine, both of which developed after ing, but verse division*, verse numbers
the second Jewish revolt against the and chapter division owe more to Latin
Romans (132-35 CE). tradition than to the Jewish.

Masoretes, The. Jewish scholars Masoretic Text. A group of ancient

charged with achieving a consistent and Hebrew mss. that achieved a final form
reliable Hebrew text of the OT They in the Middle Ages when the Masoretes*
began work c. 600 CE and did most of defined them and added a critical appa-
their work in the eighth to the tenth cen- ratus . The most commonly used form
turies, leading to the Masoretic Text*, of the Hebrew Bible from the second
now the standard Hebrew text for the century CE, first in its Proto-Masoretic*
OT. form and then in its vocalized form as a
Usually applied to the work of Ben result of the work of the Masoretes*.
Asher* (the most famous family of The central text for the Hebrew Bible,
Masoretes) and a group of Tiberian for the OT, and for biblical scholarship,
scholars who defined the consonantal with which all other ancient Hebrew
base, developed from earlier traditions texts are compared, but not the only tex-
from the seventh to the eleventh cen- tual tradition that was around immedi-
turies and reflecting a tradition going ately before the birth of Christianity and
back 1000 years to the days of the Second therefore not to be regarded as the one
Temple, sometimes described as Proto- and only reliable version.
Masoretic*. A different masorah, more
rigid and consistent, came from Ben ntatres lectionis. Some Hebrew conso-
Naphthali, another family of Masoretes, nants occasionally do duty also as vowels
contemporaries of Ben Asher. and over the years the custom developed
Ancient Hebrew writing had only of adding them to certain words for
consonants and no vowels and though clarification. Judging by early Moabite
there was considerable consistency in and Phoenician texts (we do not have any
the written text it was not unknown for Hebrew texts from the same period) they
one verbal tradition to work on one set were probably not used in the days of the
of vowels and another verbal tradition First Temple, but they were around by
on a different set. The Masoretes pro- the time of the DSS . Even after their
vided vocalization*, defined the text, arrival their use was not universal or con-
added accents and created the apparatus sistent, leading to a distinction between a
of the Masorah . defective reading where one or more of
Because it was done by inserting the matres lectionis was missing and a full
'points' (dots and other small marks) to reading* with one or more included.
represent the vowels, one part of the Most matres lectionis do not affect the
process is known as 'pointing' and the meaning of the text but their insertion
result described as 'a pointed text'. In the does reflect the understanding of the per-
interests of accuracy dots (puncta extraordi- son adding them.
naria*) were put over letters where the
rabbis doubted their correctness. In the Matthaei, C.F. (1744-1811). Professor
interests of consistency they counted the at Wittenberg and Moscow. Worked on a
words and letters of every book, deter- list of mss., drawn up by J.J. Wettstein*,
mining (for example) the middle letter and added a further 57 to produce an
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 109

edition of the Greek text with the Latin called the Gutenberg Bible, which some
Vulgate* in 12 parts, 1782-88, with a sec- people consider more appropriate. Print-
ond edition (without the Vulgate) in ed in two columns. About 40 copies are
three volumes, 1803-1807. Possibly the extant. King George Ill's copy is in the
first to draw on Slavic mss., of which he King's Library at the British Library and
had ten. Paved the way for the later work some years ago the USA Congress paid
of J.M.A. Scholz* and Caspar Rene Gre- £60,000 for a copy for the National
gory*. Library at Washington*.

Matthew's Bible, 1537. Thomas Matt- McHardy, WD. (1911-). Educated at

hew was a pseudonym for John Rogers , Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Oxford, where
friend of Tyndale*, burnt at the stake he became Professor of Hebrew. Special-
under Mary , and responsible for taking ist in Aramaic* and Syriac* and Curator of
the text of Tyndale and Coverdale* and the Mingana Collection of Oriental Man-
editing it. uscripts, 1947. Director of A Greek-Eng-
The text is substantially Tyndale's NT lish Diglot for the Use of Translators*,
and as much of the OT as Tyndale had 1958-64, and leader of a team of 35 schol-
translated (probably Genesis to Chroni- ars who produced The Translator's New
cles), edited by Rogers. 1112 pages, 11.25 Testament*, 1973. Chairman of the Apoc-
x 6.5 inches, two columns, each with 60 rypha* panel for the NEB*, Deputy Direc-
lines. Title page carries the words, 'Set tor for the whole translation from 1968
forth with the kinges most gracyous and Joint Director from 1971. Director of
lycence', partly due to the efforts of the Revised English Bible*, 1973-90.
Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Crom-
well*. McLean, Norman (1865-1947). Ori-
Many notes and references. Divided entalist, educated in Edinburgh and
into chapters and paragraphs, but not Cambridge, a specialist in Semitic lan-
into verses. Printed entirely in black let- guages* and a lecturer in Aramaic*. Joint
ters. The first version to carry the apoc- editor (with A.E. Brooke*) of the Cam-
ryphal Prayer of Manasseh in English bridge Septuagint .
and one of the first Chained Bibles* in
some churches. Failed to satisfy the Meek, Theophile James (b. c. 1881).
scholars because it was not made from Biblical scholar in the University of
the originals and offended some of the Toronto. Translated the first eight books
traditionalists by its notes and com- of the OT, Song of Songs and Lamenta-
ments. tions for The Old Testament: An Amer-
Published in Antwerp* by Richard ican Translation*, 1927, and subse-
Grafton*. The British Library has 2 quently revised the whole work for The
copies of the original edition of 1500 Complete Bible: An American Transla-
copies, most of which were destroyed. tion*, 1931, often known as Goodspeed's
translation*.
Mazarin Bible, 1456. The first major
work to come from the printing press Melito of Sardis (d. c. 190). A bishop
after the invention of printing* by move- who was interested in the differences
able type by Gutenberg, 1454, a Latin between Jews and Christians when it
Bible so-called because one copy be- came to decisions about sacred texts.
longed to the library of the French states- When he visited Palestine in 170, for
man, Cardinal Jules Mazarin. Often example, he discovered that the Jerusalem
no A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Church was using the OT without RSV*, the RV of the Apocrypha*, and the
Esther, so this became the recognized NRSV*.
canon* for Asia Minor, and Melito's list of
22 books, all with Greek titles, is the old- Midrash. A Jewish commentary on the
est surviving list of books of the OT. scriptures, from drsh, the Hebrew word
meaning 'to search out'.
Mesropius (d 439). First Armenian*
Bible translator and joint translator with Milan, Italy. Site for the printing of the
Patriarch Sahug* of the Bible and the first texts of the Greek New Testament*
liturgy. Credited also with the invention (the Magnificat and Benedictus, along-
of the Armenian script, an alphabet of 36 side the Psalter) in 1481 and home of the
letters which emerged in 406. Ambrosian Library.

Message: The New Testament in Mill, John (1645-1707). A NT scholar

Contemporary Language, The, 1993. and Fellow of Queens College, Oxford,
A dynamic equivalence* approach by and the first to appreciate the significance
Eugene H. Peterson, a Presbyterian min- of the ancient versions and quotations in
ister, resulting more in a popular para- the early church Fathers for critical study
phrase. Since the NT was written in of the NT text. He produced a NT in
informal Greek, the street language of which he attached to the text of Steph-
the day, the idiom of the playground and anus* the variant readings* of 78 other
the marketplace, Peterson attempts to mss., all the versions* he could get hold
retain the informal character of the of, and (for the first time) scriptural quo-
Greek in the modern English translation. tations used by early Christian writers.
No notes or study aids but sometimes He listed 30,000 variant readings and
marred by Peterson's interpretative com- corrected the Textus Receptus* in 31
ments. Published by NavPress, Colorado places. He added a valuable introduction
Springs. covering the canon* of the NT and the
transmission of the NT text, describing
Metathesis. The transposition (usually 32 printed editions of the Greek NT and
accidentally) of two adjacent letters, nearly 100 mss., and discussing citations
resulting either in an impossible word or of any importance from all the Fathers.
in another word with a different mean- The fruit of 30 years work which he
ing. completed a fortnight before his death
and which remained as the basis for
Metrical Emendation. See Conjec- scholarly work on the NT for many
tural Emendation. years. On the basis of his work a revised
NT Greek text was later produced by
Metzger, Bruce Manning (1914-). Edward Wells* and Daniel Mace*.
New Testament scholar, professor at
Princeton Theological Seminary and Minuscule. A way of writing Greek,
author of many books on the text and developed from the cursive* style in
canon* of OT, NT and Apocrypha*. Sec- common use in the ninth century CE,
retary to the Committee of the National using small letters joined together as
Council of the Churches of Christ in the against the earlier and more familiar cap-
USA, chairman of an international edito- ital letters each written separately and
rial committee for the (UBS) Greek known as uncials*. The script was known
New Testament*, and involved in the as 'cursive' and the ms. as 'a minuscule'.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins III

The cursive quickly superseded the older Modern Language Bible, 1969. A
uncial script because it was easier and revision of the Berkeley Version*, pub-
quicker to write, took up less space and lished by Zondervan, Grand Rapids.
made it possible to have smaller books
more suitable for personal use. There are Modern Reader's Bible, 1896. A dy-
over 4000 such mss. of the NT, mostly namic equivalence* translation, the work
from the ninth to the seventeenth cen- of R.G. Moulton, a Chicago professor
turies, outnumbering uncials by about with a commitment to the literary form
ten to one, many containing only the of the Bible and a desire to avoid many of
gospels, and every one tabulated and the controversial issues being raised by
given an arabic number for the purposes biblical scholars and theologians, espe-
of identification and recognition. Most cially higher criticism*. He began with a
have the Byzantine* or Koine Greek* text series of small booklets, based on the RV*
but what determines their value is not but making full use of the choice pro-
their age but the archetype from which vided by the variations in the margin so
they come. Mss. with similar readings as to produce the best literary structure.
comprise a family and several 'families' The 21 parts were later put together by
of minuscules have been identified, Macmillan and published in 1907.
including Family 1*, Family 13* and
Family Theta*. MofFatt, James (1870-1944). Born in
Glasgow, son of a Chartered Accountant
in the Free Church of Scotland, and
Mishnah. A Jewish set of rules elaborat-
educated at Glasgow Academy and Glas-
ing the Torah dating from the second
gow University, gaining an honours
century CE, from the Hebrew word
degree in Classics, 1890. An outstanding
meaning 'to repeat' or 'to learn'.
scholar and the youngest person to
receive an honorary DD from Aberdeen
Moabite Stone. A monument, dated when he was 32 for his first published
c. 890 BCE, on which Mesha, king of work, The Historical New Testament, a
Moab, recorded his war with the kings of piece of original research which
Israel and Judah, and paralleling the arranged the books of the NT in the
records of 2 Kings 3. Discovered by a order of their supposed dates and literary
German in 1868, then in the possession of growth. Ordained in 1896, appointed
Arabs who broke it up so that some large Professor of Greek and New Testament
portions have been lost. Its lengthy Studies at Mansfield College, Oxford,
inscription is one of the earliest examples 1911, of Church History at the United
of Semitic writing in a language that dif- Free College, Glasgow, 1915, and at
fers only slightly from Hebrew. Union Theological Seminary, New
York, 1927. Author of MofFatt's Transla-
Moberly, George (1803-85). Educated tion* and one of the best known of all
at Balliol College, Oxford. One of five modern English translators in the first
clergymen who worked with Ernest half of the twentieth century who
Hawkins* to produce The Authorized helped considerably to popularize an
Version of St John's Gospel, revised by idiomatic approach to Bible translation.
Five Clergymen*, 1857, and similar revi- Executive Secretary of the Committee
sions of some of the epistles. Later which produced the RSV* from 1937
Bishop of Salisbury. until his death.
112 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Moffatt's Translation, 1913 (NT), appears between 2.12 and 2.13 and
1924 (OT), 1928 (complete). An inde- 1 Tim. 5.23 is missing altogether.
pendent dynamic equivalence* transla- His revised edition (1934), more like
tion by James Moffatt* with the title, A a modern book, amounted almost to a
New Translation of the Bible, published by fresh translation and is much more
Hodder & Stoughton, London. One of accurate.
the earliest of the modern versions, sin-
gle-handed, and certainly one of the most Montgomery, Helen Maria Barrett
popular. The NT had over 70 reprints in (1861-1934). A Baptist leader from
25 years when an illustrated Jubilee edi- Rochester, NY, born in Kingsville, Ohio,
tion was published. and a graduate of Wellesley College.
His NT text was von Soden's* and he First female President of the American
consulted no other versions. He moved Baptist convention, and translator of
freely in the world of Hellenistic Greek The Centenary Translation of the New
without ever taking his eye off the reader Testament*, 1924.
and tried to produce a text which would
appeal as much to those who understood More, Thomas (1478-1535). Lord
the original as to those who did not. Chancellor of England. A Roman Cath-
Usually thought to be more successful olic finally imprisoned in the Tower of
with the NT than the OT, probably London and beheaded because he
because he was less sure of his Hebrew refused to give up his RC faith. Made a
than his Greek. fierce attack on Tyndale's Translation ,
In a day when people were familiar 1528, in A Dialogue Concerning Heresies,
only with the formal language of the AV* alongside a denunciation of the worship
Moffatt's translation sounded strange of relics and images, praying to saints and
and often struck uneasy chords for some going on pilgrimages. Tyndale replied in
readers, but his over-riding objective was An Answer unto Sir Thomas More's Dia-
to grasp the feel of the original phrase logue, 1531, to which More responded
and then render it into equally original with The Confutation of Tyndale. More
English so as to produce the same impact argued that Tyndale's NT was not the
on the reader as had the original. Some- NT at all but a counterfeit. It was full of
times his critics felt the end product was errors and to find them was like search-
more Scottish than English, in that the ing for water in the sea. It is easier to
list of musical instruments in Dan. 3.10 make a web of new cloth than it is to sew
includes a bagpipe, 2 Sam. 6.14 has up every hole in a net', he said. But his
David dressed in a linen kilt, Mic. 2.2 has charges were not always well founded, he
Yeomen', Lam. 1.6 has 'harts' and Song was more sympathetic to Tyndale than he
4.6 becomes 'I will hie me to your sometimes appears, and closer examina-
scented slopes'. tion shows that his main objections
He retained the order of books in the were to Tyndale's use of non-ecclesiasti-
AV, printed OT quotations in italics, came cal words, such as 'congregation' for
up with some original phrases and did 'church' and 'senior' for priest'.
much to popularize modem Bible trans-
lations, but he did take liberties, like al- Muratori, Ludovici Antonio (1672-
tering traditionally accepted punctuation 1750). Italian historian and antiquary, a
and changing the arrangement of words priest who worked in the Ambrosian
and even sections, so that Jn 3.22-30 Library, Milan*, preparing and publish-
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 113

ing original documents. Discoverer of value in this regard depends on its dat-
the Muratorian Fragment* or Canon. ing. Traditionally thought to be the
product of the Western church at the
Muratorian Fragment or Canon. A end of the second century, arguments
seventh or eighth century fragment of an not altogether convincing have been put
earlier and larger document, probably forward for a later date and for an East-
written in the vicinity of Rome and ern rather than Western origin.
translated into Latin from the Greek.
Discovered in 1740 by LA Muratori*, Murderer's Bible, 1795. An edition of
containing a list of 22 of the present 27 the AV*, printed by Thomas Bensley* in
canonical books of the NT, including Oxford, in which Mk 7.27 accidentally
nearly all those attributed to Paul. read, 'Let the children first be killed*
Important as an indicator of the exis- instead of 'filled'. Another edition of
tence of a Pauline Corpus* and a guide as 1801 renders Jude 16 as These are mur-
to which books were thought to be derers', when it should read 'murmur-
authoritative at the time, though its ers'.
 N

Nag Hammadi, Egypt. Site of the Nag assumed increased importance from then
Hammadi Library, along the Nile in but in all its 80 years the text itself was
Upper Egypt, 40 miles north-west of not changed until the twenty-sixth edi-
Luxor, where 13 papyrus codices and tion, 1979. Kurt Aland was associated
other writings were found in 1945, 2 of with the work from 1950, and since 1979
them in poor condition, all fragmentary it has been known as the Nestle-Aland
as regards text, and the most significant text. Based on the texts edited by Tis-
being a complete copy of the Gospel of chendorf*, 1869-72, by Westcott* and
Thomas*. Written in Coptic* and dating Hort*, 1881, and by Bernhard Weiss*,
from the fourth century. None of the 1894-1900. Where two of the three
texts is biblical though they do shed light sources agree that is what Nestle prints,
on early Christianity and the apocryphal thus reflecting nineteenth-century schol-
gospels*. arship. In the latest editions its apparatus
is a marvel of condensation, with a high
Nary's New Testament, 1719. The first degree of accuracy and a lot of textual
Catholic text independent of Douay- information, much of it discovered in the
Rheims*, translated from the Vulgate* by twentieth century.
Cornelius Nary of Dublin. Though not universally accepted, this
version is essentially the text for the aca-
Nash Papyrus. The only pre-masoretic demic study of the NT, allegedly the
text known before the discovery of the most widely used and probably the best
DSS* in 1947. An old fragment, discov- critical Greek NT available. It is the text
ered in Egypt in 1902, dated first or sec- of the (UBS) Greek New Testament*,
ond century BCE, containing the Ten though retaining different punctuation
Commandments (a mixture of Exodus and critical apparatus*, and most English
20 and Deuteronomy 5), and the shema translations work from it, though varying
(Deut. 6.4-5) in Hebrew, written with in the extent to which they choose a read-
ink in square characters, in a single col- ing from the critical apparatus. Its
umn. More liturgical than biblical. influence is apparent in the NRSV*, and
the recent revisions of Today's English
Nestle-Aland Text. A critical edition* Version* and The Living Bible*.
of the Greek NT, 1898, produced by
Eberhard Nestle until 1927 (the thir- Neutral Text. The name given by FJ.
teenth edition) when the work was taken Hort* in 1882 to the so-called Alexan-
over by his son, Erwin. Papyri* evidence drian* text because he thought it to be
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 115

the purest form of text then in existence, worked less as a team than in some other
dating from the second century, found modern 'official' translations.
in those mss. nearest to the NT times, Strives to maintain the flavour, style
such as Vaticanus*, Sinaiticus*, eight to and word order of the original, and is
ten later imperfect uncials*, a handful of restrained in departures from the Mas-
minuscules*, some Coptic versions and oretic Text*, conjectural emendation* and
Origen's* texts, and free from error and gender-inclusive language. Books of the
corruption. Later scholars took a differ- Apocrypha* are printed in their tradi-
ent view and placed more emphasis on tional places throughout the OT. Proper
the Western* text. names are spelt as in the AV*, a departure
from tradition as far as Roman Catholics
New American Bible, 1970. A new and are concerned. Normally Hebrew versi-
revised dynamic equivalence translation fication is followed and attention drawn
of the Confraternity Version, 1941*, with to differences from the more familiar
the full title of The New American Bible, English usage. Subject headings are brief
Translated from the Original Languages with and lucid, poetry is printed as poetry,
Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources by introductions to books, notes and cross-
Members of the Catholic Biblical Association of references are generally helpful and only
America: With Textual Notes on Old Testa- occasionally tend to safeguard Roman
ment Readings. Following a papal encycli- Catholic doctrines; for example, the
cal of 1943, which authorized translation 'young woman' (Isa 7.14) is a virgin and
from the original languages and approved 'brothers' in relation to Jesus is said to
'co-operation with separated brethren', refer to any kind of relative and not nec-
leading to a new era in Roman Catholic essarily children of the same parents.
biblical translation, and encouraged by Generally believed to be a good trans-
the spirit of the Second Vatican Council*, lation in the Challoner tradition and in
it was a major breakthrough for the the idiom of the twentieth century. Steps
Roman Catholic Church—the first Eng- were taken in 1986 to produce a revi-
lish Bible translated by American Cath- sion, beginning with the NT, but pursu-
olic scholars, with several Protestant edi- ing verbal equivalence* rather than
tors and translators brought in for the dynamic equivalence*.
later stages. Translated directly from orig-
inal texts acceptable to professional bibli- New American Standard Bible, 1963
cal scholars, both Catholic and Protes- (NT), 1971 (complete). A revision and
tant. modernization of the ASV*, 1901, but still
Initiated when the Episcopal Confra- a conservative and very literal transla-
ternity of Christian Doctrine (which held tion, retaining verbal equivalence* to the
the copyright for the Confraternity Ver- point of reproducing the ancient word
sion) approached the Catholic Biblical and phrase order. Demonstrates its links
Association with a request to translate the with the AV* by way of the ASV*.
entire Bible into vernacular English from Produced by a group of 50 American
the best available texts in the original lan- scholars under the auspices of the Lock-
guages, and with the help of the ablest man Foundation of California, which
available scholars. Forty-six editors and also sponsored the Amplified Bible*, in
translators were appointed (including an attempt to be faithful to (and maintain
four non-Catholics) and others helped the stylistic characteristics of) the ancient
with notes and illustrations. Translators texts, and to be grammatically correct
were given considerable freedom and whilst at the same producing a text which
116 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

can be understood by the masses and is International Children's Bible, their

suitable for liturgical use and private acceptance of a limited vocabulary im-
reading. Its rigidity makes it a very useful posed some limits on the quality of the
tool for study but the same rigidity and its final translation. Published by Word Pub-
use of modern language in a traditional lishing, Dallas.
way often make it wooden, stilted and
unsuitable for public reading. Published New Chain Reference Bible, 1964. A
by La Habra, California. new improved edition of the more
Based on the twenty-third edition of familiar Thompson Chain Reference
the Nestle* text (1957) and able to take Bible, first published in 1908, the work
into account the various papyrus* mss. of Frank and Laura Thompson, over 30
which had been discovered, including years. AV* text plus a complete numerical
the Bodmer Papyri*, but sometimes system of chain references with every
refuses to abandon traditional readings in verse classified and catalogued to enable
the light of obvious textual evidence a reader to follow a word, phrase or
pointing in a different direction, as in, for theme throughout the Bible, plus analy-
example, its retention of the longer end- ses of books, outline studies of charac-
ing of Mark (16.9-20) and the woman ters, unique charts, a new series of picto-
taken in adultery (Jn 7.53-8.11). rial maps, archaeological discoveries and
many other features. Dates are according
New American Standard Bible Up- to Archbishop Ussher, charts and tables
date, 1995. A further revision of the reflect idiosyncratic tastes, and allegory
NASB* under the auspices of the Lock- and typology feature strongly in OT
man Foundation of California. Thee' interpretations.
and 'thou' were removed, verbal equiva-
lence* and the ancient word and phrase New English Bible, 1961 (NT), 1970
order were retained, though with con- (complete). A fresh dynamic equiva-
cessions to achieve a more fluid transla- lence* translation, made from the Greek
tion, the later and more scholarly edi- and Hebrew, with the authority of all the
tions of the Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic major British churches except the Roman
texts were consulted, and there were Catholic, and so different from all previ-
improvements in the grammatical notes ous translations which had been made
and the cross references. either by individuals or by free-lance
groups, except for the AV* and the RV* and
New Century Version, 1991. The work even they had relied very heavily on ear-
of a team of biblical scholars (all male, lier individual versions.
except one) from the North American On a proposition by G.S. Hendry* the
evangelical Protestant world, represent- General Assembly of the Church of Scot-
ing conservative seminaries and colleges land, in May 1946, agreed that a new
such as Fuller, Dallas and Wheaton, translation (not a revision) of the Bible be
motivated by the success of the Interna- made, free from denominational or doc-
tional Children's Bible*. They aimed to trinal bias. The decision was confirmed
produce a translation which was accurate, by a conference of representatives from
free of denominational bias and clear to the Church of Scotland, the Church of
the widest English-speaking readership, England, and the Baptist, Congregation-
with inclusive language, modernized alist and Methodist churches; and in Jan-
weights and measures, and clarification uary 1947 a Joint Committee was set up
of ancient customs, though, as with the with representatives from the churches
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 111

and from the Oxford and Cambridge and flashes of meaning, and a text printed
University Presses. After a year further in paragraph form with sectional head-
invitations were extended to the Church ings. Footnotes explain the literal mean-
in Wales, the Churches in Ireland, the ing of the Hebrew and of proper names,
Presbyterian Church of England, the suggest alternative translations, and elu-
Society of Friends, the British and For- cidate textual corrections, changes in
eign Bible Society and the National Bible order and the like.
Society* of Scotland. Subsequently the Instead of working on an agreed
Roman Catholic Churches of England Greek text, with variations when needed,
and Scotland sent observers. as had been the usual custom with Eng-
Chairman of the Committee was lish translations, the NT translators in
J.W Hunkin*, Bishop of Truro, suc- this case opted for an eclectic Greek text,
ceeded in 1950 by Alwyn P Williams*, including some papyrus* readings and
Bishop of Durham and (later) Winches- some not previously used by English
ter, and in 1968 by F. Donald Coggan*, translators at all. One result of this is that
Archbishop of Canterbury. The Direc- some verses are reordered. Gen. 26.18,
tors were C.H. Dodd*, G.R. Driver* and for example, now comes between 15 and
WD. McHardy*. 16, Jer. 15.13-14 is relegated to a footnote
Three panels of translators, chosen and Mt. 9.34 is dropped altogether. Other
for their competence in biblical scholar- significant changes are the omission of
ship rather than for their churchman- titles for the psalms on the grounds that
ship, were appointed (OT, NT and they are not original, the separate treat-
Apocrypha*). A fourth panel consisted of ment plus an explanatory note accorded
advisers on literary and stylistic questions to Jn 7.53-8. 11, changes to the shorter
and at different times included both T.S. and longer endings of Mark as between
Eliot and C.S. Lewis*. A book, or part of the more usual, the NEB earlier versions
a book, was entrusted to a translator and the study edition (1976), and the
whose work was then examined by a lin- acceptance of the lectio difficilior in Mk
guistic expert, discussed by members of 1.41, though settling for 'warm indigna-
the panel, and revised, after which it was tion' rather than the more outspoken
passed to the literary panel and their 'anger'. Full advantage was taken of the
comments passed back to the translation DSS* and other recent developments in
panel for approval. Once that process biblical scholarship. The underlying
was complete the text was finally ap- Greek text was then produced by R.VG.
proved by the Joint Committee. Three Tasker* and published in 1964 after the
introductions (to OT, NT and Apoc- translation had appeared.
rypha) help the reader to understand the Though it tended to finish up largely
issues involved in translating each sec- as a text for scholars, it was originally
tion. directed at three groups of people:
It was to be genuinely English in churchgoers who had become too famil-
idiom, free from archaisms and transient iar with the text to 'hear it fresh', young
modernisms—'timeless English'—with people who wanted a more contempo-
sufficient dignity to be read aloud, and to rary translation, and people who rarely
aim at conveying a sense of reality rather attended church and were put off by the
than preserving 'hallowed associations'. language of the AV*.
Characteristics of the finished product
include modern speech, textual accuracy New International Reader's Version,
without pedantry, vividness of expression 1995. Not a new translation. Based on
118 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

the Niv*, retaining verbal equivalence*, referred it to their own stylistic consul-
with simpler words and shorter sen- tants before accepting it.
tences for children under eight and The OT is based on the Masoretic
adults with limited literacy. Published by Text*, the Samaritan Pentateuch*, the
Zondervan, Grand Rapids. ancient versions* and the DSS*. Conjec-
tural emendation* is rare. The NT is
New International Version, 1973 based on the (UBS) Greek New Testa-
(NT), 1978 (complete). Has been ment* bearing general consensus among
described as 'the modern translation for scholars and able to take into account
the conservative evangelical commu- various papyrus* mss., including the
nity'. Born of a dissatisfaction by Ameri- Bodmer Papyri*.
can conservatives with the RSV* and Printed without columns, with brief
many other modern translations, it orig- section headings, tables of weights and
inated with a decision of the Christian measures and 14 maps, meticulous
Reformed Church in 1956 to appoint a attention to punctuation, poetry set out
Committee to study the possibility of a as poetry, psalms without headings, and
new translation, followed by a similar published in the USA by Zondervan,
decision of the National Association of Grand Rapids. A British edition, with
Evangelicals in 1957. International' some changes of idiom and spelling,
reflects the fact that the translators are appeared in 1979 published by Hodder
drawn from many parts of the English- & Stoughton.
speaking world. Most of them would Its strengths include good scholarship
describe themselves as 'evangelical' and readability, modern style but not too
though this does not mean that the trans- far from the AV*, attractively bound and
lation is sectarian. published, a variety of editions and prices,
In 1967 the New York (now Interna- and well marketed. Its weaknesses are
tional) Bible Society* took responsibility that it is very literal, yet not really a verbal
for the project and appointed 15 scholars equivalence* translation, and essentially
to handle it with Edwin H. Palmer* as conservative with little or no attempt to
Executive Secretary. The broad directive break new ground or reach new under-
was to be faithful to the original Hebrew, standing. There is some confusion with
Aramaic and Greek, and to produce a text modern equivalents for weights, mea-
that was in the language of the people, sures and distances in that sometimes we
for pulpit and pew, clear and natural, have the original in the text and the mod-
idiomatic but not idiosyncratic, contem- ern in the margin and other times the
porary but not dated. The result, which opposite. Using synonyms for the same
provides a verbal equivalence translation Hebrew and Greek words to achieve
(with considerable freedom), is very variety sometimes destroys the force of
much the work of teams and commit- the repetition in the original. Desire for
tees. At its heart was a Committee on readability sometimes overrules the liter-
Bible Translation (the 15), mostly biblical alism; for example, This is what the Lord
scholars and teachers. Each book was says' is not the same as Thus says the
assigned its own team of translators Lord'. Conservative reputation depends
whose draft went to an editorial team more on the notes than the text and also
which supplied a revised translation. on challenging some of the charges
That in turn was checked and revised by which had caused trouble for the RSV*;
another editorial team before going to for example, Young woman' rather than
the Committee on Bible Translation who Virgin' (Isa. 7.14).
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 119

New Jerusalem Bible, 1985. A thor- translation, leading to the one-volume

ough revision of the Jerusalem Bible*, edition which appeared as Tanakh*, 1985.
edited by Henry Wansbrough*, with Some of the prophetic books first
some books freshly translated and others appeared in a coffee-table version. Previ-
revised to give a more readable and ous Jewish versions had tended to rely on
dignified presentation, in the light of Christian translations as the standard for
more recent scholarship and the insights style and diction.
of the La Bible de Jerusalem, 1972. The work began with a committee of
Designed for worship and study, but its seven: three biblical scholars, one repre-
well-written introductions to each book sentative from each of the Conservative,
and its explanatory notes make it more Reformed and Orthodox Jewish tradi-
suitable for study than for liturgical use. tions, and the editor of the Jewish Pub-
With inclusive language and verbal lication Society Bible*, 1917. An addi-
equivalence* to avoid paraphrase*, it rep- tional committee to expedite the work
resents a marked change in translation was appointed to translate the Writings ,
philosophy. As with the NEB*, the transla- 1966. The method of translation was
tors went for an eclectic text, particularly that one member would prepare a draft
in their translation of Acts, and there is and send it to the others for comment.
some evidence of papyrus* influence. Its The Committee then met for a full day
strength lies in the fact that translation twice a month to discuss and decide,
direct from the ancient texts represents normally by consensus.
the finest Roman Catholic biblical schol- Uses contemporary language and
arship and takes full advantage of the avoids wooden, literal phrases and sen-
scholarly work done on the Bible in the tences. Rejects verbal equivalence* and
last 200 years by others. It also contains replaces coordinate Hebrew sentences
the entire range of books regarded by connected by 'and' with appropriate
Catholics as canonical, and in canonical independent and subordinate clauses.
order, and retains the rhythm and struc- Maintains a conservative attitude toward
ture of the ancient languages more than changes of the traditional text, but takes
the JB*. Its weaknesses are that some- account in footnotes of variant readings
times its fidelity to modern English as- and the translators are fully aware of the
sumes greater importance than an accu- latest linguistic researches and archaeo-
rate rendering of the ancient texts, and its logical discoveries. Follows verse* and
explanatory notes sometimes support chapter* divisions of the Masoretic Text*.
Catholic interpretations that have been Footnotes explain why the translators
under question since the Reformation, arrived at the decisions they did. Particu-
though Isa. 7.14 retains 'y°ung woman'. larly helpful for scholarly study, not least
Published by Darton, Longman & Todd, because of its insight into ancient Jewish
London. customs, idioms and metaphors.

New Jewish Version, 1962-81. A fresh New King James Version, 1982-83. An
translation of the OT, prepared by lead- American Bible, little more than a lan-
ing Jewish scholars with Henry M. guage update, aimed at readers who were
Orlinsky* as Editor-in-Chief, and pub- no longer comfortable with the language
lished in stages, beginning with The of the seventeenth century but who
New Translation of The Holy Scriptures really did not want to give up the Kjv*,
according to the Masoretic Text*, 1963, resulting in a curious combination of the
and resulting in a thorough revision and old and the new. Ignoring developments
120 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

in textual criticism*, it relates to the text measures but (somewhat confusingly)

of the AV* and its reverence for the text is translates currency according to weight in
more for the English text than for the precious metals. Metaphors are 'ex-
ancient texts. Sometimes known as the plained' or 'elaborated'.
Revised Authorised Version*. Published Published by Tyndale House Press,
by Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nash- USA, who claim that it is 'easy to under-
ville. stand' and 'relevant to today' and whose
commitment may be judged by the fact
New Living Thmslatkm, 19%. A new that the initial print run was 950,000 and
dynamic equivalence* translation from the promotion budget, with promotion
the ancient languages, in the tradition of on the WWW, was 2.5 million dollars.
The Living Bible* but with more empha-
sis on translation than paraphrase*, New Revised Standard Version,
undertaken by 90 scholars, conservative, 1990. A thorough revision of the RSV*, by
evangelical and Protestant, a few British a committee of translators, ecumenical
and Australian but mostly North Ameri- and international (though mainly Amer-
can. ican), who were able to benefit from the
Control was in the hands of the Bible gains of scholarship over the previous 50
Translation Committee which appointed years, as well as to take account of inclu-
three scholars to each book of the Bible sive language and other changes in the
who jointly produced a first draft which English language between the 1950s and
was first revised and then reviewed by the 1990s, without sacrificing fidelity to
the Bible Translation Committee before the ancient texts and reverence for the
final approval. linguistic qualities of the AV*. The guid-
The remit was to revise and update ing principle was 'as literal as possible, as
The Living Bible* by reference to the free as necessary'. Published by Oxford
ancient texts and to fashion a new trans- and Cambridge University Presses,
lation that would stand on its own. For Collins and Mowbrays. (See Changes
the OT they used the Masoretic Text* as from RSV to NRSV, below)
in Biblia hebmica* stuttgartensia (1977) and
for the NT the (UBS) Greek New Tes- New Scofield Reference Bible, 1967.
tament* and Nestle-Aland*. A new edition of the Scofield Reference
Makes significant changes from The Bible, 1909 (revised, 1917), the work of
Living Bible and aims at a higher reading a committee of nine with E. Schuyler
level than either the New Century Ver- English as chairman. The text is AV ,
sion* or the Contemporary English Ver- with changes to avoid obsolete, archaic
sion*. Modernizes time, weights and or indelicate words or expressions, or

Changes from the RSV to the NRSV

'I will take no bull from your house' becomes 'I will not take a bull
from your house' (Ps. 50.9).

'I was stoned' becomes 'I received a stoning' (2 Cor. 11.25).

 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 121

words which have changed their mean- tute, Chicago. An attempt to translate the
ing (mostly identified by a vertical bar NT into the practical everyday words of
on either side), plus a concordance and 'the cobbler and the cab-driver', paying
indexes to subject chain references and attention more to the thoughts than to
annotations. Like the earlier versions it the actual words, and in a flowing para-
retains Scofield's views on plenary inspi- graph style with verse numbers barely
ration, inerrancy and dispensationalism. visible. His other concern, however, to
keep as close as possible to the original
New Testament. The earliest written Greek, sometimes led to undue empha-
documents of the NT are the letters of sis on the exact shade of meaning of the
Paul, c. 50-62, almost all the rest being Greek tenses (particularly the differences
written by the middle of the second cen- between the present and aorist tenses in
tury. Mss. then appear to have come imperative and infinitive moods) and
together to form groups or collections, made his work rather heavy, hardly the
possibly with a collection of the writings language of the people, and (in the view
of Paul by the end of the first century and of some scholars) at times actually mis-
a collection of the four gospels no more leading.
than 50 years later. By the end of the sec-
ond century they were translated into New Testament according to the
Latin* and Syriac*, and textual criticism* Eastern Text, 1940. More popularly
shows how they circulated from the fifth known as Lamsa's Translation .
century in various text types: Western*,
Egyptian, Caesarean* and Syrian*. New Testament: An American Trans-
The title 'New Testament' first lation, 1923. A dynamic equivalence*
appears in the writings of Irenaeus*, Ter- translation by Goodspeed*, based on a
tullian and Origen towards the end of Westcott* and Hort* text, which became
the second century, sometimes as 'new part of The Complete Bible: An Ameri-
covenant' to distinguish the 'old can Translation, 1939*. An attempt to
covenant' inaugurated with Israel from translate the NT into 'the simple,
the 'new covenant' inaugurated in Jesus, straightforward English of everyday ex-
but was not regularly employed until the pression' by a translator who thought that
fourth century. The word 'testament' the language of the AV* put people off
then appears as a Latin translation of the reading a whole book at a sitting which
Greek for 'covenant'. he believed was how they should be read.
Sometimes described as the American
New Testament: A New Translation counterpart to Moffatt*.
in Plain English, 1952. More popularly
called The Plain English New Testa- New Testament and Psalms: An
ment*. Inclusive Version, 1995. A revision of
the NRSV*, retaining verbal equivalence*
New Testament: A Translation in the with considerable freedom, and making
Language of the People, 1937. A pop- the language more gender-inclusive.
ular dynamic equivalence* translation by Sometimes called the 'PC Bible' because
Charles B. Williams, a biblical scholar at of its emphasis on political correctness.
Union University, Jackson, Tennessee, So gender-inclusive language leads to the
and first published in America by Bruce idea of God as 'Father-Mother', concern
Humphries, Boston, with a revised edi- for the victims of race and physical dis-
tion in 1949 by the Moody Bible Insti- ability gives us 'enslaved people' (for
122 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

'slaves' ), 'blind people' (for 'the blind') New Testament, translated from the
and 'people with leprosy' (for 'lepers'), Greek of JJ. Grieshach, 1840. A revi-
and God's 'right hand' becomes his sion of the AV* in the alight of Gries-
'nearness' or 'power' to avoid the social bach's* Greek text, by Samuel Sharpe*.
or political notions of right and left. For
these reasons it has sometimes been crit- New Translation of The Holy Scrip-
icized for failing to present a faithful tures according to the Masoretic
translation reflecting the conditions of Text, 1963. See New Jewish Version.
the day on the grounds that the ancient
texts portrayed the world of the Bible as New World Translations of the Scrip-
it was and not as some people today tures, 1950-60. A translation, published
would like to present it. Published by by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Soci-
Oxford University Press, New "York. ety, reflecting the particular biblical inter-
pretation of the Jehovah's Witnesses,
New Testament in Greek and Eng- based on good Greek and Hebrew texts,
lish... corrected from the Authority which eschews paraphrase*, sets out to be
of the most Authentic Manuscripts, 'as literal as possible' and which by 1971
1729. A free rendering of the NT by had sold over 10 million copes in five lan-
Daniel Mace , based on the work of guages. It faithfully renders the divine
John Mill*. Corrections of the Greek name as 'Jehovah' (rather than 'God' or
text reflect good scholarship despite 'Lord') but the English style leaves some-
some Greek typographical eccentricities, thing to be desired and both translation
but the English was too close to the col- and notes suffer at times from a concern
loquial style of the day to be of lasting to maintain the teachings of the Jehovah's
value. Witnesses, particularly in the NT.

New Testament in Modern English, New York Bible Society. See Interna-
1958. One-volume edition of the NT tional Bible Society.
translations by J.B. Phillips*, revised in
1971 on the basis of the (UBS) Greek Newcome, William (1729^-1800). Arch-
New Testament* with every Greek word bishop of Armagh who pleaded that a
re-evaluated and obsolete colloquialisms revision of the AV* be authorized and pro-
from the earlier editions removed or duced An Historical View of the English Bible
replaced. Published by Geoffrey Bles, Translations, 1792, a harmony of the gos-
London. pels in Greek, 1776, and in English,1800,
a revision of the Minor Prophets,1785,
New Testament hi Modern Speech, and of Ezekiel,1788. His NT, based on
1903. Popularly known as Weymouth's Griesbach's* critical edition* of the Greek
New Testament*. text, was printed in 1796 and published in
1800 under the title, An Attempt towards
New Testament Letters, prefaced revising our English Translation of the Greek
and paraphrased, 1943. A translation Scriptures, or the New Covenant of Jesus
produced in Australia by Bishop J.W.C. Christ: and towards illustrating the sense by
Wand*, written in the kind of language a philologkal and explanatory notes, with the
bishop might use in writing a monthly English text in paragraphs, verse numbers
letter for his diocesan magazine. Subse- in the margin and quotation marks for
quently revised and published in Eng- direct speech. Sometimes known incor-
land, 1946. rectly as the Unitarian Version*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 123

Cultural Differences
One of the problems of translation is illustrated by a visit to Africa in
1948 by Eugene Nida*.
One African language, Shilluk, had a very definite way of talking
about forgiveness. When a case was settled and the accused declared
innocent, the judge would spit on the ground. That meant that the case
would never come into court again. One way to translate God's for-
giveness into that language therefore was to say that God spits on the
ground.

Newman, Barclay Moon, Jr (1931-). edral. From 1417 he lived in Coventry as

One of the translators of the Good a Carthusian monk.
News Bible* and originator of the Con-
temporary English Version*. Nida, Eugene Albert (1914-). An
American biblical scholar, who majored
nomina sacra. A system of contractions* in Greek combined with linguistics at the
used by Christian scribes for certain University of Michigan, where he re-
sacred words. ceived a doctorate, 1943, while working
with the Wycliffe Bible Translators*. As a
Nicholas of Hereford (d. 1420). Canon student of cultural anthropology he rec-
of the Abbey of St Mary of the Meadows, ognized the importance of local culture
Leicester. A Lollard and Fellow of and these skills led him and enabled him
Queens College, Oxford, who assisted to design ways of improving Bible trans-
and befriended John Wycliffe* in Bible lation. (See Cultural Differences, above.)
translation. Thought to be the translator He drew up an eight-point plan for
of the 1380 version of Wycliffe's Bible* translation, which included growing
up to the point where there is a break in cooperation between the Bible Societies*,
the translation, because the Bodleian Roman Catholic and Orthodox church-
Library, Oxford*, has a ms., written es, text projects in Hebrew and Greek
under Hereford's direction, broken off (aimed particularly for translators), popu-
abruptly at Bar. 3.20 in the middle of a lar translations, helps for translators and
sentence, and another ms. (copied from readers, and a programme of translation
it and also at Oxford) ends at the same consultants to help in projects around the
place, adding a note assigning it to Here- world, and actually started The Bible
ford. This may mark the point in 1382 Translator, 1950, to explore some of the
when he was summoned to London to problems and solutions to translation
answer for his opinions, as a result of problems.
which he was excommunicated. He set For many years secretary for transla-
out for Rome to plead his case but was tion work in the American Bible Soci-
ordered by the Pope to be imprisoned for ety* and the United Bible Societies*,
life. He escaped and returned to England UBS Translation Research Co-ordina-
in 1391, was imprisoned, recanted, and tor, 1971-80, and originator of the idea
was made Chancellor of Hereford Cath- of dynamic equivalence*, first put to
124 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

good effect in Today's English Version*, and founder of the Norlie Reference
1976. Library.

Norlie, Olaf Morgan (1876-1962). Norton, Andrews (1786-1853). AUni-

Translator of the Simplified New Testa- tarian, Harvard professor and outstand-
ment*, 1961. Minister of a Norwegian ing American biblical scholar whose
Lutheran congregation in the USA, edi- Translation of the Gospels, with Notes* was
tor of the Augsburg Publishing House published in two volumes in 1855.
 o

Ogden, Charles Kay (1889-1957). An made from the original Greek whereas
English linguistic reformer who studied the OT was translated from the LXX*, but
classics at Cambridge, where he became no single ms. contains the entire NT in
founder and editor of the Cambridge Mag- the Old Latin Version, there is no single
azine, 1912-22, founder of the Ortholog- translator of the 27 books and the result
ical Insitute,1917, and the originator of is not uniform. One probability is that
Basic English, thus facilitating the Bible the earliest translations were oral to
in Basic English*, 1949. accompany the reading of the LXX (OT)
and the Greek (NT), leading to many
Old Cairo, Egypt. Home of the only translations in many places. The date is
complete Coptic* translation of the Gos- uncertain but NT mss. run from the
pel of Thomas' found at Nag Hammadi*. fourth to the thirteenth centuries, reflect
a Western* Greek text, marked by literal-
Old Latin. A late-second-century trans- ism and a popular speech and style.
lation, direct from the LXX*, which first Early translations were interlinear
appeared in the Roman Province of and the best copies fragmentary and
North Africa, associated with Tertullian*, palimpsest*. Mss. are listed according to
and of which only fragments remain. their contents, usually designated by a
Called 'Old' to distinguish it from Jer- lower case italic letter, following a system
ome*. Sometimes known as the African adopted by Lachmann*.
version it was circulating in Carthage c.
250 CE. As it spread it underwent various Old Syriac. The language of Mesopota-
adaptations. Valuable as a guide to the mia and Syria, north-east and north of
content of the LXX at a very early date, but Palestine, similar to the Aramaic* com-
(like the Coptic*) with a richer and more monly spoken in Palestine in the days of
varied text than the Greek tradition. Jesus, and sometimes known as Eastern
A European version, in the vernacu- Aramaic.
lar, appeared in Italy, Gaul and Spain The origins of the Old Syriac OT are
towards the end of the fourth century unclear but go back to the second century
and versions and codices multiplied to CE, were made from a targum* and may
the point of textual confusion, which well have been the work of Jewish Chris-
was what led Jerome to make a new tians in the first century. The text was
translation. revised in the ninth century, continued in
More valuable in the NT than in the circulation and was later used for the
OT because the NT translation was Syro-Palestinian version.
126 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

The Old Syriac NT is derived from Old Testament. A written version of

Tatian's Diatessaron*, providing a life of OT texts as we know them dates from
Jesus with all the details to be found in around the tenth century CE and came
the four gospels, a work of literary qual- together as the Hebrew Bible* in three
ity, in a Western* text, and showing a stages. First the Pentateuch*, Law, or
good knowledge of the topography and Torah*. Second, the Prophets*. Third,
customs of Palestine. the Writings*. The sacred text also went
Of the many translations in the early through three distinct stages of develop-
years of Christianity the Peshitta* ment. First, a consonantal text, devel-
became the standard and held the field oped in pre-Christian times and in com-
until the middle of the nineteenth cen- mon usage by the second century CE.
tury when a number of other Syriac mss. Second, the addition of vowel points by
came to light providing insight into two the Masoretes*, c. 50O-950. Third, the
Syriac traditions, the Curetonian and the addition of diacritical marks, possibly to
Sinaitic. Both relate to the same version ensure correct reading in the synagogue
and both are of great antiquity but they but at the same time contributing to a
represent two independent Syriac tex- fixed text prior to the invention of print-
tual traditions. ing in the fifteenth century.
The title 'Old Testament' first
The Curetonian consists of 80
appeared in Christian circles towards the
leaves (out of a total of 188) of a fifth-
end of the second century to parallel the
century ms. found near Cairo* in 1842
emerging 'New Testament' in the writ-
and passed to the British Museum
ings of Irenaeus , Tertullian and Ori-
where William Cureton*, Assistant
gen*, the word 'covenant' often being
Keeper of Ancient Manuscripts, rec-
used to distinguish the books of the 'old
ognized a Syriac version of the gospels
covenant' which God made with Israel
in a text completely different from
from those of the 'new covenant' inau-
anything previously known, edited it
gurated in Jesus. Eusebius , describing
and made claims (subsequently sub-
the canon of Josephus*, refers to the Old
stantiated) for a dating earlier than the
Testament and later to the New Testa-
Peshitta*.
ment. A little later the Greek word for
The Sinaitic is a palimpsest*
'covenant' was translated into the Latin
containing about three-quarters of
as testamentum to give the Old and New
the four gospels (142 leaves out of a
Testaments, but the words were not reg-
total of 166) and was found in 1892
ularly used until the fourth century. This
by two Scottish travellers, Agnes
description has Christian implications
Smith Lewes* and Margaret Dunlop
and has led to terms like 'Hebrew Bible'
Gibson*, on a visit to St Catharine's
becoming customary usage outside
Monastery*, Mount Sinai. Thought
Christian circles.
to be the same or a little earlier than
the Curetonian and certainly earlier
than the Peshitta. Possibly one of the Old Testament: An American Trans-
lation, 1927. A translation, somewhat
earliest versions of the NT.
similar to Goodspeed's New Testament:
Because the Syriac versions are in a An American Translation*, 1923, prepared
Semitic language and therefore closer by TJ. Meek*, Leroy Waterman, A.R.
than the other versions to the Hebrew Gordon and J.M. Powis Smith*, though
and Aramaic they incorporate different with four translators there are inevitably
textual and exegetical traditions, both more variations in style and perhaps less
Jewish and Christian. enthusiasm for the language of the mar-
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 127

ketplace than are to be found in the NT. formulation. Thought by some to be the
Subsequently united with Goodspeed to work of Aquila*.
form The Complete Bible: An American
Translation*, 1931. Oral Tradition. The view that the cur-
rent OT text had its origin in storytelling
Omissions. Single letters, words, phrases and a long oral tradition, possibly not
or even verses are occasionally missing being committed to writing until the
from some mss. There are many possible exile, a view popular a few generations
causes of which haplography*, unclear ago particularly among Scandinavian
copy or lapses on the part of the scribe are scholars, is now seriously questioned.
among the most common. (See Omis- Contemporary scholarship holds to the
sions, below.) view that though stories may have been
passed on by word of mouth anything
Onkelos Targutn. The best known of recognizable as 'early biblical text' was
the targumim* and the one with the certainly written, and probably at a later
greatest authority. A literal rendering of date than used to be thought.
the complete text of the Pentateuch*, fol- In the case of the New Testament*
lowing the plain sense of scripture with oral tradition, insofar as it existed at all,
many exegetical elements, especially in is likely to have been shorter and
the poetic passages. Scholars are divided confined to the gospels. Some evidence
as to whether it dates from the first, third suggests that this is the teaching method
or fifth centuries, and as to whether it is of Jesus and that the stories of Jesus cir-
of Palestinian or Babylonian origin, but if culated orally among his followers and
its origins are Palestinian the definitive in the various churches, not always in
version was Babylonian and if the date is precisely the same form and often with
late it was preceded by a written or oral differing emphases and additions, for at

Omissions
Gen. 4.8. 'Let us go into the field' (found in the older versions) appears
to be a random omission from the MT.
1 Sam. 2.20. Are we to read DET (ysm) ('will give') or ti?W (yslm) ('will
repay'), as in the Greek, and was the *? (/) omitted or inserted, and why?
2 Sam. 22.41 has the word Jim (tth) which is meaningless. Assume an
initial (n) has been omitted so as to give nDTD (ntth) and you have 'thou
hast given' which not only makes good sense but lines up with the par-
allel passage in Ps. 18.40.

Some mss. used abbreviationsfor plurals and proper names.

1 Sam. 20.38 has ^nn (hhsy) ('arrow'), where it so obviously should
read D^nn (hhsym) ('arrows'), the final 'm' to make the Hebrew plural
having been omitted.
128 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

least 20 to 30 years before being com- the Hebrew Union College Jewish Insti-
mitted to writing. tute of Religion, New York City, from
1943, and Chairman of the Society for
Origen (c. 185-253). Head of the Cate- Biblical Literature and subsequently
chetical School in Alexandria* in 203 and President. The only Jewish consultant on
one of the outstanding scholars of the the translation of the RSV* (OT). Co-
early church. Collated mss. of biblical translator of the five-volume English
texts, both Greek and Hebrew, to pro- translation of Rashi's commentary on the
duce Origen's Hexaplar*, accepted the Pentateuch, 1949-50, and Editor-in-
LXX* form for the OT and the NT in Chief of the New Jewish Version*,
much the same form as we have it, seems 1962-81.
to know only four gospels and was the
first to make explicit reference to 2 Peter Ormulum. A poetical version of the gos-
though (like 2 and 3 John) he regarded it pels and Acts, with commentary, done by
as of doubtful authenticity. In addition to an Augustinian monk, Orm (or Ormin),
1 Peter, 1 John and Revelation, he seems c. 1215. One copy, possibly the original,
to have recognized and accepted 14 of survives in the Bodleian Library, Oxford*.
Paul's letters (including Hebrews though
he did not believe Paul wrote it) and
Ostraca. Broken pieces of pottery and
indeed often quotes from him which
ideal writing materials* in the earlier part
might suggest that by the middle of the
of the first millennium. The Hebrews
third century there was an increasing
found pottery useful for scribal practice,
awareness of a Pauline Corpus*. In com-
notes, receipts, brief letters and other
mon with Eusebius* he had James and 1,
inscriptions. Their existence points to a
2 and 3 John on his 'disputed' list.
widespread knowledge of writing in sev-
Origen's Hexaplar. One of the great enth-century BCE Judah. Some, from
achievements of early Christian scholar- Samaria (mainly wine receipts), are of
ship, completed c. 240 CE at Caesarea*. A value because of what they teach us
scholarly edition of the OT, prepared by about the Hebrew language in the eighth
Origen*, in six parallel columns, giving century BCE, and others, from Lachish*,
the Hebrew, the same text in Greek let- because they demonstrate the habit of
ters, a Greek translation by Aquila* (fol- writing as a normal and formal medium
lowing the Hebrew very closely), a Greek of communication. Other important
translation by Symmachus*, the Old finds are at Ezion-Geber, Masada, Ele-
Greek (with a text corresponding to the phantine* and Egypt in general.
LXX*) and a Greek translation by The-
odotion*. The fifth (sometimes called Oxford, England. Home of Thomas
'Origen's Septuagint') is the most impor- Bensley, printer of the Murderer's Bible*,
tant, though it is not clear whether it is and location for the Bodleian Library,
the LXX as he knew it or the LXX as he had founded by the son of John Bodley*,
revised it. The Tetrapla, consisting of the whose archives contain many ancient
text minus the two Hebrew columns, is Bible texts and versions, including Codex
also attributed to Origen. Laudianus*, some mss. from the Cairo
Geniza*, a fragment of the Oxyrhynchus*
Orlinsky, Harry Meyer (1908-92). Papyri, the Rushworth Gospels*, Ormu-
Born in Canada. Jewish biblical scholar lum*, one copy of the West Saxon
and philologist. Professor of the Bible at Gospels* and the earlier Wycliffe Bible*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 129

Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. An ancient ing to the Gospel of Thomas*, and a

Egyptian city, 120 miles north of Cairo* papyrus fragment (^D1), written in Greek,
now known as El-Bahnasa, excavated by containing verses from Matthew 1, at
Grenfell* and Hunt*, 1897-1907, where that time the earliest extant copy of any
they discovered the largest ever collec- portion of the NT and at least a hundred
tion of papyrus* texts, the Oxyrhynchus years earlier than the Codex Vaticanus*.
papyri*. Another fragment, part of a codex* rather
than a scroll*, contained on one sheet
Oxyrhynchus Papyri. Twenty-eight portions of the first and last chapters of
papyrus* mss., all fragments, rarely more John's Gospel.
than a couple of leaves, dating from the In 1898 they published the first vol-
third century, found at Oxyrhynchus*, ume of Oxyrhynchus papyri and went
beginning with excavations in 1897 by on to make more discoveries over the
Grenfell* and Hunt*. next ten years, their work being contin-
They chose Oxyrhynchus knowing ued by Italian archaeologists, 1910-13,
that Christianity had taken a firm 1927-34. Twenty-one mss. were pub-
foothold there both before and after the lished in 1922 and give a flavour of many
Diocletian persecutions of 303 CE and verses from several NT books at an early
believed that the citizens would have date. Others appeared, published in
been wealthy enough to have libraries of 1941,1957,1968 and 1983. Many subse-
texts, even if as a result of the persecu- quently proved of limited value for NT
tions some had been consigned to the study, but two stand out. One ($>5) con-
rubbish heaps. They were right. tains Jn 1.23-31, 33-41; 20.11-17, 19-25.
On the second day of the dig they The other (£>13) contains Heb. 2.14-5.5;
unearthed the apocryphal 'Sayings of 10.8-22, 29-11.13, 28-12.17, written on
Jesus' ('Logia'), later identified as belong- the back of an epitome of Livy.
 p

Packington, Augustine. A London of 1 and 2 Peter where the original text

merchant who bought up copies of Tyn- was overwritten in places with prayers in
dale's Translation* from Tyndale* and Coptic*, though the earlier writing con-
sold them (with Tyndale's connivance) tinued to be decipherable (just) and is
to Cuthbert Tunstall*, bishop of London, now reproduced in some scholarly edi-
knowing he would burn them, but argu- tions of these epistles. The Council of
ing that people would be outraged at the Trullo, 692, condemned the practice of
burning of the Bible, demand would be using parchment from mss. of the scrip-
increased and the money raised could be tures for other purposes on pain of
used to meet it. excommunication for one year, but the
practice nevertheless continued and of
Palaeography. The study of ancient the 250 uncial NT mss. 52 are palimp-
writings and inscriptions so as to date sests.
mss. by comparing the shape and stance
of letters with external sources such as Palmer, Edward. An archdeacon and
dated coins and other inscriptions. When member of the NT panel of translators
applied to the DSS*, for example, these of the RV*, 1881, who subsequently pro-
methods gave a date very similar to that duced a Greek text reflecting the transla-
arrived at by the Radio Carbon Dating tors' decisions, to which Souter added a
method. critical apparatus* to give what is com-
monly called a Souter text*.
Palimpsest. When writing paper was
scarce or expensive, writers sometimes Palmer, Edwin H. (1922-80). Born in
took a piece that had been used, rubbed Massachusetts and educated at Harvard,
off the writing as much as possible and the Free University of Amsterdam and
then reused it by writing on it again at Westminster Theological Seminary, where
right angles to the original. The result is a he later taught Systematic Theology. A
palimpsest. Not suitable with papyrus* minister of the Christian Reformed
but increasingly practised with the arrival Church, Executive Secretary of the New
of vellum*. In some cases ultra-violet and International Version*, 1968-80, and
infra-red photography has made it possi- appointed General Editor of the NIV*
ble to rediscover the original writing. Study Bible, 1979.
Codex Ephraemi* is a good example of a
palimpsest ms. of the NT and the John Panopolos, Egypt. Site for the discov-
Rylands Library, Manchester*, has a ms. ery of a number of ancient papyrus mss.,
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 131

possibly including some of the Chester evidence that from an early date the NT
Beatty* and Bodmer collections because writings were being collected together to
of their similarity to texts known to have form groups, such as the gospels, the
come from here. gospels and Acts, and the letters of Paul,
an obvious prelude to the formation of
Papias (c. 70-160). Bishop of Hierapo- the canon .
lis in Asia Minor (c. 130) and the first to The first Greek papyrus to come to
name a gospel ('Mark became Peter's light was in 1778, but until almost the
interpreter and wrote accurately all that end of the nineteenth century only nine
he remembered...'). He also refers to an papyrus mss. of the NT were known.
Aramaic collection of the Sayings of The period of discovery began c. 1894
Jesus, attributed to Matthew. But Papias with the Oxyrhynchus Papyri*, and today
still belongs to the age of oral tradition* almost 100 have been catalogued though
and reflects the suspicion of many who not all contribute to our understanding
still felt that 'the living voice of those of the NT text. They are mostly frag-
that are still surviving' was preferable to mentary, tiny, and sometimes barely read-
written texts. able. Almost all come from Egypt, date
from the second to the eighth centuries,
Papyrus. Writing material, made from with more than half coming from the
the stems of the papyrus plant (or reed) third and fourth and so ante-dating pre-
that grew abundantly in the River Nile. vious Greek texts by up to 200 years.
The commonest writing material in the Their impact was minimal to begin
ancient world and the regular material with but increased considerably with the
for book production in the Greek world discovery of the Chester Beatty Papyri
from about the fifth century BCE until and the Bodmer collection, which pro-
the invention of paper in China and its vide important ms. evidence of variant
spread throughout Syria and Egypt in readings in some biblical books, the
the sixth to eighth centuries CE. Very results of which were embodied in criti-
cheap and readily available, a typical cal editions such as von Soden , Souter
sheet would be 19 x 16.5 inches and 20 and Nestle-Aland*, and indicate a com-
sheets would make a standard roll. plex editorial process going back a long
Buried in dry sand or in cool desert way. Recognizing their enormous value
caves papyrus mss. could remain intact for textual criticism*, scholars evaluated,
for hundreds of years. classified and published them, allocating
Writing* on papyrus tended to be in to each the letter '$)' plus a number. The
fairly small letters, sometimes joined most important are £>45, £)46, g)47, g)52,
together. Its use as a writing material is £)66,£>72and£)75.
not specifically mentioned in the Bible In some instances they are also
but the scroll in Jeremiah 36 could be an responsible for new translations of the
early example. When Jews in Egypt in texts into English, particularly in the ASV*,
the third century BCE wanted a copy of the RSV*, the NASB*, the NEB*, Today's
their Scriptures in Greek it was probably English Version*, the JB*, the NIV* and the
written on papyrus; the first NT books NRSV*, all of which benefited from them.
were almost certainly written on it; and (See Making and Using Papyrus, p. 132.)
it continued to be used as writing mate-
rial as late as the seventh century. Parablepsis. Lit. 'a looking by the side'.
Papyrus fragments cover about 40 per What happens when two words begin or
cent of the NT text and provide some end with similar syllables, two lines with
132 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Making and Using Papyrus

The manufacture of papyrus (or reed) which flourished to a height of
12-15 feet in the shallow waters of the Nile Delta was a major industry
from as early as 3000 BCE into the early years of the Common Era, and
was widely used for non-literary works including notes, bills, receipts
and love letters.
The main stem, triangular in shape, was the thickness of a human
wrist and could easily be cut into sections about a foot long, opened
lengthwise and then further cut into thin strips. Several were then
placed on a flat surface with the fibres all running in the same direction,
followed by another layer on top with the fibres all running at right
angles. Both layers were then pressed together, using water and glue, to
form one fabric with a strength almost equal to that of a sheet of qual-
ity paper today. Once dried they were cut into smaller pieces 6-9 ins.
wide and 12-18 ins. high and then fastened together to form long
scrolls.

the same word or two paragraphs with cal text, or to changes which took place
the same phrase, and the scribe's eye, on in later mss.
returning to the ms. after copying, picks
up the second rather than the first, thus Paraphrase. A free translation in differ-
accidentally omitting everything in- ent words in order to convey the mean-
between and leading to haplography*, or ing more effectively. In biblical terms it
picks up the first rather than the second, may even alter the original cultural and
thus repeating it and leading to dittogra- literary setting, possibly even omitting or
phy*. Also known as homoioarcton* and adding something in order to make the
homoioteleuton*. text more intelligible to the readers.
Some translators argue that this is often
Paragraphing. Before the Masoretes* necessary in order to convey the sense of
divided the OT into chapters and verses, the original to a different culture and so
the Hebrew Bible was divided into para- we have a translation which aims at
graphs known as parashiyyot or pisqa'ot. dynamic equivalence* or 'sense for sense'
Each new topic began on a fresh line and rather than verbal equivalence* or 'word
the end of the previous line had to be left for word' representation, and a few
blank after the last word of the previous maintain that this is what every meaning-
unit. ful and intelligent translation must be. A
more precise definition retains 'para-
Parallel Texts. Instances where there phrase' for a modernization or updating
are two versions of the same story in the of a translation, as against a translation
same book or in different books. Minor which begins with the original, so that
differences may be due to the same story whereas the translation seeks to bridge
being quoted from a different source, the gap between the ancient text and the
prior to being incorporated in the bibli- modern reader the paraphrase seeks to
 A Dktiowry of the English Bible and its Origins 133

bridge the gap between the translated Psalter*, consisting of 50 psalms in prose
text and an even more modern reader. and the rest in verse.

Paraphrase and Commentary on the Parker, Matthew (1504-75). Brought

New Testament, 1703. An explanatory up as a gentleman and destined for
expansion of the AV* produced by Daniel Cambridge. Appointed Archbishop of
Whitby*. Canterbury, 1559. Responsible for orga-
nizing and working with other biblical
Paraphrase on the Epistles of St scholars on a revision of the Great
Paul, 1675. An anonymous production, Bible*, with their own marginal notes, to
subsequently edited by John Fell* and produce the Bishops' Bible*, unsuccess-
published under the names of the three fully intended to become an official ver-
original authors, Richard Allestry*, Oba- sion to replace the popular Geneva
diah Walker* and Abraham Woodhead* in Bible*.
1708.
Pau Bible, 1871. The French name for
pamshiyyot. See Paragraphing. Darby's Translation*.

Parchment. See Vellum.

Pauline Corpus. Paul wrote a number
of letters to the churches and some to
Paris, France. City where the Great individuals. Possibly, they were occa-
Bible was printed, possibly because sionally read in worship. Some scholars
France could supply better paper and have suggested that one or two may even
more experienced workmen. But the have been circular letters but little is
Inquisition got busy and before the work known about their collection or canon-
was completed Coverdale* had to flee icity. It is difficult to imagine a collection
and the printer was arrested. Cromwell* emerging without some significant indi-
then moved type, presses and workmen vidual or group but there is no evidence
to London, where the printing was com- for any such collection in the first cen-
pleted. Location of the Bibliotheque tury and Luke seems to be unaware of
Nationale and home to a number of any when compiling Acts. Similar
Bible texts and versions including Codex uncertainty shrouds their canonicity
Claromontanus*, Codex Ephraemi* and except that by the Council of Carthage*,
an Ethiopic version of the four gospels. 397, 14 of them were attributed to Paul
and accepted as part of the canon* along
Paris Polyglot, 1629-45. Ten large vol- with the other books which make up the
umes containing Hebrew, Greek, Latin, NT. For evidence of their growth in
Syriac and Arabic (with a Latin transla- influence and importance and for the
tion) and the Samaritan Pentateuch* and varied and somewhat chequered story
targum*. Significant for its maps and which led to their recognition it is nec-
plates. Followed the Antwerp Polyglot* essary to refer to the early church
rather closely and was superseded by the Fathers such as Clement of Rome*,
London Polyglot*. Ignatius*, Polycarp*, Marcion*, Tatian*,
Irenaeus*, Clement of Alexandria*, Ter-
Paris Psalter, 871-901. One of the old- tullian*, Origen*, and documents like
est examples of biblical text in Old Eng- the Chester Beatty Papyri*, especially
lish, the other being the Vespasian £)46, and the Muratorian Fragment*.
134 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

PC Bible. A pejorative name accorded LXX*, and the accepted scriptures of the
by some to The New Testament and Syriac Church. In general use from the
Psalms: An Inclusive Version*, 1995. fifth century and still the authoritative
biblical text of the Syriac churches (Syr-
Pen. Originally a stylus of metal, ivory or ian Orthodox, Church of the East,
bone for writing on waxed tablets. The Maronite).
reed pen, which arrived with papyrus Its origins, probably during the first
and parchment, was a thick reed, sharp- and second centuries CE and by transla-
ened to a point and with a slit in the mid- tors who worked basically from the
dle, not unlike the traditional pen nib of Hebrew with one eye on the LXX*, are
today. The more versatile quill pen, suit- shrouded in uncertainty, different books
able for vellum , arrived about the fourth being translated by different translators,
century CE. at different times, and in different places,
and resulting in a version which varies
Penguin Translations, 1952. Shortly from the literal to the paraphrase. Since it
after the Second World War Penguin contains Christian elements some schol-
Books planned a complete translation of ars have seen its origin with the early
the Bible and invited E.V Rieu* to act as Christians in the first or second century,
General Editor. When plans for the NEB* but a more cautious view leaves its Jew-
were announced the project was dropped ish or Christian origins an open ques-
but two translations already in hand were tion. It is of some critical value because it
published separately, The Gospels, by has affinities with the text of Isaiah in the
Rieu himself and The Acts of the Apos- DSS*.
tles, by his son, C.H. Rieu*. Mss. fall into two categories, Eastern
and Western, reflecting the division that
Pentateuch. The first of the three sec- split the Syrian Church in the sixth cen-
tions of the Hebrew Bible or OT, con- tury. The oldest mss. go back to the fifth
sisting of the first five books (Genesis, century CE though only five complete
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deut- ones go back before the seventh century,
eronomy), often known as the Law or the most familiar text being that found
Torah*, the other two being the Proph- in the Paris Polyglot*.
ets* and the Writings*. For Jews, the most
venerated section of the Bible. Phillips, John Bertram (1906-82).
Bible translator, writer and broadcaster
Pergamon, Asia Minor. An ancient who published an English translation of
centre of learning in Asia Minor and the the New Testament epistles as Letters to
original source of vellum*. Young Churches, 1947, with an introduc-
tion by C.S. Lewis*, arising partly from a
Pericope. A short piece of text, such as desire to relieve the monotony of civilian
a story or poem. duties during the Second World War and
partly because he discovered that young
Peshitta. Lit. 'stretched-out', meaning people in his church youth club in south-
Simple' or 'clear', but often taken to east London simply did not understand
mean 'simple', 'common' or 'current', 'Bible language'. His commitment to
similar to Vulgate' in Latin. The name make truth comprehensible combined
given to one of several translations of the with his inner desire to do some transla-
Hebrew Bible into Old Syriac* to distin- tion led him to put Paul into language
guish it from translations made from the they could understand and he was
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 135

rewarded beyond all expectation as they English*, 1958, with a revision in 1972,
came to see for the first time not only that followed by The Four Prophets (Amos,
Paul made sense but also that what he Hosea, Isaiah 1-35 and Micah), 1963. All
said was 'extremely relevant to life as they the books have a contemporary look.
knew it'. One of the first modern transla- Published by Geoffrey Bles, London.
tors to provide brief introductory notes
with cross-headings at the beginning of pisqa'ot. See Paragraphing.
each letter or section, with text in para-
graphs rather than verses and verse num- Pius XH (1876-1958). Pope, 1939-58,
bers only at the beginning of each sec- who changed the approach to Bible
tion. translation and biblical scholarship in the
Phillips had five basic principles: the Catholic Church by his encyclical on
language must be as commonly spoken, Scripture Studies, Divino afflante Spiritu,
the translation may expand to preserve in which he encouraged Roman Catholic
the original meaning, the result should biblical scholars to turn their attention to
read like letters rather than theological the ancient languages.
treatises, the text should flow and the
overall value should lie in its ease-of- Plain English New Testament, 1952.
reading. The result was more paraphrase* An independent translation by Charles
than translation. Kingsley Williams, Vice-President of
He had a fourfold method. First, to Wesley College, Madras, and Vice-Prin-
rid his mind of the language of the AV*. cipal of Achimoto College, Ghana, with
Second, to make a rough but accurate the title, The New Testament: A New Trans-
translation of the Greek without refer- lation in Plain English, published by
ence to any other translations. Third, to SPCK, London, possibly with a view to
ignore the Greek and put his rough helping readers whose native language
translation into modern English. Fourth, was not English but who needed the
to compare the re-written text with the Bible in English to share in common cul-
Greek. For the 1958 edition he consulted ture. Translated from the Greek text
no other translations, but for the revision underlying the RV . 'Plain English' is
in 1972 he had the benefit of criticisms of based on 1500 'fundamental and com-
the 1958 edition, he did consult other mon words that make up ordinary Eng-
translations and he also used a better lish speech' as listed in Interim Report on
Greek text, the (UBS) Greek New Testa- Vocabulary Selection (London: PS. King,
ment*, 1966. 1936), to which Williams added a further
Like all dynamic translators he offers 200 words which he explained in a glos-
some memorable phrases but also occa- sary. He also used short sentences and
sionally some infelicitous expressions. changed or omitted conjunctions in
'Ring of authority' (Mt. 7.29) and 'wells accordance with modern English usage.
without a drop of water in them' (2 Pet. Printed with paragraphs but retaining the
2.17) illustrate the former, 'you little- verse numbers for reference and care-
faiths' (Mt. 8.26) and 'serried ranks of fully laid out to encourage reading.
witnesses' (Heb. 12.1) the latter.
Subsequently he produced The Polycarp (c. 69-155 CE). Bishop of
Gospels, 1952, The Young Church in Action Smyrna. Shows some awareness of Paul's
(Acts), 1955, The Book of Revelation, 1957, writings in that he quotes Paul when
all later revised and combined to give one writing to the Philippians and seems to
volume, The New Testament in Modern be aware of Romans, Galatians, Phile-
136 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

mon, Ephesians, Colossians (possibly) of Daniel Bomberg* in Venice, 1516-17,

and 1 and 2 Timothy, which is thought by followed by a second edition, in four
some to suggest an awareness at least of volumes, edited by Jacob ben Chayyim,
the beginnings of a Pauline Corpus*. He 1524-25, which was destined to become
also quotes 1 Peter several times when the standard Hebrew scriptures until
writing to the Philippians and is the first 1937, when Kahle* went to an earlier
to show acquaintance with 1 John. text in the third edition of KitteFs Biblia
hebraica*. His chapter divisions* and the
Polychrome Bible, 1893. Popular name division of Samuel, Kings and Chroni-
given to The Sacred Books of the Old and cles into two books have been followed
New Testaments, edited by Paul Haupt*, a in English Bibles ever since.
Baltimore editor. A somewhat ambitious
project, backed by British, German and Pre-Samaritan Texts. Texts from the
American scholars, which began in 1893 second century BCE, similar to the DSS*,
but was never completed. Two volumes and underlying the Samaritan Penta-
were to be devoted to each book of the teuch*. Thanks to the DSS some scholars
OT, one containing a revised Hebrew have thought it possible to distinguish
text and the other a new English transla- two layers: the Pre-Samaritan, which
tion with commentary, but not all the lacks the ideology and suggests more
volumes appeared and the scholars never freedom of copying, and the Samaritan,
gpt to the NT. which is quite thin and can fairly easily
be removed but which contains a num-
Polyglot Bibles. A Bible issued in sev- ber of ideological features and reflects an
eral languages, mostly Hebrew* (Maso- established, more fixed and rigid posi-
retic Text* and Samaritan Pentateuch ), tion.
Greek*, Aramaic*, Syriac*, Latin* and Ara-
bic*, often with Latin versions of the non- Price, Thomas (b. c. 1700-72). A Cam-
Latin texts, sometimes with grammars bridge scholar who played an important
and lexicons, and usually in parallel col- role as editor in the 1762 edition of the
umns. Several appeared in the sixteenth AV*.
and seventeenth centuries, the first being
the Complutensian Polyglot* and the Primitive New Testament, 1745. The
others the Antwerp*, the Paris* and Lon- work of William Whiston*, following the
don*. Of special value to scholars because AV* except at those points where Whis-
of the amount of material they contain. ton thought it ought to be brought into
line with more recent discoveries such as
Porter, John (d. c. 1550). A Protestant, the Western* text.
imprisoned in 1540 for reading the
newly installed Bibles aloud in a London Prindele, William. A retired American
cathedral and so disrupting the services. attorney and publisher of The Twenty-
Released fairly soon but then re-arrested first Century King James Version*, 1994,
for heresy in 1542 and died for his belief and The Third Millennium Bible*.
that the Bible contained pure doctrine
and the priests were misrepresenting it. Printing. First achieved in Europe by
John Gutenberg* of Mainz*, 1454. The
Pratensis, Felix (d. 1539). A Christian, first printed Bible was the Latin Vulgate*
the converted son of a rabbi, who pub- (c. 1454), followed by the Psalter in
lished a Hebrew OT at the famous press Hebrew (1477) and the Pentateuch* in
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 137

Hebrew (1482) in Bologna*, the Proph- in certain places but which never found
ets* in Hebrew (1485-86) in Soncino*, their way into the Hebrew, Latin or
and the Writings* (1486-87) in Naples. Greek canons. Variously described as
The first Hebrew OT, complete with intertestamental, deutero-canonical or
vowels and accents but without com- non-canonical and to be distinguished
ments, was printed at Soncino in 1488 from the Apocrypha* which consists of
and the first Greek NT at Basel* in 1516, books in the Vulgate* and LXX* but not in
the delay being partly due to the the Hebrew. They are of four kinds:
difficulty of achieving satisfactory fonts
legendary, such as Jubilees and the Tes-
of Greek type. Over 100 editions of the
tament of the Twelve Patriarchs.
Latin Bible appeared in various printing
apocalyptic, such as Enoch.
houses, 1450-1500.
poetical, such as the Psalms of Solomon.
didactic, such as the Magical Book of
Prophets, The. The second of the three
Moses.
main sections of the Hebrew Bible , the
other two being the Torah* and the Writ- Pseudepigrapha is the name used by
ings* and the second major section of the Protestant Christians. The Roman Cath-
Hebrew Bible to be regarded as authori- olic Church calls them Apocrypha'*,
tative and inspired, possibly c. 250-150 being more closely related to the Vulgate
BCE. In two parts: and the LXX* and having already included
what the Protestants call Apocrypha'* in
The Former Prophets. Joshua,
their canon. (See Some Examples of
Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and
Pseudepigrapha, p. 138.)
2 Kings, sometimes referred to as the
Historical Books, though that would
normally also include 1 and 2 Chron- puncta extraordinaria. Dots placed by
icles, Ezra and Nehemiah. the Masoretes* over letters in ancient
The Latter Prophets. Isaiah, Jere- Hebrew mss. where the rabbis had
miah, Ezekiel and the Twelve (often doubts about their correctness.
called 'the Minor Prophets', which
exist as one scroll in Hebrew). Purvey, John (1353-1428). Educated at
Oxford and worked as secretary to John
Proto-Masoretic Text. The accepted Wycliffe* at Lutterworth*. Thought to be
Hebrew text in Judaism from the second the person responsible for translating
century CE, on which most of the ancient the latter part of the earlier version of
translations (Vulgate*, Aquila*, Sym- Wycliffe's Bible*. Responsible for the
machus*, Peshitta* Targum* and Theodo- later version, and for a thorough revision
tion*) were based, and the starting text of the earlier one, thus producing a truly
for the work of the Masoretes*. idiomatic translation, 1388-95. Suffered
imprisonment for his translation activi-
Pseudepigrapha. (Lit 'false writings'). ties.
A collection of some 65 documents,
written sometime between 250 BCE-200 Pyle, Thomas (1674-1765). One of a
CE by Jews and Christians, mostly under number of scholars who produced a par-
a pseudonym, often built round the aphrase*, 1717-35, with bracketed expla-
name of an Old Testament character and natory material inserted into the text of
regularly associated with the Scriptures the AV*.
138 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Some Examples of Pseudepigrapha

The Apocalypse of Abraham
The Apocalypse of Baruch
The Apocalypse of Ezra (2 Esdras)
The Ascension of Isaiah
The Assumption of Moses
The Book of Jubilees
The Enoch Literature
The Life of Adam and Eve
The Lives of the Prophets
The Psalms of Solomon
The Sybilline Oracles
The Testament of Solomon
The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
3 and 4 Maccabees
 Q

Q. The first letter of the German Quelle, Quentel, Peter. A printer in Cologne*
('source'), used in source criticism* to who was intending to print Tyndale's
refer to material common to Matthew Translation* in 1526 when some of Tyn-
and Luke but not found in Mark, and dale's enemies decided to stop the transla-
therefore thought to come from 'an tion and Tyndale had to flee to Worms*
unknown source'. where the first edition appeared.

Qumran, Israel. Site, 11 miles south of

Qere. See Kethib.
Jericho, on the shores of the Dead Sea,
where the DSS* were found, in 1947.
Qift, Egypt. The modern name for the Occupied from the eighth century BCE
ancient city of Coptos*. to 135 CE, but principally 150 BCE-68 CE.
 R

Rabbinic Bibles. The successors to the of all the known mss. of the LXX* and
Polyglots*, sometimes known as 'extend- edited the Gottingen Septuagint*, 1931
ed Bible texts' because they included (with later editions); a critical edition*
commentaries and translations. The first based on Codex Alexandrinus*, Codex
two were printed by Daniel Bomberg* in Sinaiticus*, Codex Vaticanus* and other
Venice, one edited by Felix Pratensis* readings, which to some extent replaced
(1516-17), the first to divide Samuel, the earlier edition by Swete*. Subse-
Kings and Chronicles each into two quently edited a two-volume handbook
books, and to divide Ezra into Ezra and edition in Stuttgart, 1935.
Nehemiah, and the other by Jacob ben
Chayyim (1524-25), the first printed edi- Ras Shamra Tablets. A library of
tion to have the Qere* printed in the mar- ancient documents on clay tablets, dating
gin and which became for a long time the from c. 1500 BCE, found in 1929 at Ras
Textus Receptus or standard version of Shamra on the north-west coast of Syria,
the Hebrew Bible . It also contained sev- the site of the ancient Phoenician city of
eral targumim*, including Onkelos*. Ugarit*, containing early Canaanite myth-
ology and some names also found in the
Rabbula (d. 435). Bishop and head of OT, in cuneiform* writing with only 30
the theological school of Edessa who col- signs and thus forming an alphabet, in a
laborated with others in the fifth century language closely akin to Hebrew . Impor-
to produce the NT portion of the Pesh- tant for what they tell us about ancient
itta* to replace the widely used Tatian's Canaanite religion and the origins of the
Diatessaron*. Hebrew language.
Radio Carbon Dating. A technique,
developed in Chicago, in 1946, by Willard Received Text. See Textus Receptus.
F. Libby*, for dating the age of an object
by examining the radio activity of minute Recension. Sometimes used simply to
segments of material. Applied to ancient describe a text or ms., but more often
mss. found at Qumran*, the technique used for a particular edition of an earlier
enabled scientists to give a dating for text and the result of some editorial
some of the DSS* somewhere between activity
168 BCE and 68 CE. Prior to the discovery of the DSS* in
1947, the Masoretic Text, the Samaritan
Rahlfs, A. A distinguished German Sep- Pentateuch* and the LXX* were regarded
tuagint* scholar who in 1914 edited a list as the three main recensions for the
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 141

Torah*, and the Masoretic Text and the decessor it was planned and supervised
LKX for the Prophets* and the Writings*; by senior representatives of all the major
at this time it was also common to refer British churches, this time with full
to the Masoretic Text in its Babylonian, participation by the Roman Catholic
Samaritan and LXX (Egyptian) forms. Church, the Moravian Church and the
Since 1947 we know that these three Salvation Army. Building on the accuracy
recensions were only three of very many, and scholarship of the NEB, it set out to
some of which, like the Leviticus Scroll*, serve a wider readership and to meet the
seem to represent an independent tradi- needs of liturgical use, private reading
tion; we also now know that they too had and students. It also departed from the
reached their present state after many eclectic text of the NEB in favour of the
years of editing and that, although the 1979 Nestle-Aland* text. Whilst trying to
Masoretic Text predominates, all three preserve language of dignity and beauty,
recensions which underlie the Hebrew it made a number of significant changes,
Bible are reflected in the DSS*. especially inclusive language (though
According to Jerome* at the end of somewhat sporadic and quite limited),
the fourth century there were three main addressing God as 'y°u' anc^ avoiding
recensions (or kinds of Bible mss.) in cir- technical, flowery and traditionally reli-
culation: those resulting from the recen- gious expressions. Printed in more tradi-
sions of Hesychius*, mainly in Egypt, tional style with two columns and pub-
those from the recensions of Lucian in lished by the University Presses of
Syria and Constantinople*, and those in Oxford and Cambridge.
Palestine, the work of Pamphilus, a disci-
ple of Origen . Revised Standard Version, 1946
(NT), 1952 (OT), 1957 (complete). A
Redaction Criticism. A method of tex- thorough revision of the ASV , authorized
tual criticism* which concentrates on in the mid-1950s by 40 major Christian
identifying the hand of the compiler or denominations in Canada and the USA,
editor with a view to understanding his who had assumed copyright and owner-
own particular beliefs or interests, the ship of the ASV through the International
background against which he worked, Council of Religious Education and the
the culture to which he belonged, and National Council of Churches, USA,
anything else that might have led him to begun in 1937 and published in Britain
make changes or adjustments in the text by Thomas Nelson and Sons, Edin-
or to arrange it in a particular way. burgh. The object was to produce a more
flexible verbal equivalence translation,
Revised Authorized Version, 1982. A not always translating Hebrew and Greek
revision of AV*, 1611, which concentrates words by the same English word as in the
on modernizing the language but pays RV* and the ASV*. Based on the best mod-
no attention to the many texts and ern scholarship, in English, suitable for
resources made available since 1611. private and public use, and preserving
Best known in America, where it first something of the quality of Tyndale's*
appeared and is often referred to as the work and the AV*.
NKJV*. The Revision Committee consisted
of 15 members, appointed as early as
Revised English Bible, 1989. A revi- 1928 by Luther A. Weigle* of Yale Uni-
sion of the NEB maintaining the princi- versity and chairman of the ASV, to revise
ple of dynamic equivalence*. Like its pre- the ASV. The delay was due to the depres-
142 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

sion of the 1930s and the number was lowed by The Common Bible*, 1973.
later increased to 22, with Weigje as Based on the Hebrew consonantal
chairman. James Moffatt* of Union The- text and the ancient versions for the
ological Seminary served as Executive OT and the seventeenth edition of the
Secretary and was a member of both sec- Nestle* text (1941) for the NT, and able
tions. Not more than five and not less to take account of advances in our knowl-
than three were chosen for their compe- edge of biblical languages, historical crit-
tence in English literature, the conduct icism and the various papyrus* mss.
of worship and religious education. Not which had been discovered since the RV*,
more than 12 and not less than 10 were including the Chester Beatty Papyri* and
chosen for their biblical scholarship. the DSS*. This led to some passages not
Thirty-two scholars were involved in the in the best early texts being printed as
work, from 20 universities and seminar- footnotes and to a few other verbal
ies, and (with the exception of Harry M. changes. For example, 'virgin' in Isa. 7.14
Orlinsky*, a Jewish member with a spe- became 'young woman', and the longer
cialised knowledge of the LXX*), all were ending of Mark (16.9-20) and the
active members of Protestant communi- woman taken in adultery (Jn 7.53-8.11)
ties. There was an Advisory Board of 50. were included only as footnotes.
They worked in two sections (OT and The version, which attempted to
NT) with a smaller body on the Apoc- eliminate old-fashioned language while
rypha*, using the English versions of at the same time retaining a text that was
1611 and 1895 as a basis. Hopes of suitable for public worship, proved very
including British scholars were dashed popular in Britain. Older forms, such as
by the 1939-45 war but there was partial 'saith' and 'doth' were replaced by their
collaboration in the case of the OT. modern English equivalents, 'says' and
Their commitment was to revise the 'does', and 'you' replaced 'thou' except
ASV*, not to undertake a new translation, when addressing the deity. Other features
so a scholar would begin by offering his included poetry printed as poetry, mod-
own revision. The appropriate Section ern paragraphing, punctuation and quo-
then discussed it in every detail to tation marks for direct speech, a single-
achieve a revised draft, which was the column page and verse numbers made
work of the Section. This was later less conspicuous.
revised and had to be accepted by the Nelson held exclusive publishing
whole Committee. After 14 years and 81 rights for ten years but from 1962 other
meetings, often working from 9 in the editions began to appear, including The
morning until 9.30 in the evening, the Oxford Annotated Bible, edited by May
NT was completed; the OT Section met and Metzger*, 1962, which included
more frequently and spent 148 days chronological tables, weights and mea-
together in the last three and a half years sures, maps and notes, and (in the 1966
to hasten the completion. They received edition) the Apocrypha, The Common
no payment for their work. Bible, 1973, and the New Oxford Anno-
Following the Second Vatican Coun- tated Bible with the Apocrypha, 1977,
cil* a 'Catholic edition' of the RSV* and which may claim to be the first truly
including the Apocrypha , edited by a ecumenical edition of the Bible in Eng-
Catholic Committee but containing lish in that it had the support of Protes-
very few alterations, was approved for tants, Roman Catholics and the Eastern
use by British Catholics in 1966, fol- Orthodox.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 143

Revised Version, 1881 (NT), 1885 out the Apocrypha*. Costs were borne by
(OT), 1896 (complete). A revision of the Oxford and Cambridge University
the AV* made in the light of fresh knowl- Presses, who published the work, and
edge and the discovery of new mss. and revisers made no charge for their work
versions. Each verse was no longer presented as
The Convocation of Canterbury a paragraph; instead, paragraphs were
agreed to undertake a revision of the AV*, formed according to sense, though verse
10 February 1870. They followed a numbers were retained for reference.
familiar pattern as for the earlier version: The revision also included chapter and
two panels (one, under the chairman- page headings, paragraphs, italics and
ship of CJ. Ellicott*, for the OT and punctuation, and in the course of the
one, under the chairmanship of E.H. work marginal notes included variant
Browne*, for the NT), each consisting readings* in the Greek. In 1898 a version
of 24 people, and of the 65 scholars who appeared with full cross-references and
worked on the translation (due to the marginal notes became footnotes.
changes of personnel) 48 were Angli- Alterations were mainly due to situations
cans, the rest coming from other tradi- where the AV* seemed to be wrong, or
tions. On completion it was submitted ambiguous, or inconsistent within itself
to other scholars, including literary peo- in the rendering of two or more parallel
ple, at home and overseas. There were passages, or were the result of adopting a
separate arrangements for the revision of different text from that which underlay
the Apocrypha* which appeared in 1896. the AV, or became necessary as a result of
Possibly the first major translation in changes already made.
which principles of scholarship took In the NT it was a much better ren-
precedence over ecclesiastical allegiance, dering of the Greek text than the AV,
particularly in the selection of translators, benefiting from the more recently dis-
in that both John Henry Newman, the covered Codex Sinaiticus* and Codex
most eminent Roman Catholic theolo- Vaticanus and the researches of West-
gian in the English-speaking world, and cott* and Hort*, two of the translators
G. Vance Smith, a distinguished Unitar- who published their own epoch-making
ian scholar, were both asked to join in the edition of the Greek Testament five days
work. Smith agreed but Newman before the appearance of the RV. It was
declined. however, never, regarded as a wholly sat-
The OT panel met five times a year for isfactory translation because it tended to
ten days at a time, the NT panel four days be too literal, a defect which made it par-
every month except August and Septem- ticularly beneficial for students of NT
ber. The work was to be a revision (not a Greek.
translation). Each panel was to go over The OT, on the other hand, was
every passage twice, alterations were to be judged an excellent achievement, proba-
as few as possible and only if approved by bly because the translators used the same
two-thirds of those present. Some of text as the AV but knew their Hebrew bet-
those which did not command such ter than their seventeenth-century coun-
assent were printed as marginal notes. terparts. Poetical passages in the ancient
Two parallel panels were set up in the mss. were printed as verse for the first
USA and at one time it was hoped to pro- time, the translation of proper names was
duce one translation but when that systematized and particular words in the
proved impracticable the Americans even- ancient texts were translated by the same
tually came out with the ASV*, 1901, with- English word as far as possible.
144 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

As with the ASV*, which copied it, the paragraphs, put bold, clear headings to
underlying Greek text for the NT is each page, using italics for quotations and
Codex Sinaiticus* and Codex Vaticanus*, small capitals for emphasis. (See Penguin
reflecting the work of scholars like Tis- Translations.)
chendorf*, Westcott* and Hort*. Little
influence from papyrus mss. because Rieu, Emil Victor (1887-1972). Classi-
most of them had not then been discov- cal scholar, educated at St Paul's and Bal-
ered. liol College, Oxford. Joined Oxford Uni-
versity Press in 1910. Translator of Homer
Reynolds, John (1549-1607). President and editor of Penguin Classics. Translator
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, a of The Four Gospels (Penguin, 1952), with
Greek scholar and a leader of the Puritan an introduction discussing some of the
side in the Church of England. Present at problems of translating the gospels. Puts
the Hampton Court Conference*, 1604, Mark's Gospel first because it was com-
where he made a proposal for a new monly thought to have been the first to be
translation of the Bible, which resulted written, retains the chapter* divisions but
in the AV*. Insisted that the work of revi- not the verses. (See Penguin Translations.)
sion should be left to the universities and
should not be prejudiced by any notes. Riverside New Testament, 1901,
revised 1934. A modern dynamic equiv-
Rheims-Challoner. See Douay- alence* translation by WG. Ballantine*,
Rheims Bible. made directly from the original Greek,
following Nestle*, with a phrasing which
Rheims, France. Home of an English neither sought nor shunned originality.
College for Roman Catholics founded The format is that of a modern book,
by William Allen where Gregory Mar- without verses, well spaced and easy to
tin* translated the New Testament into read but it was always somewhat over-
English, later becoming part of the shadowed by Goodspeed's Translation*.
Douay-Rheims Bible .
Roberts, Colin Henderson (1909-90).
Rich, Jeremiah (d. 1660). Compiler of Classical scholar and papyrologist, and
the first Shorthand Bible*, 1605, in Lon- Fellow of St John's College, Oxford,
don. who in 1934 was sorting through some
unpublished papyrus* fragments at the
Rieu, Chares Pierre Henri H. (1920- John Rylands Library in Manchester*
1992). Son of E.V Rieu*, born in Geneva, when he recognized one scrap as con-
studied Arabic* and Sanskrit in Bonn, taining some verses from John's Gospel
Keeper of Oriental Manuscripts in the (18.31-4, 37-38) later known as the John
British Museum and Professor of Arabic Fragment*.
at Cambridge. Lay reader and translator
of The Acts of the Apostles (Penguin, Har- Robertson, James Alexander (1880-
mondsworth, 1957), one of the early 1955). Responsible for revising Wey-
modern translations with a thoroughly mouth's New Testament*, 1924.
modern appearance, easy to read and pre-
ceded by 30 pages of introduction and 60 Robinson, Theodore Henry (1881-
pages of notes, using a Nestle* text with 1964). Professor of Old Testament Stud-
some preference for the Western* text. ies in the University of Wales and Con-
Critical of the AV* and RV*, and, following venor of the panels for the OT and the
J.B. Phillips*, he arranged his material in Apocrypha* for the NEB*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 145

Rogers, John (c. 1500-55). English Rotherham, Joseph Bryant (fl. 1828-
Protestant reformer, friend of William 1906). A scholar well-versed in Hebrew
Tyndale* and first of the Marian martyrs and Greek, author of The Emphasised
to be burned at the stake, 1555, in the Bible*, 1902, and unfairly dismissed by
period of reaction that followed the some as being more of an elocutionist
accession of Mary to the throne. After than a translator because of the way he
graduating in 1525 he moved to Ant- used various signs to convey the finer
werp* to become chaplain to the Mer- points of the original text.
chant Adventurers where he met Tyn-
dale. Thought to be the translator of Rufinus, Tyrannius (345-410). Born in
Matthew's Bible , using Thomas Matt- North Italy. Monk, historian and trans-
hew as a pseudonym. lator, mainly of Greek theological works
into Latin. Set out a list of OT canonical
Roll. See Scroll. books similar to that of Jerome but
added Maccabees to those described by
Rolle, Richard (1300-49). Hermit, Jerome as 'edifying but not canonical',
mystic and poet. Translated the Psalms in and called them 'ecclesiastical books'.
the first half of the fourteenth century at
Hampole, near Doncaster, into his nor- Rushworth Gospels. A ms. of the four
thern dialect and included a verse-by- gospels which came to light in the tenth
verse commentary. Its popularity may be century, written in Latin by an Irish
judged by the fact that it subsequently scribe, three of them being virtually the
appeared in other dialects. same as the Lindisfarne Gospels* but the
fourth (Matthew) being an independent
Roman Catholic Cation Law. Prior to work in the Mercian dialect by a priest
the Second Vatican Council*, 1962-65, named Faermon. Now in the Bodleian
Roman Catholics were forbidden to use Library, Oxford*, it takes its name from
any version of the Bible other than those Mr Jack Rushworth who held it for
produced by Catholics, except for the many years,
purposes of biblical or theological study
(and the general public were scarcely Ruthwell Cross. An ancient cross near
aware of the exception), on the wide- the Solway Firth on the old pilgrim way
spread feeling that access to the Bible between lona and Lindisfarne* depicting
should be made difficult rather than incidents from the gospels. Under each
easy, and on the assumption that all bib panel is a text from the Vulgate* and trav-
lical translation would be from the Vul- ellers unable to read were able to study
gate*. (Canons 1399, 1400 and 1391). the gospels in pictures.
 s

Sacred Books of the Old and New thought to be valuable for the picture it
Testaments, 1893. More popularly provided of the text of the Hebrew Bible
known as the Polychrome Bible*. at the point of separation, the argument
being that where the Samaritan Penta-
Sahug (390-439). Armenian Patriarch, teuch, the LXX* and Hebrew were in
alias Isaac the Great. Joint translator with agreement there was good reason to
Mesropius* of the Armenian Version* believe that they represented the earlier
and liturgy. text on the grounds that the Samaritans
were unlikely to have accommodated
Samaritan Pentateuch. A Hebrew ver- themselves to the Jewish version after the
sion of the first five books of the OT, in a split. Closer examination suggests this
purely consonantal text, written in the not to be the case and as a result of
old Hebrew characters rather than the revised datings for the split between Jews
square ones adopted by the Jews at a later and Samaritans the Samaritan Pentateuch
date. The Samaritans also developed is now thought to be much later. Scholars
vowel signs but their use is spasmodic are divided as to its date; it may have been
and late, and the Samaritan Masorah based on earlier, Pre-Samaritan texts*
relates more to paragraphing*, the fixing similar to those found at Qumran*,
of sections and musical directions. though if it is there is very little differ-
Differences from the Masoretic Text* ence between them. One thing they have
number about 6000, mostly variations in in common, however, is that with their
spelling and of little significance. The frequent explanatory notes and glosses
major difference is the substitution of they offer a more expanded form of the
Mount Gerizim for Jerusalem as the cen- received Hebrew text and it is this which
tral place of worship, whilst the fact that makes them important for textual study.
the scroll contains only the Pentateuch is What brought about the separation of
a reminder of what is regarded as scrip- the Samaritans from the Jews, and
ture by the Samaritans, an illustration of whether it was because the Jews refused
the conservative nature of the group and to allow them to take part in the re-build-
a rejection of anything that suggests ing of the Temple at the beginning of the
innovation or modernization. sixth century BCE (as is often said) is
When first discovered the ancient debatable. The separation is variously
script gave the impression that the text dated in the fifth, fourth or second cen-
was much earlier than the more familiar turies BCE, the current preference being
Hebrew and for this reason it was for the last, though some scholars suggest
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 147

it was as late as the destruction of the Samaritan Recension. See Recension.

temple by John Hyrcanus in 128 BCE, but
whatever it is does not have much sig- Samariticon. A Greek version of the
nificance for the Samaritan Pentateuch. Samaritan Pentateuch* which some-
No current ms. goes back earlier than times followed the LXX* more than the
the tenth century, the oldest and most Samaritan Pentateuch itself and is
complete version dating from 1149-50 quoted by Jerome*.
(Cambridge). The first copy came to light
in 1616, when Pietro della Valle obtained Scarlett, Nathaniel (1753-1802).
one in Damascus. The first printed ver- Bookseller, shipwright and accountant.
sion appeared in the Paris Polyglot*, fol- Author of A Translation of the New Tes-
lowed by the London Polyglot*, both tament from the Original Greek Humbly
regarding it as more faithful to the origi- attempted by Nathaniel Scarlett, Assisted
nal than the Masoretic Text*. In 1815 by Men of Piety and Literature: with
Gesenius* rejected it as being of minimal Notes, 1798. Scarlett divides the text into
critical value and Geiger thought it to be two sections, each with a title, personifies
one of the traditions rejected by the rab- it by putting the names of the speakers as
bis in the first century CE. Kahle* re- in the text of a play and assigning narra-
garded it as one of the many 'common' tive portions to the 'Historian', and uses
translations and attributed its agreements 'immerse' instead of 'baptize', the fore-
with the LXX* to the fact that many early runner of other 'immersion versions' .
Greek translations came from the same
tradition. There is an Aramaic version, SchafF, Philip (1819-93). A Reformed
also printed in the London Polyglot, and Church historian, born in Switzerland
a Greek version known as Samariticon . and educated at Tubingen prior to mov-
An eclectic edition edited by Von Gall ing to the USA where he became a pro-
(1914-18) is the one used most. fessor at Union Theological Seminary
The DSS* have been thought by some and President of the American Revision
to relate to the Proto-Samaritan text tra- Committee for the ASV*.
dition and to offer new data on the rela-
tionship between the Samaritan Penta- Scheil, John Vincent (b. 1858). French
teuch, the Masoretic Text and the LXX. archaeologist, discoverer and translator
According to the traditional view the of the Code of Hammurabi, Joint Editor
Samaritan Pentateuch reflects the Pales- of Revue Biblique, and one of the first
tinian tradition from which we get the scholars to discover papyrus* mss.,
LXX and differences between them are including one in 1889, on a visit to Cop-
due to their respective text traditions, tos*, Egypt, dated c. 200, containing por-
Palestinian in the Samaritan Pentateuch tions of Luke 1-4, and found in a jar
and Babylonian in the Masoretic Text. walled up in a house and used as stuffing
Agreements suggest that the Samaritan for a third-century codex of Philo.
Pentateuch was reworked on the basis of
the Babylonian tradition which must Scholz, Johann Maretin Augustine
have happened before the schism (1794-1852). A pupil of J.L Hug* and a
between Jews and Samaritans. The DSS professor at the University of Bonn. Pub-
discoveries suggest that the editing of the lished the first comprehensive catalogue
Samaritan Pentateuch cannot be earlier of NT mss., which included 26 uncials*,
than the second century CE. and 469 minuscules* of the gospels, 8
148 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

uncials and 192 minuscules of Acts and ducing text without word division*.
the Catholic Epistles, 3 uncials and 88 Some dispute whether writers of OT
minuscules of the Book of Revelation, texts practised it or whether word divi-
plus 239 collections of lessons for reading sion was always present. One view is
in church, and listed over 600 other mss. that it was but that scribes were not very
to those already known, as well as a two- consistent about it.
volume edition of the Greek Testament,
1830-36, marking something of a return scriptio defectiva. The Latin term (some-
to the Textus Receptus* while following times referred to as lectio defectiva) for
in the traditions of JA Bengel* (with his defective reading*.
division into two families , Alexandrian
and Constantinopolitan), JJ. Wettstein* scriptio plene. The Latin term (some-
and C.R Matthaei*. The first to appreciate times referred to as lectio plene) for full
the geographical location of several mss. reading*.
and the forerunner of B.H. Streeter* with
his emphasis on 'local texts', though Scripture Gift Mission. An interna-
Scholz's interest lay not so much in simi- tional literature organization, founded at
larity of readings as in palaeography*, the end of the nineteenth century to
notes, colophons*, local saints and icon- produce Bible booklets and leaflets for
ography. distribution all over the world and cur-
rently working in more than 850 lan-
Schonfield, Hugh Joseph (1910-88). guages, with a special focus on minority
A distinguished Jewish NT scholar, with languages.
an intimate knowledge of the Jewish
environment in NT times, whose trans- Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose
lation of the NT was published as The (1813-91). Born in Bermondsey, son of a
Authentic New Testament*, 1955. Au- tradesman, with a flair for classical lan-
thor of a series of controversial works on guages, who studied at Trinity College,
early Christianity and its Jewish roots. Cambridge, taught at Sherborne School,
Believed to be the first Jew to translate and was Head of Falmouth School when
the NT into English and claimed that he became interested in Codex Sinaiti-
because of his Jewish background and cus*. A NT scholar who published the
learning he was better equipped to do so text of 20 mss., listed all known mss. and
than a Gentile. devised a method classifying them,
together with several other technical
Scofield Reference Bible, 1909. See works on the text of the NT. Author of
New Scofield Reference Bible, 1967. the Cambridge Paragraph Bible*, 1873,
and one of the translators of the RV*,
Scribal Changes. Through the long often adopting a conservative stance and
period of copying* and textual transmis- preferring a Byzantine* to a Neutral* text.
sion, besides additions* and harmoniza-
tions*, common scribal changes tended Scroll. The normal form for a book
to be the result of familiarity with the from the great days of classical literature
same text in other places or for linguis- in Greece to the beginnings of the fourth
tic, stylistic, or exegetical reasons. (See century CE. Usually made of papyrus* or
Scribal Changes, p. 149) parchment* by glueing together a num-
ber of sheets and winding them round a
scriptio continua. Lit. 'continuous script'. long stick to produce a 'volume' (from
Used to describe the scribal habit of pro- the Latin volumen, meaning 'something
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 149

Scribal Changes
Scribes sometimes substituted more common words for rare ones, though this did not always
add to clarity.
Isa 47.2. sobel (not found anywhere else in the Bible or in rabbinic Hebrew) is
sometimes translated as leg' (AV) and sometimes as 'train', but one ms. has the
more familiar solik (skirt) which appears injer. 13.22, 26, Lam. 1.9 and Nah. 3.5.
Synonymous readings sometimes meant using a similar word, apparently interchangeable, but
not necessarily with precisely the same meaning, a practice whkh easily gives place to doublets*.
'Palm', for example, sometimes substituted for 'hand', is not quite the same though
it often works, as does 'house' for 'kingdom'.
Exegetical changes, very few in number, were sometimes made for theological reasons.
LXX*, Samaritan Pentateuch* and Syriac* have Yahweh completing creation on the
sixth rather than the seventh day (Gen. 2.2), presumably to avoid any suggestion
that he worked on the seventh.
Anti-polytheism led to names with Baal in their root being changed, as is evident
when you compare the 'corrected' names in Samuel with those in Chronicles
which, though written later, retained the older form. So, Saul's fourth son, Eshbaal
(1 Chron. 8.33 and 9.39), appears differently in Samuel, first as Ishvi (1 Sam.
14.49) and then as Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 2.8-12, 3.8-15 and 4.5-8).
Most doctrinal changes alter or eliminate something which is doctrinally unacceptable or add
something to make, prove, establish or defend a principle or practice.
Gen. 18.22 has 'Abraham still stood before Yihweh' though he was sitting when the
story started (v. 1), a change made perhaps to stress awe and respect.
LXX* has 'the ephod' in 1 Sam. 14.18 whereas MT has 'the ark of God', a change pos-
sibly made once the ephod came to be considered idolatrous.
Did Scribes have difficulty reconciling the divinity of Jesus with his apparent igno-
rance on certain topics and so see fit to omit the words, 'nor the Son', in Mt. 24.36
and Mk. 13.32? And when they came to Lk. 1.3 was it not enough that 'it seemed
good' to Luke so that some mss. add 'and to the Holy Spirit'? Something similar
may have happened in Acts 15.28.
Instead of'his parents' in Lk. 2.41, 43 some mss. read, 'Joseph and Mary', possibly
to safeguard the doctrine of the virgin birth, while some substitute 'Joseph' for 'his
father' in w. 33 and 48 or omit v. 48 altogether.
Some mss. of Lk. 23.32 literally read, And also other criminals, two, were led away
with him to be crucified'. Possibly to avoid any suggestion that Jesus was a crimi-
nal most other mss. read, And also two others, criminals, were led away with him
to be crucified'. Two Old Latin mss. omit the word 'others' altogether.
150 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

rolled up'), with a second stick at the use of Bibles, other than Catholic ones,
other end to facilitate winding. The except for biblical or theological study,
reader held the rollers one in each hand, but change was coming as a result of the
unwinding it from side to side, not from efforts of people like Walter M. Abbott*
top to bottom, as required. and Cardinal Carlo Maria Martini*, sub-
Ruling, to ensure straight lines and sequently Archbishop of Milan*, who
margins, was common, sometimes with pointed out that the current trend of dis-
ink* and therefore visible but sometimes tancing the laity from the Bible was com-
with a pointed instrument and not after- paratively recent and that well into the
wards clear to the naked eye. Normally Middle Ages the Bible was regarded as
papyrus was used on one side only with the basic book for the formation of faith.
the horizontal lines as a guide; writing The affirmations in Dei Veibum, there-
across the vertical lines on the other side fore, were not new, the change in attitude
was difficult. There was no ornamenta- being due to the increasing liturgical
tion, no punctuation and no spaces sense of the church (clergy and laity) as a
between the words. growing community and the realisation
Size varied. Some are 15 inches high of itself as a body of believers with fre-
but 10 inches is more normal. Length quent spontaneous communication be-
also varied, some being as long as 50 feet, tween its members. Martini then quoted
with 30-35 feet (about the length of a from Dei Veibum, 'Just as the life of the
single gospel) being more normal. Any- church grows through persistent partici-
thing larger was unmanageable. Evi- pation in the eucharistic mystery, so we
dence from the DSS* suggests that most may hope for a new surge of vitality from
scrolls contained only a single book, an intensified veneration for God's word,
longer ones tending to be divided into which lasts for ever'. The New American
two or more, which may explain why Bible*, 1970, and The Common Bible*,
Luke and Acts (each about 30 feet in 1973, were two early and positive results
length) appear as two books rather than of the change.
one, though the Minor Prophets appear
to have come together in one scroll and Semitic Languages. A group of ancient
it is possible that larger scrolls existed to languages, including Hebrew*, Aramaic*
contain all the Torah . and Arabic*, so-called because an eigh-
The Torah* Jewish Scriptures were teenth-century linguist identified them
written either on skins or on pieces of as the languages of the sons of Shem
papyrus*. Measurements varied but 10- (Gen. 10). Today there are several
20 inches in height with two, three or classifications, one of which divides
four columns of writing, 2.5 to 3.5 inches them into North-west Semitic, which is
wide with 0.5 inches between them Canaanite and sub-divides into Hebrew,
appear to have been common. Moabite and Edomite on the one hand
Not generally convenient, in that a and Ugaritic, Phoenician and Punic on
scroll needed both hands, and locating the other, and North Semitic, which is
particular passages was not easy. Gradu- basically Aramaic and can also be subdi-
ally replaced in the second century CE by vided into Western (biblical and Palestin-
the codex*. ian) and Eastern (Babylonian). A com-
mon characteristic is that they are
Second Vatican Council, 1962-65. consonantal texts and the root form of
Prior to the Second Vatican Council most words consists of no more than
Roman Catholic Canon Law forbade the three letters. In this respect the Semites
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 151

may claim to be the originator of the heard of the existence of the Jewish
alphabet (as distinct from signs and sylla- Scriptures through a large colony of Jews
bles) probably dating from c. 1600 BCE. in Alexandria and being urged by his
The oldest Hebrew and Aramaic inscrip- librarian to secure a copy for the library,
tions, such as the Gezer Calendar , go sent a request to the high priest in
back to the tenth century. Jerusalem asking for a copy and some
capable translators. An alternative ver-
Semler, Johann Salomo (1725-91). In sion agrees that a Greek translation of the
1767, seeing that even our oldest mss. Pentateuch was made in Alexandria c. the
were the result of recensions*, Semler third century BCE, but attributes it more
took the classification of ancient NT to the needs of the Jewish community
mss. made by J.A. Bengel* and extended (who had either forgotten their Hebrew
it into three groups: or grown up without it) than to the
monarch. Differences of style, its diverse
Alexandrian, to which he assigned the
character and uneven merit make it
earliest Greek mss., the Syriac , Cop-
unlikely that it was the work of any par-
tic* and Ethiopic* versions.
ticular group and there is some doubt as
Eastern, with its centres at Antioch
to whether there ever was one single
and Constantinople*, and including
Greek translation or whether the LXX was
the main mass of authorities.
the result of a merging of several
Western, to be found in the Latin ver-
attempts to render the Hebrew in Greek.
sions and Fathers. This clarification
A more likely view is that it was spread
was taken further by his pupil, J.J.
over a period of 150 years or more,
Griesbach*.
beginning in the last quarter of the third
century BCE with the Torah*, followed by
Septuagint (LXX). The most important
the Prophets* and the later addition of
of all the old translations, the Bible of
other books, including 1 Ezra, "wisdom
the early church and still the authorita-
of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Judith, Tobit,
tive biblical text of the Greek Orthodox
Letter of Jeremiah, 1 and 2 Maccabees
Church. Most of the OT quotations in
and possibly even additions to Esther and
the NT reflect this text.
the Psalter as well as the canonical Writ-
Strictly speaking, a Greek version of
ings*, even up to the middle or end of the
the Torah*, expanded in the first century
second century, and by different writers.
to include all the Jewish-Greek Scrip-
Why it was known as the Version of the
tures and therefore may be loosely
Seventy when there were apparently 72
described as a translation of the OT
translators is also unclear. The number is
from Hebrew into Greek. Begun in the
usually thought to relate to the translators
third century BCE in the Greek city of
though another possibility is that it
Alexandria*, for the benefit of Jews of
referrs to the 70 members of the Alexan-
the Dispersion, some of whom were
drian Sanhedrin.
descendants of Jewish exiles and others
It contains 24 canonical books and a
who were travellers and traders, growing
number of Greek texts (some translations
up with no knowledge of Hebrew and
and some originals, known more usually
requiring their scriptures in their own
in the English Bible as 'the Apocrypha'*),
language.
and was the Bible of Greek-speaking
According to the Letter of Aristeas*,
Jews. The arrangement of the books is
the LXX owes its origins to Ptolemy II,
also different. Whereas the Hebrew ver-
king of Egypt (285-46 BCE) who, having
sion has the Torah*, the Prophets* and
152 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

the Writings* (i.e. the three main sections Hebrew texts at an early date, though
as they came together), the LXX has them whether there was ever just one transla-
grouped according to their literary genre tion or whether there were several differ-
(i.e. legal and historical, poetry, and ent attempts is unclear. Prior to the dis-
prophecy) and with the apocryphal books covery of the DSS*, it was almost the
placed according to their genre. only source for studying the history of
Found in papyrus* (scroll*) and vel- the text of the Hebrew Bible. Their dis-
lum* (codex*) form, papyrus mss dating covery led to a period of re-evaluation
from the third century BCE to the sev- when it was realised that the text of some
enth century CE and vellum mss. from books and variant readings represented a
the fourth to the tenth centuries, in different, and sometimes preferable,
uncials* from the fourth to the fifth cen- Hebrew original from the Masoretic
turies, and in minuscules* from the ninth Text*.
to the fifteenth. One of the most Current editions of the LXX follow
significant papyrus presentations is the one of two patterns, the Cambridge* and
Chester Beatty* collection and the most the Gottingen*. (See Letter of Aristeas,
important uncial mss. are the Codex Vat- p. 153.)
icanus*, the Codex Sinaiticus* and the
Codex Alexandrinus*. Sharpe, Samuel (1799-1881). A Uni-
The early Christians adopted it as tarian Egyptologist who published a
their OT, and NT writers found it a use- New Testament, translated from the
ful source for terms and concepts, con- Greek of J.J. Griesbach*, 1840, essentially
tents and symbols to help them to ex- a revision of the AV* in the light of Cries-
press the Christian faith, thus forming a bach's* Greek text, and Hebrew Scrip-
useful bridge between the two Testa- tures Translated , 1865, a similar revision
ments. Revisions took place, partly to of the OT. Wrote a Hebrew history and
correct mistakes, partly to improve and grammar and represented the Unitarian
update language and style, and partly to Church in the production of the RV*,
adapt the Greek to the proto-masoretic 1870.
Hebrew text, but mainly to enable Jews
to have a Greek version which more ade- Shaxton, Nicolas (1485-1556). Bishop
quately represented the original Jewish of Salisbury who in 1538 required his
texts. When the early church adopted it clergy to ensure that by Whit Sunday an
to go alongside the Greek New Testa- English Bible was chained to the desk of
ment Jews increasingly produced other every parish church in the diocese.
Greek translations, notably those of Hence the name, 'Chained Bibles'*.
Aquila*, Symmachus* and Theodotion*.
From the Christian side Jerome* in 396 Sheed, Frank (1896-1982). A Roman
cites three recensions: Origen*, Hesy- Catholic publisher (Sheed & Ward) who
chius* and Lucian*. sensed the need for a readable and more
With many copies extant, some much scholarly version of the Bible for the
older than the earliest available Hebrew Catholic world and, knowing that Sheed
mss., and with a greater variety of variant and Ward were unable to handle it alone,
readings* than all the other translations approached Michael Longman* of Long-
put together, the LXX is invaluable in mans Green with a proposal to translate
helping us to discover the state of the La Bible de Jerusalem.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 153

Letter of Aristeas, c. 130-70 BCE

The Letter of Aristeas* to his brother Philocrates, in the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (285-46 BCE), describes in some detail how Ptolemy sent
an embassy (including Aristeas) to the high priest in Jerusalem, with
magnificent presents and a letter in which he reviewed his practice of
setting free Jewish slaves who had come to Egypt under the Persians and
under his father and begged him to send a copy of the sacred books and
a body of men capable of translating them into Greek.
The letter goes on to say how 6 translators were selected from each
of the 12 tribes and dispatched to Alexandria bringing with them a copy
of the Law, written in letters of gold. They were splendidly received by
the king and, after a banquet and a public display of their wisdom, they
set about the translation in a quiet house by the sea, working separately
to begin with, but then comparing their results, finally producing the
Version of the Seventy (hence the designation LXX) or Septuagint.
Aristeas then describes how the translation was read before the Jew-
ish population in the place where it was made and how it 'met with a
great reception also from the people, because of the great benefits which
they had conferred upon them'.
After the books had been read, the priests and the elders of the translators
and the Jewish community and the leaders of the people stood up and said
that, since so excellent and sacred and accurate a translation had been
made, it was only right that it should remain as it was, and no alteration
should be made in it. And when the whole company expressed their
approval, they bade them pronounce a curse in accordance with their cus-
tom upon anyone who should make any alteration either by adding any-
thing or changing in any way whatever any of the words which had been
written or making any omission. This was a very wise precaution to
ensure that the book might be preserved for all the future time
unchanged. (Letter of Aristeas, 30&-11).

The writer of the book of Revelation would probably have agreed with
him (22.18-19). Apparently Ptolemy was also greatly pleased and the
scholars went home with princely gifts.
(cont.)
154 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Letter of Aristeas (cont.)

Later generations improved the story until the legend ran that each
of the 72 translators was shut up in a separate cell (or by pairs in 36 cells)
and each produced a translation of the whole of the OT in exactly 72
days, and when their translations were compared it was found that they
were identical, in every word and phrase, thus proving that the transla-
tion was directly inspired by God.
Philo, a Jewish thinker belonging to a priestly family in Alexandria in
the time of Jesus, for example, writes,
Sitting here (on the island of Pharos [the traditional site of the translation
work]) in seclusion.. .they became as it were possessed, and, under inspi-
ration, wrote, not each several scribe something different, but the same
word for word, as though dictated to each by an invisible prompt... The
clearest proof of this is that, if Chaldeans have learned Greek, or Greeks
Chaldean and read both versions, the Chaldean and the translation, they
regard them with awe and reverence as sisters, or rather one and the same,
both in matter and words, and speak of the authors not as translators but
as prophets and priests of the mysteries, whose sincerity and singleness of
thought have enabled them to go hand in hand with the purest of spirits,
the spirit of Moses (Vit. Mos. 37-40).

The idea and commitment also passed over into Christianity to the
extent that we have Eusebius saying,
Ptolemy, wishing to make trial of them in his own way, and being afraid
lest they should have made some agreement to conceal by their translation
the truth in the Scriptures, separated them from one another and com-
manded them all to write the same translation. And this they did in the
case of all the books. But when they came together to Ptolemy, and com-
pared each his own translation, God was glorified and the Scriptures were
recognised as truly divine, for they all rendered the same things in the
same words and the same names, from beginning to end, so that even the
heathen who were present knew that the Scriptures had been translated
by the inspiration of God (H.E. 5.8.11-14, LCL).

These adornments are now regarded as legend and there are in fact
numerous differences between the two texts but the legend at least
illustrates the importance of texts and Scriptures at this time, the care
and attention given to them and the importance of their not being
altered.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 155

Shorter Bible: An American Trans- texts allowance must be made for simi-
lation, 1918. A modern English transla- larities both in the early Hebrew script
tion consisting of nine books in their and in the later Hebrew square charac-
entirety, the rest considerably reduced, ters, as well as for a slightly different style
and a few verses from the Apocrypha*, of writing in the Samaritan script or at
arranged in chronological (historical) different times of writing, as, for exam-
order and each with a short introduc- ple, in the DSS*. In NT texts allowance
tion. Included some selections from must be made for similarites in uncial
Goodspeed's Translation following its Greek, which was used in ms. produc-
publication as The Bible: An American tion down to the ninth century CE, and in
Translation, 1931. minuscule mss. to a lesser extent because
most of the variations crept in prior to
Shorthand Bibles, 1605 and 1904. The their arrival on the scene. (See Similar
first was prepared by Jeremiah Rich*, Letters in Hebrew, Similar Letters in
based on his own version of shorthand, Uncial Greek, pp. 156-57.)
the second by Isaac Pitman and Sons,
using the Pitman method. Similar Sounds. Sometimes when
copying a scribe may mishear, particu-
Siloam Inscription. An inscription in
larly where words, syllables or letters
an archaic Semitic dialect similar to that
sound alike, or lose concentration, per-
found in the Gezer Calendar*. An exam-
haps as a result of working long hours or
ple of early Hebrew writing, discovered
trying to hold too much in his mind,
in 1880, traditionally believed to be a
leading to transposed letters, changed
description of how Hezekiah's tunnel
words or itacisms*.
was dug under Jerusalem, between the
Gihon Spring and the Siloam Pool, to
ensure the water supply for the city Simonides, Constantine (b. 1825). An
when the Assyrians threatened siege in ingenious Greek who, in the middle of
701 BCE, and referred to in 2 Kgs 20.20. the nineteenth century, caused some sen-
It tells how the tunnel was completed sation with quantities of Greek mss.
when two groups of workmen who had claiming to be of considerable antiquity,
started at opposite ends each heard the including portions of the NT dating
sound of the other's tools in the heart of from the first century and a copy of
the rock and so cut through to meet Matthew on papyrus* said to date from
them, and the very slight bend at that 15 years after the ascension. One of the
point, in an otherwise straight tunnel, scholars who was responsible for expos-
indicates the precision with which they ing them as forgeries was Tischendorf *,
had worked towards each other. A good so when Tischendorf triumphantly pub-
deal of recent archaeology, however, lished Codex Sinaiticus* Simonides retal-
questions this dating. iated by stating that that was in fact the
one forgery for which he was responsible,
Silver Codex. Another name for the but his claims were quickly proved to be
Codex Argenteus*. false.

Similar Letters. Errors sometimes Simplified New Testament, 1961. A

creep into textual copying* as a result of translation by Olaf M. Norlie* using sim-
letters which look alike and are easily ple words and short sentences, including
miscopied, particularly where the mis- a translation of the Psalms by R.K. Harri-
copying still makes good sense. In OT son.
156 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Similar Letters in Hebrew

D and K taw and aleph (t and ')
The similarity of these two letters in the early Hebrew script explains why
the ixx* has Thasoban' for 'Ezbon' (Gen. 46.16), Thasirite' for 'Ashurite' (2
Sam. 2.9) and Thoue' for 'Ahava' (Ezra 8.21, 31).
1 and 1 daleth and resh (d and r)
In the square Hebrew characters, MT has pT) (usyrq) ('he armed his follow-
ers') whereas the Samaritan Pentateuch* has pTl (usydq) ('he crushed his fol-
lowers') in Gen. 14.14 and "1118 ('hr) ('behind him') when the Samaritan
Pentateuch has "HIK ('hd) ('one') in Gen. 22.13.
2 Sam. 22.43 has Dp"TK ('dqm) ('I crushed them') whereas the parallel pas-
sage in Ps. 18.42 has DpIK ('rqm) ('I emptied them').
Isa. 9.9 has T2T (yd'w) ('knew') though one ms. has 1ITP (yr'w)
('shouted').
Isa. 14.4 has nirnQ (mdhbh) ('the golden city') where i"QmD (mrhbh)
('the boisterous city') is thought by some to be more appropriate.
In Jer. 2.20 Kethib* has law ("bd) ('work') whereas Qere* has "OW ("br)
('transgress').
** and 1 yod and waw (y and w)
In Prov. 17.27 Kethib* has ipl (wqr) ('cool') whereas Qere* has "lp* (yqr) ('pre-
cious'), translated as 'excellent' (AV).
n and 1 beth and daleth (b and d)
In Josh. 11.2 MT has 333 (ngb) ('south') whereas LXX* has 133 (ngd) ('oppo-
site').
D and D beth and mem (b and m)
1 Kgs 12.2 has Jeroboam DH^QD (bmsrym) ('settled in Egypt') whereas the par-
allel passage in 2 Chron. 10.2 has him D'HSDD (mmsrym) ('returned from
Egypt'). The preceding verb DBT (y$b) can be vocalized to mean either
'stayed' or 'returned' to fit the different readings.
This may also explain why the same name sometimes begins with a 'b'
and sometimes with an 'm', as in Berodach and Merodach, and other cases.
1 and D beth and kaph (b and k)
1 Kgs 22.20 has HDD (bkh) ('and one said one thing, and another said another9)
whereas the parallel passage in 2 Chron. 18.19 has HDD (kkh) ('and one said
thus and another said thus1).
In 2 Kgs 3.24. Kethib* has ITT (wybw) ('they went in'). Qere* has im
(wykw) ('they hit it').
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 157

Similar Letters in Uncial Greek

Uncial letters often confused are
E O © and I
nrn
rm
MAA
AAA
HN
II<3>
In Lk. 6.42 most mss. have KAPOOZ ('log') but one has KAPIIOI
('fruit'), confusing II and <f>.
In Rom. 6.5 most mss. have AAAA ('but') but some have AMA
('together'), confusing M and AA.
Is 2 Pet. 2.13 AHATAIS ('dissipation') or ATADAIZ ('lovefeasts')?

Final Letters
Some Hebrew letters (e.g. fe, m, n, p and 5) are written differently
when they are at the end of a word, e.g., the final form of D is"], of
Q is D, of] is |, of D is *) and of£ is f . This custom should be a help
when it conies to word division*, but can also lead to corruptions*,
particularly because the distinction between final and non-final
forms was introduced fairly late, partly because sometimes they
appear in their final form when they are not final, and partly
because not every scribe used the final form even when they were.

Slavonic Version. The first version Slimbridge, Gloucestershire. Birth-

(gospels, psalms and other texts prepared place of William Tyndale*.
for the liturgy) was the work of Cyril (d.
869) and Methodius (815-85), apostles to Smith, John Merlin Powis (1866-
the Slavs. To achieve it Cyril devised an 1932). One of four translators of The
alphabet consisting of 38 letters and Old Testament: An American Transla-
began with the gospels. The version was tion*, 1927, subsequently revised by TJ.
completed towards the end of the ninth Meek* and part of The Complete Bible:
century and there were several recen- An American Translation*, 1931.
sions. A ms. from 1499 follows the
Byzantine* Greek text and has become Smith, Julia Evelina (1792-1886). An
the text for church purposes. The current American, one of few women Bible trans-
text of the Slavonic Bible is the St Peters- lators, who produced a very literal transla-
burg* edition, 1751. The language is now tion of the Bible in 1876, sometimes
commonly called Old Church Slavonic. called a 'pony' of the original text because
158 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

she ignored context and translated every Bible*, so-called after the small town near
Greek or Hebrew word and phrase with Milan* where it took place. Very accurate
the same English word each time it in its masoretic notes. Once revised it
occurred, thus giving some unusual was used for the first rabbinic edition and
results and finishing up more with a crib also for the later ones of Stephanus*, 1539
than with a translation. and 1544-46, and Munster, 1535, and
was the one Martin Luther used for his
Smith, Miles (c. 1568-1624). Born in translation of the Bible into German.
Hereford, the son of a butcher, and edu-
cated at Corpus Christi and Brasenose Sopherim. Forerunners of the Maso-
College, Oxford. Classical scholar and retes*, authorities in the textual transmis-
orientalist. Canon of Hereford and later sion of the OT, who are traditionally
Bishop of Gloucester. Worked with John supposed to have emerged during the
Reynolds* on a translation of the pro- exile and flourished in the fifth to the
phetic books for the AV* and was respon- fourth centuries BCE. They derived their
sible, with Thomas Bilson , for the Pref- name from the fact that they used to
ace, The Translators to the Readers', of count (Heb. saphar) all the letters in the
the AV, 1611, and for seeing it through the Torah* to ensure accuracy and consis-
press. tency, a task handled later by the Maso-
retes . Another of their tasks was to draw
Soden, Hermann Freiherr von (1852- attention to errors or omissions and this
1914). A German scholar who developed led to the development of the kethib* and
a new theory of the history of the texts, a qere.
new classification system for mss., and
his own system of ms. symbols which, Source Criticism. A method of biblical
though ingenious, proved too compli- criticism which concentrates on identi-
cated for most scholars. Arising from fying the written documents or sources
them he divided the witnesses into three which later compilers used to produce
main groups (the Koine Greek*, the the texts as they have come down to us.
Hesychian and the Jerusalem recensions)
and developed a theory of text history to Souter, Alexander (1873-1949). Scot-
produce his own critical edition of the tish NT and Patristic scholar, educated at
Greek NT, 1913, featuring an enormous Aberdeen and Cambridge universities
number of minuscule mss. In general his and Professor of New Testament Greek
work has not found acceptance among at Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of
scholars though Moffatt* used it as the several technical works on NT Greek,
basis for his English translation. including the provision of a special criti-
cal apparatus* presumed to underlie the
Soldiers' Pocket Bible, 1643. Extracts RV* in the Oxford Greek Testament, 1910
from the Geneva Bible* issued for the (rev. 1947), often known as the Souter
use of Oliver Cromwell's army. text*.

Solway Firth, Scotland. Site of the Souter Text. The Greek text of the NT
Ruthwell Cross* on the old pilgrim way as found in Alexander Souter's* Oxford
between Lindisfarne* and lona. Greek Testament, first published in 1910
and reissued, unchanged, in 1947, reflect-
Soncino Edition, 1494. The first ing British textual scholarship as it was in
printed edition of the complete Hebrew 1881. The work of Edward Palmer*, a
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 159

member of the NT panel of translators of Hebrew textual and explanatory notes

the RV*, 1881, and therefore (by infer- printed at the bottom. Poetry was in verse
ence) the Greek text behind that transla- form.
tion. Based on the third edition of Steph-
anus*, 1550. Palmer produced a con- St Catharine's Monastery, Mount
tinuous Greek text reflecting the deci- Sinai. The place where Tischendorf*
sions of the revisers, while staying close found Codex Sinaiticus* while visiting
to the Textus Receptus* even when the RV in 1844 and where Agnes Smith Lewes*
represented correctly either of two com- and Margaret Dunlop Gibson*, twins
peting readings. Souter's contribution from Castlebrae*, found an Old Syriac*
was to supply a critical apparatus , the ms. in Sinaitic Syriac.
chief strength of which lies in its quota-
tions from the early church Fathers, par- St Mark for Children, 1951. Popular
ticularly the Latin ones. In the 1947 edi- title given to The Gospel of St Mark: A
tion the apparatus was enlarged with New Translation in Simple English, by
evidence supplied by the Chester Beatty Edward Vernon, arising from his convic-
Papyri* and other mss. discovered after tion that the second gospel at least should
1910. be capable of being translated, without
notes, so as to be understood by a twelve-
Southwark, London. Site for the print- year-old of average intelligence.
ing of the first edition of the whole Eng-
lish Bible to be published in England. It St Paul from the Trenches, 1937. A
was Coverdale's*, 1537. translation of 1 and 2 Corinthians and
part of Ephesians by Gerald Warre Cor-
Spencer, Francis Aloysius (1845- nish*, a soldier in the First World War.
1913). An American Roman Catholic
who published The Four Gospels*, 1898, St Paul's Cross, London. Site of the
and whose complete NT was published public burning, on the authority of
posthumously, 1937. Cuthbert Tunstall*, the Bishop of Lon-
don, of Tyndale's Translation , which
Sperry, Willard Leonyd (1882-1954). was entering the country with the help of
Faculty member of Harvard University merchants such as Humphrey Mon-
and Vice-Chairman of the committee mouth, a wealthy cloth merchant who
which produced the RSV*. befriended Tyndale* by taking him into
his house for six months so as to give
Spurrell Translation, 1885. A less- him leisure to translate the Bible, a kind-
than-satisfactory translation of the OT by ness for which he paid some years later.
Helen Spurrell, a painter, sculptor and
musician, who learned Hebrew and St Petersburg, Russia. Home of Codex
translated the whole of the OT when she Leningrad*, Codex Petersburg*, three
was over 50 to produce Translation of the fragments of the OT of Codex Sinaiti-
Old Testament Scriptures from the Original cus* and some mss. from the Cairo
Hebrew. By 'original Hebrew' she meant Geniza*.
the unpointed Hebrew, consonantal text,
refusing to accept the vowels on the Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815-
grounds that they had been put there by 1902). American social reformer and a
humans. She also had headings, printed leading suffragette. Translator and editor
in italics at the top of every page, with of the Women's Bible*, 1895.
160 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Stead, William Thomas (1849-1912). Streeter, Bernett Hillman (1874-

English journalist, author, editor of 1937). A biblical scholar, educated at
Northern Echo, and a reformer. Founding Kings College, London, and student, Fel-
editor of The Review of Reviews who low and Provost of Queens College,
received two letters from writers with no Oxford. Responsible for picking out the
awareness of each other's existence. Caesarean text* as found in Family
Mary Higgs, wife of a Congregational Theta*, who in 1924 posited a theory of
minister, was one. Ernest Malan, a signal local text types at each of the great Chris-
and telegraph engineer in Hull and tian centres: Alexandria*, Antioch, Cae-
grandson of an eminent Swiss divine, sarea*, Carthage, Rome and (later) Con-
was the other. Both felt the inadequacy stantinople .
of all current translations, both were
concerned about young people, and both Stuttgart, Germany. Home of the
wanted to do something about it. Stead Wurttemberg Bible Society (founded
introduced them to each other and so 1812) which made a notable contribution
paved the way for The Twentieth Cen- through the publication of scholarly
tury New Testament*, 1902. Bible texts, including Nestle's* Greek
NT, 1898, revised by Aland, 1979, Kittel's
Stephanus, Robert (1503-59). A French Biblia hebraica , 1937, revised by Elliger
printer (Robert Estienne) who produced and Rudolph, 1977, Rahlfs's* Septuagint,
a Hebrew OT in quarto size (1539-44) 1935, and Weber's Vulgate*, 1969.
developed from the Soncino* edition and
an edition of the Greek NT in 1550 Swete, Henry Barclay (1835-1917). A
which continued to be printed for the biblical scholar at King's College, Lon-
next 300 years and is still found in many don, and Cambridge, founder of theJour-
Greek Testaments. Substantially the Tex- nal of Theological Studies, whose major
tus Receptus*. The fourth edition (1551) work was a three-volume edition of the
introduced a system of verse division*, LXX*, published by Cambridge University
subsequently adopted by Whittingham , Press, 1887-94 (with later editions), basi-
used for the first time in the Geneva cally Codex Vaticanus using Codex
Bible* and copied from then onwards in Sinaiticus*, Codex Alexandrinus*, Codex
every edition. Mainly the text of the fifth Ephraemi*, Codex Bezae*, and other
edition of Erasmus*, with some help from well-established mss. to fill the gaps. Sub-
the Complutensian Polyglot* and from 15 sequently superseded by the Cambridge
mss., one of which was Codex Bezae . Septuagint* in the Cambridge tradition
The rest were late tenth to fifteenth cen- and by a larger two-volume edition by
tury mss. Two Dutch printers, often Rahlfs*, more in the Gottingen* tradition.
wrongly described as the Elzevir* Broth-
ers, published 7 editions based on Symmachus (c. 170 CE). Possibly a Sam-
Stephanus and Codex Bezae, 1624-78, aritan convert to Judaism or an Ebionite
the second (1633) achieving recognition who translated the OT into Greek c.
as the Textus Receptus except in Britain 193-211. Remarkable for its faithfulness
which retained the term for the 1550 edi- to the Hebrew, for its pure and elegant
tion, as in the London Polyglot*. Greek and for its literary quality, with the
emphasis on the sense of a phrase or pas-
Strasbourg, France. City where Cov- sage rather than a literal translation, but it
erdale* lived for several years in exile and has survived only in fragments. Found in
where he translated books from Latin Origen's Hexaplar*. Had some influence
anH German into Enelish. on the English Bible through Jerome*
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 161

who had a high regard for Symmachus Syriac versions of which one, the
and used it in translating the Vulgate*. Peshitta*, was claimed as a standard ver-
sion similar to Jerome's Vulgate*, but it
Synoptic Gospels. The name given to was never literal enough for some schol-
Matthew, Mark and Luke because they ars and other versions followed. An edi-
provide an overall conspectus or general tion of the entire Syriac text of the New
survey, are similar in style and content, Testament was published in 1929 by the
and can readily be compared with each British and Foreign Bible Society*.
other. The distinction between these
three and the Fourth Gospel was first Syrian Text. The name given by West-
recognized by Clement of Alexandria . cott andHort to those many readings of
the Greek NT which were not known to
Syriac Version. Possibly the earliest be Neutral*, Alexandrian* or Western*,
translation of the NT, in the latter half of and therefore a somewhat vague descrip-
the second century, was into Syriac, an tion and not always reliable. Westcott and
Aramaic dialect spoken in north-west Hort regarded it as a conflated text and
Mesopotamia from before the Christian believed that it originated with the Greek
era. Most Syriac versions contain only 22 and Syrian Church Fathers in the late
books (omitting 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, fourth century as an attempt to make a
Jude and Revelation) reflecting the smooth, easy and complete text. The fur-
canon of the Syriac Church in use at thest from the originals, it was taken
Antioch in the fourth to fifth centuries, to Constantinople* and spread widely
but one edition in the John Rylands throughout the Byzantine empire, its lat-
Library, Manchester*, has all 27, includ- est form being the Textus Receptus*.
ing Revelation in a form found in no Found today in the gospels (but not Acts
other Syriac mss., the missing five com- and epistles) of Codex Alexandrinus*, the
ing from a later version. By the end of later uncial* mss. and the great mass of
the sixth century there were five or six minuscule* mss.
 AS

Talmud. An accumulation of rabbinic accompany the reading in the syna-

interpretation and commentary on gogues, they became more complex and
Torah* and Mishnah*, dating from the more literary as they were committed to
second to the sixth centuries CE, in two writing and were used increasingly out-
forms: a Palestinian, and a much longer side the synagogue.
and more highly regarded Babylonian Targumim hold a special place in
which has continued to form the basis of Judaism, their texts being printed side by
Jewish religious education. side with the Hebrew, and mediaeval
commentators often quoted from them.
Tanakh, 1985. A one-volume edition of They covered almost every book of the
the New Jewish Version previously pub- Hebrew Bible, though not Ezra, Neh-
lished in stages. Tanakh is a Jewish acro- emiah or Daniel, and increased in popu-
nym for what Christians call the Old Tes- larity with a decline in the knowledge of
tament, formed from the initial letters of Hebrew during the period of the Second
the three main sections, Torah (law), Temple. Today they often help scholars to
Nebiim (prophets) and Kethubim (writ- determine the language of scripture or the
ings), with the vowels added for vocaliza- way in which the early texts were read and
tion. understood, sometimes helping to fill
gaps or to make sense of difficult passages.
Targum (Heb. pi. Targumim). The word There are many in existence. The old-
means an explanation, commentary or est is the second-century Palestinian Pen-
even a translation, and eventually came to tateuch Targum and one of the most use-
mean a translation of the Hebrew Bible* ful is the Babylonian Targum on the
into Aramaic*. Targumim emerged in the Pentateuch*, known as Onkelos*. There
Persian period as Aramaic became the are large fragments of a Job Targum dating
language of the Near East and Aramaic from the end of the second century CE
paraphrases* of scripture appeared to clar- and found at Qumran*, containing a lit-
ify the text for the benefit of Jews who no eral translation from a Hebrew original
longer spoke Hebrew. All targumim have close to the Masoretic Text* which some-
a tendency to paraphrase, though some times deviates from the other textual wit-
have a fixed text with uniform transmis- nesses and may lack the ending (42.12-
sion whilst others have a more free text 17). There exist also a Targum to Lev-
with notes, explanations, interpretations, iticus, two Esther Targumim, one known
commentary, and sometimes even leg- as a First Targum and the other as a Sec-
ends inserted. Oral at first, and used to ond Targum, both midrashic* in nature.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 163

Tasker, Randolph Vincent Green- Taverner's Bible, 1539. An independent

wood (1895-1976). New Testament revision of Matthew's Bible*, undertaken
scholar and member of the NT panel of by Richard Taverner* and dedicated to
translators of the NEB* who subse- Henry VIII*. More successful in the NT
quently set out the Greek text on which than the OT, possibly because Taverner
the translation was based. was not a very good Hebraist. Almost
immediately eclipsed by the Great Bible*.
Tatian (c. 110-180). A native of the Influenced the 1582 Roman Catholic
Euphrates Valley, a pupil of Justin Mar- translation of the NT, which in turn was
tyr* and a convert to Christianity who consulted by the King James translators
lived in Rome. Compiled a harmony of of the AV*. The origin of the phrase in the
the gospels which became known as Tat- AV which calls the Son of God the
ian's Diatessaron* and which was used in 'express image' of his person (Heb. 1.3).
Syria till the fifth century and persisted
among Christians as a life of Jesus in var-
Taylor, Kenneth Nathaniel (1917-).
ious Western languages up to the Middle
Born in Portland, Oregon. Publishing
Ages. Seems to have recognized and
executive, first with Moody Press and
accepted most of Paul's letters, with the
Tyndale House and then Publishing
exception of 1 and 2 Timothy, and to
Executive and President of Living Bibles
have known the Gospel of Thomas* and the
International, Wheaton, Illinois, 1968-
Gospel of Philip, but to have been aware
77. Author of the Living Bible*, 1971.
that they were not generally used.
Beginning with a paraphrase of the New
Tatian's Diatessaron. The earliest Syr- Testament epistles, Living Letters, 1962, for
iac version of the gospels and evidence the benefit of his own children, he went
for the circulation of the four gospels by on to produce a paraphrase of the whole
the middle of the second century. A com- Bible with a wide circulation and consid-
posite or interweaving of all four, proba- erable popularity among young people.
bly made first in Greek and then trans-
lated into Syriac. 'Diatessaron' is a Greek Tbilisi, Georgia. Home of Family Theta*.
word meaning 'harmony of four'. Tatian*
undertook the work for the benefit of the
Tell el-Amarna Tablets. Three hun-
Syriac Church and the gospels circulated
dred clay tablets, written in cuneiform*,
in this form from c. 175 until the fifth
and discovered accidentally by a peasant
century when it was replaced by the four-
woman in Egypt in 1887. Part of a corre-
fold gospel. All that remains of the Greek
spondence between the king of Egypt
text is a small fragment of parchment*
(Amenhotep TV) and his officials in
about 4 inches square and containing
Palestine and Syria.
about 14 lines of Greek

Taverner, Richard (1505-75). Greek Tercentenary Commemoration Bible,

scholar, educated at Cardinal College, 1911. An Oxford University Press publi-
Oxford, and at Cambridge, and protege cation to celebrate the tercentenary of the
of Thomas Cromwell*. Translator of Tav- publication of the AV*. Reproduces the
eraer's Bible*, shortly before the Great text of the AV with light corrections and
Bible* but with little influence on subse- improvements by a team of evangelical
quent editions. biblical scholars in North America.
164 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Tertullian (c. 160-220). A native of sources, and the capacity to study, com-
Carthage, the Father of Latin Theology, pare and evaluate them. There have been
one of the first to refer to Old Testament* three stages of development:
and New Testament*, to acknowledge
the authority of all four gospels and to the realization that the original text of
indicate that they were written either by the NT was to be found in Greek and
apostles or by associates of apostles. not Latin, the Latin Vulgate* having
Seems to have recognized and accepted been the dominant text in the West
13 of Paul's letters, Acts, 1 John, 1 Peter from the fifth to the sixteenth cen-
turies.
and Revelation, but appears not to have
the realization that the Greek was dif-
known 2 Peter. In common with Clem-
ferent from other ancient versions
ent of Alexandria* and the general opin-
and from the text of patristic quota-
ion of his day he accepted Jude, though
tions.
this came to be challenged later by Euse-
modern textual criticism beginning
bius* and Jerome* because of its use of
apocryphal books. with Griesbach* and the classification
of mss.
Textual Criticism. The purpose of tex- In no case do we have an autograph*
tual criticism is to locate or reconstruct of a biblical book. What we do have is a
the text that is closest to the original, and collection of mss. in original languages,
this calls for a study of the changes which of translations, versions, commentaries
a text has undergone in the course of and interpretations, coming from differ-
transmission: how it was originally writ- ent times and places, with different edi-
ten, how mss. were copied and circu- tors. We have mss. meticulously copied
lated, and how the text reached the form from earlier mss. and it is sometimes
in which we now have it. It requires a possible to discern 'families' of mss.
study of early texts (with attempts at dat- which appear to have the same parentage
ing), of translations into languages, and and which, like children and grandchil-
of other sources such as the use made of dren, bear resemblances but are not
the texts by teachers and leaders within identical. Differences are few, but they
the Jewish or Christian communities. do exist, sometimes errors in copying*,
Sometimes known as lower criticism , to sometimes deliberate changes on the part
distinguish it from higher criticism*, of an editor 'with a purpose', and some-
though both terms are rarely used in times the result of an editorial judgment
contemporary scholarship. where the ms. was unclear, or damaged,
Textual criticism has its origins in the or both. Textual criticism seeks to estab-
early centuries of the Christian tradition lish an earlier (and therefore presumably
when scholars began comparing mss., more authentic) form of text, to under-
versions and translations. Origen's Hex- stand why, and how, the changes crept in,
aplar* is a good example from the third and to make an evaluation. Once estab-
century. lished, the text is then set out with the
Textual criticism as we know it today variant readings* in the margin to give a
goes back to the seventeenth century and critical apparatus*.
is to some extent the product of the The establishment of text types (or
invention of printing, the Protestant families) associated with Lachmann*
•Reformation with its emphasis on the helps in evaluating mss. For example, a
Word, the increasing interest in archaeol- ms. with a reading belonging to the
ogy and the discovery of more ancient Alexandrian* type will be given more
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 165

credibility than one belonging to the readings from those better mss. (like
Western* type, and one to the Western Codex Alexandrinus*, Codex Vaticanus*
more than one to the Byzantine*. A read- and Codex Sinaiticus*) were added to the
ing found in several mss. and in line with Textus Receptus by way of notes or mar-
both Alexandrian and Western has a ginal readings, and the mss. themselves
strong claim to originality, and readings were tabulated and numbered for easy
in the papyri will always be given high reference. Uncial* mss. were indicated by
credibility because of their early date. In the capital letters of the Greek and Latin
view of the large number of mss. and alphabets. Minuscule* mss. were indi-
variant readings the work of textual criti- cated by arabic numerals. Eventually
cism is not as simple as it may sound and replaced as the basis for NT study by
it is not always possible to stay with one Souter* and Nestle-Aland* with their
family or type. All readings and variations notes and critical apparatus*.
have to be examined and evaluated on a
one-to-one basis. Theodotion (second century). A Jewish
From the seventeenth century on- proselyte from Ephesus who translated
wards scholars like Bentley*, Bengel*, the OT into Greek, 180-92 CE. A fairly
Wettstein , Lietzmann and Streeter free rendering, mostly following the
tried to establish guidelines or general LXX*, but with additional passages in Job
principles for textual criticism and inter- and Jeremiah beyond what had become
pretation, such as broad attestation, lectio the standard Hebrew text, and occasion-
difficilior and lectio brevior . ally adding things that in the LXX were
Textual criticism also helps to explain abbreviated. It replaced the LXX in most
how some of the differences found their of the mss. which have reached us and is
way into the English Bible, why different the prevailing text for the book of Daniel.
translations provide different meanings, Found in Origen's Hexaplar .
and why fresh translations are always
needed as more information comes to Third Millennium Bible. A product
light. planned by William Prindele* to produce
a modernized version of the Apocrypha*
Textus Receptus. An edition of the to accompany The Twenty-first Century
Greek Testament, partly the fruit of the King James Version*.
work of Erasmus, which appeared in
1550, and became a standard text for the Thirty-nine Articles (Church of
translation of the Bible into English and England), 1562, 1571. Article VI lists
the Greek text underlying the AV* in the and approves books that belong to the
NT. The compilers also used the work canon (OT and NT), and includes the
of Robert Stephanus* and Codex Bezae*. apocryphal books but says they are 'for
Two editions appeared in Leiden* example of life and instruction of man-
(1624 and 1633), the work of two Dutch ners' and not to be used 'to establish any
printers, often wrongly described as the doctrine'.
Elzevir* Brothers, and in the second one
the preface assures the reader that this is Thompson Chain Reference Bible,
'the text which is now received by all'. 1908. See New Chain Reference Bible,
Hence the title Textus Receptus' or 'Re- 1964.
ceived Text'. Printed regularly through
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Thomson, Charles (1729-1824). One
when better mss. were discovered, but of the founding fathers of the USA who
166 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

produced an English translation of the found some ancient mss., which turned
OT from the Greek uoc*, 1808. Repub- out to be part of Codex Sinaiticus*, in a
lished in Colorado, 1954. wastepaper basket. He set himself the
task of searching out and publishing
Thomson, Lawrence. Secretary to Sir every fragment that he could find of
Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth Fs Secre- uncial* mss. of either Testament, as well
tary of State. Produced a revised edition as many minuscules*. Discovered 18
of the NT in 1576 which subsequently uncials, including Codex Vaticanus*, and
found its way into the Geneva Bible*. 6 minuscules and made new editions of
11 uncials of first-rate importance,
Thumb Bibles. A name given to including Sinaiticus* in 1862 and Vati-
abridged Bibles, usually for children and canus* in 1867. Published more uncials
therefore small and heavily illustrated or than anyone else, including 8 editions of
doctored. They appear to have originated the Greek NT, 4 of the Latin and 4 of the
early in the seventeenth century with LXX*, and edited over 20 editions of the
An Agnus Dei* and Verbum Sempiternum Greek NT altogether. Published the first
though the phrase was coined by Long- papyrus* mss. (ijD11) in 1868, dating from
mans who used it on the title page of an the seventh century and containing por-
edition dated 1849, possibly borrowed tions of 1 Corinthians. His final edition
from General Tom Thumb (Charles of the Greek NT (1869-72) based on
Stratton) who visited England in 1844. Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus,
Thumb Bibles were also known in eigh- with a critical apparatus*, was the stan-
teenth- and nineteenth-century Europe dard edition of scholars until the 1930s.
and altogether over 300 such Bibles have Exposed the forgeries of Constantine
been identified. Simonides*.
Two other miniature Bibles are note-
Titus Fragment. A papyrus ms.
A
worthy. The Oxford Nonpareil Bibk, photo-
graphically reduced by Glasgow Univer- found at Oxyrhynchus*, dating from c.
sity Press in 1896 and printed in Glas- 200 and containing Tit. 1.11-15 and 2.2-
gow* and London on 876 pages, 1.5 x 1 8. The oldest piece of Titus in existence,
inches, in an edition of 25,000, complete and now located in the John Rylands
with a pocket and magnifying glass inside Library, Manchester*.
the front cover, and an even smaller fac-
simile of the NT published the same year Today's English Version, 1976. First
measuring 0.75 x 0.6 inches. appeared as Good News for Modern Man:
The phrase is also sometimes used to The New Testament in Today's English Ver-
refer to Bibles with holes, suitable for sion, 1966, published by the American
inserting a thumb, in the outside of the Bible Society* at the request of the
leaves, each containing a small label with United Bibles Societies* and with the
the names of the books of the Bible, to help of a consultant from the British and
facilitate easy reference. Foreign Bible Society*, and quickly sold
12 million copies. The first English
Tischendorf, Constantine (1815-74). translation to be based on the (UBS)
A German, biblical scholar who followed Greek New Testament*. Seven transla-
Lachmann* in cutting free from the Tex- tors were then commissioned to work on
tus Receptus* and relying more on the the same lines with the OT, using KitteFs
ancient mss. In May 1844, on a visit to St Biblia hebraica*, to complete the Bible in
Catharine's Monastery*, Mount Sinai, he 1976. A British edition, the Good News
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 167

Bible*, facilitated by the British and For- to gender inclusive language and is begin-
eign Bible Society with a team of British ning to show signs of being dated.
scholars advising on British usage and
checking for Americanisms, was pub- Todd, John (b. 1918). Editor of Catholic
lished by Collins. books for Longmans Green and a key
Based on a new philosophy of transla- figure in the production of the Jerusalem
tion, it owed its origins to Eugene Nida , Bible*.
who in the 1950s had noticed a quality of
Spanish translation for millions of Indi- Torah. Often translated 'Law' but more
ans from Mexico to Chile, which was accurately 'teaching'. The name given to
neither patronizing nor 'second-rate' and the first five books of the OT. Possibly a
where the translators had paid as much compilation of several traditions (if not
attention to the language of the receivers actual documents), subsequently worked
as to the texts to be translated. Robert over by editors to produce the Penta-
G. Bratcher*, a former Southern Baptist teuch* in the form in which we now have
missionary to Brazil, with firsthand expe- it. By far the most important part of the
rience of such work, was therefore com- Hebrew Bible for the Jews and the first
missioned by the American Bible Society part of the OT to achieve form and a
to produce a draft translation of Mark's sense of unity of recognition, by c. 400
gospel which proved so satisfactory that BCE.
they asked him to direct a complete trans-
lation of the NT. The result was one of Torrey, Charles Cutler (1863-1956). A
the first committee-produced transla- linguist who specialised in Aramaic*,
tions to advocate the principle of dynamic Apocrypha* and Pseudepigrapha*, and
equivalence* and to push it to its limits. professor of Semitic Languages at \ale
The language was to be natural, clear, University. First Director of the Ameri-
simple and unambiguous. Each book can School of Oriental Research in
began with a short introduction and out- Jerusalem. Translator of The Four Gos-
line and there were extensive notes, a pels, a New Translation , 1933.
chronological chart, an index, maps, and a
list of words and phrases not easily under- Tothill Street, Westminster. Site of
stood. Words like 'centurion', 'mammon' William Caxton's printing press.
and 'publicans' were modernized. A new
feature was a list of NT passages, quoted Transcriptional Probability. Textual
or paraphrased from the LXX*, to help criticism often requires editors of an-
people who refer back to the OT only to cient texts to choose between two or
discover that the translation from more variant readings* on the basis of
Hebrew differs from what they find in which looks more probable. Hort*
the NT because the latter has been taken coined the phrase 'transcriptional proba-
straight from the LXX. Another distinctive bility'* for situations when he was
feature was the line drawings by Annie appealing to what the copyists were likely
Vallotton*, a Swiss artist, partly because of to have made of it, as against 'intrinsic
their novelty and partly because they probability'* when he was appealing to
often succeeded in conveying more than what an author was likely to have written.
words could express. Some critics feel
that at times the translation oversimplifies Translation of all the Apostolical
complex passages, is cavalier in its attitude Epistles, A, 1795. A popular eighteenth-
168 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

century translation by James MacK- the RV*. Similar developments took place
night*, similar to work by George Camp- in other European countries and in the
bell* and Philip Doddridge*, subse- USA, and Bibles were also translated
quently used by Alexander Campbell* to into many other languages all over the
produce his own translation. world as a result of missionary activity
and the work of the Bible Societies*.
Translation of the Gospels, with With increased translation activity
Notes, 1855. The work of Andrews came changes in translation method, pos-
Norton , a Unitarian Harvard professor, sibly the influence of more literary trans-
in two volumes, in contemporary Eng- lations from Greek to Latin, when 'word
lish using 'y°u' instead of'thou'. for word' or Verbal equivalence'* gave
place to 'sense for sense', or 'dynamic
Translation of the Old Testament equivalence'*, and more recently to com-
Scriptures from the Original He- munication theory*, the intention being
brew, 1885. More popularly known as less to convey the words and more to
the Spurrell Translation*. convey the sense in another language and
culture, thus giving the reader something
Translations. Ancient translations of very near to the impression created by the
the Bible, mainly into Greek (the LXX*), original on the first reader. Sometimes
Aramaic*, Syriac* and Latin*, exist and such translations step over into para-
afford an excellent opportunity to study phrase*.
the text, relate to the original and evalu-
ate the differences. Translator's New Testament, 1973.
In the case of the OT respect for the Simple in vocabulary, uncomplicated in
'word' and 'the original text' meant that style, and avoiding over-simplification
these translations were usually very lit- which fails to convey the full meaning of
eral, or 'word for word' translations and the original, this version of the NT was
where they differ from the Hebrew (or specially prepared by a team of 35 schol-
indeed from each other) it is sometimes ars, working under W.D. McHardy*, and
possible to reconstruct the original text published by the British and Foreign
from which the translator was working, Bible Society* for the benefit of those
known as a Vorlage. whose knowledge of Greek was little or
The NT similarly appeared in trans- none but who were yet called upon to
lation form, first in Latin*, Syriac*, Cop- translate the English Bible into other
tic*, and then later in Arabic*, Armen- languages. The original text is the (UBS)
ian*, Ethiopian*, Gothic* and Slavonic*, Greek New Testament*, 1966.
though possibly with a little more free-
dom than was accorded the OT. Such Iregelles, Samuel Prideaux (1813-
'word-for-word' translations provided 75). Showed exceptional talent as a boy
the norm for Bible translation until the when, besides earning his living in an
Middle Ages. ironworks, he managed to devote his free
Bible translation into English dates time to learning Greek*, Aramaic*,
from the Reformation, beginning with Hebrew* and Welsh. Set himself in his
Tyndale*, and until the start of the twen- early twenties to prepare a new critical
tieth century (since when there has been edition* of the NT based on the evidence
considerably increased translation activ- of the earliest witnesses. Travelled exten-
ity leading to a plethora of new ones) sively in Europe, spent most of his time
consisted predominantly of the AV* and collating mss. and acquired an almost
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 169

total knowledge of the known uncials a common concern that children were
and many of the minuscules* of the day. unable to understand the English of the
Developed independently principles of AV*. Beginning with Mark they worked
criticism very similar to those of Lach- together to translate the gospels and Acts
mann*, but used rather more ancient and were later joined by others to do a
authorities and paid more attention to the full NT translation.
versions* and the quotations found in the The work was divided into four sec-
early church Fathers. Published two edi- tions: the gospels (with Mark first) and
tions of the Greek NT in full, 1857 and Acts, Paul's letters to the churches in
1872, and collated many others. Ap- what was believed to be their chronolog-
pointed one of the translators of the RV* ical order, pastoral, personal and general
but was prevented from participation by letters, and Revelation. A tentative edition
ill health. was issued in three parts, 1898-1901, and
the final form appeared on the basis of the
Tunstall, Cuthbert (1474-1557). Bishop criticisms received. One of the consul-
of London, an educated man with a good tants was Weymouth*. Published by
knowledge of Greek* and Hebrew*, to Fleming H. Revell Co., New York. A
whom William Tyndale applied unsuc- later edition, printed by Moody Press,
cessfully for help in translating the Bible 1961, updated the English and restored
into English in 1523. Disturbed when the books to their canonical order.
Tyndale's Translation* began to be im- A dynamic equivalence* translation
ported and distributed in this country. He from Westcott* and Hort's* Greek text
denounced it, said he could find 3000 into modern English, made by more
errors in it and ordered everyone in his than 30 translators, ministers and laity
diocese to hand over any copies they pos- with a radical outlook on social and reli-
sessed for a public burning at St Paul's gious matters but no outstanding linguis-
Cross*, 1526. When this failed to kill off tic experts, who set out nevertheless to
demand he arranged with Augustine go back to the original Greek and capture
Packington for the buying up of large its freshness by conveying its force in
quantities on the continent, a move which idiomatic, modern English. A distin-
proved to be no more successful. Later, guishing feature was the care with which
during his time as Bishop of Durham, his it was undertaken and it was not really
name appeared in the fourth and sixth surpassed for half a century.
editions of the Great Bible* lending his Modern paragraphing, quotation
authority to a Bible translation which in marks, titles and subtitles. Passages
fact is Tyndale's production more than thought not to be original enclosed in
anything else. (See Tunstall, Bishop of square brackets. Chapter and verse nota-
London, p. 170.) tions in the margin. Subject headings in
black-faced type. Direct speech in quota-
Twentieth-Century New Testament, tion marks. Measures of time and space,
1902. First widely accepted translation of values of coins and official titles given in
the modern era, said to have had its ori- their nearest English equivalents.
gin in the desire of a mother to translate All the participants kept their identity
the NT into language that her children secret until the last one died in 1933,
could understand, and the result of an when the relevant documents were
initiative by Mary K. Higgs and Ernest deposited at the John Rylands Library,
Malan who were introduced to each Manchester*, where they were studied in
other in 1890 by WT Stead* and shared 1953 by Kenneth W Clark*.
170 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Tunstall, Bishop of London

Having rejected Tyndale's* appeal for help in 1523 Tunstall, Bishop of
London, became anxious as he saw Tyndale's Bible* being imported
from the continent and freely distributed. When his decision to buy up
all the copies for a public burning seemed to inflame nothing more than
the demand he concluded the only solution was to buy them up at
source and this brought him into contact with a London merchant,
Augustine Packington*, whom he met in Antwerp.
Edward Halle, in his Chronicle, describes what happened:
The bishop, thinking he had God by the toe, when indeed he had (as after
he thought) the devil by the fist, said, 'Gentle Master Packington, do your
diligence and get them, and with all my heart I will pay for them, what-
soever they cost you; for the books are erroneous and naughty, and I
intend surely to destroy them all, and to burn them at Paul's Cross.'
Augustine Packington came to William Tyndale and said, William, I
know thou art a poor man, and hast a heap of New Testaments and books
by thee, for the which thou hast endangered thy friends and beggared thy-
self; and I have now gotten thee a merchant, which with ready money
shall dispatch thee of all that thou hast, if you think it so profitable for
yourself
'Who is the merchant?' said Tyndale.
'The bishop of London', said Packington.
'Oh, that is because he will burn them', said Tyndale.
'Yea marry,' quoth Packington.
'I am the gladder,' said Tyndale; 'for these two benefits shall come
thereof: I shall get money of him for these books, to bring myself out of
debt, and the whole world shall cry out upon the burning of God's word.
And the overplus of the money, that shall remain to me, shall make me
more studious to correct the said New Testament, and so newly to
imprint the same once again and I trust the second will much better like
you than did the first.'
And so forward went the bargain: the bishop had the books, Packing-
ton had the thanks, and Tyndale had the money.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 171

Tunstall, Bishop of London (cont.)

In due course the bishop met Packington in London and complained
that more copies than ever were coming into the country. Packington's
defence was that he had kept his side of the bargain and if the bishop
were not satisfied perhaps he should consider buying up the standing
type.
Halle further suggests that the bishop had discussed his proposal
with his colleagues, because he records how More tackled one called
George Constantine and asked him who was financing Tyndale and his
friends in Europe.
Halle continues,
'My Lord,' quoth Constantine, 'will you that I shall tell you the truth?'
*Yea, I pray thee,' quoth my lord.
'Marry I will,' quoth Constantine.
Truly,' quoth he, 'it is the bishop of London that hath holpen us; for
he hath bestoewed among us a great deal of money in New Testaments to
burn them, and that hath been, and yet is, our only succour and comfort.'
'Now by my troth,' quoth More, 'I think even the same, and I said so
much to the bishop, when he went about to buy them.'

TWenty-first Century King James ing a period in which he served as tutor

Version, 1994. The project of William to the children of Sir John Walsh in
Prindele*, a retired American attorney, Gloucestershire, he translated Eras-
who formed a publishing company to mus's* The Christian Soldier's Handbook
produce, market and distribute a modern (1502), which pleased his employers but
version of the KJV, 1611*. The wording is not the ecclesiastical authorities who
modernized on the authority ofWebster's unsuccessfully called him to answer a
New International Dictionary, second edi- charge of heresy. Tyndale wanted to have
tion, unabridged. Built on the founda- the NT in a language that people could
tions of the KJV* with some questionable understand. According to Foxe, though
readings. Claims to rescue the Bible from perhaps more accurately attributed to
the ravages of modern translations but it Wycliffe*, in controversy with a church-
may be more accurate to say it wishes to man he once said, 'If God spare my life,
rescue it from 'modern liberal scholars'. 'ere many years I will cause a boy that
driveth a plough to know more of the
Tyndale, William (1494-1536). Born at scriptures than thou doest.'
Slimbridge, Gloucestershire. Educated He began his own translation and
at Oxford and Cambridge. Statue stands when he was opposed by king and
on the Victoria Embankment, London. church he left England in 1524 for Wit-
Sometimes described as the Father of the tenberg and then moved on to Hamburg.
English Bible. While at Cambridge he He began printing at Cologne* the fol-
proved himself good at Greek* and dur- lowing year and when he met further
172 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

opposition from Cochlaeus* he finished Worms*, an earlier attempt at Cologne*

it at Worms . Six thousand copies were having failed because the city Senate
printed. Copies began to reach England learned what was afoot and forbade the
in 1526, many of them smuggled in bales printer to continue.
of cloth or sacks of flour by friendly mer- An octavo edition, based on an edition
chants, where they were eagerly bought of Erasmus's* NT with help from the
for a few shillings a copy in English Vulgate*. Revised several times, reaching
money. There were many editions, the its climax with a new edition, printed at
1534 edition becoming the foundation Antwerp*, 1534.
for the whole tradition of the English Differs from previous translations in
Bible, beginning with the AV* and contin- being from the original Greek and it may
uing to the NRSV*. have been because the Greek gives dif-
He was betrayed, captured and thrown ferent renderings from the Latin that
into prison on 21 May 1535 in Belgium, Tunstall* accused Tyndale of error.
where he spent his closing years under A deluxe copy, bound in vellum, with
the control of Charles V Holy Roman gold edges, now in the British Library,
Emperor. Cromwell* and Henry VIII* was presented to Anne Boleyn with the
tried to secure his release but Charles was words 'Anne Regina Angliae' still visible on
not in a friendly mood, partly perhaps the gold edges. Two other copies extant,
because he was a nephew of Katharine of one in the British Library (complete
Aragon whom Henry had recently di- except for title page) and the other in St
vorced. Tyndale was found guilty of Paul's Cathedral (imperfect at the begin-
heresy in August 1536, strangled and ning and end).
burnt at the stake on 6 October at Vil- Tyndale's attempts to translate the OT
vorde*, with the final prayer on his lips, from the Hebrew started in Wittenberg
'Lord, open the king of England's eyes.' but were never completed, partly be-
Some months after his death a version of cause he had to undertake several revi-
the Bible in English, based on Tyndale's sions of the NT and partly because his
work, was circulating in England with knowledge of Hebrew was limited, but
Henry's permission. for the Pentateuch and the Historical
Books he used the Hebrew text, the LXX*,
Tyndale's Translation, 1525 A(NT). the Vulgate* and Luther's German ver-
First English NT to be printed, at A
 U

Udall, John (1560-92). Urged Crom- scribal habit of dividing a line into twelve
well*, with the publication of the Great characters and writing scriptio continua*.
Bible* in 1540, to persuade the king to Mss. written in this style are known as
make an order that all bishops should set uncial mss. Prior to the tenth century
up two or three Bibles in their cathedral. only uncial characters appeared in NT
mss. but by then they had become thick
Ugarit, Syria. An ancient city on the and ugly and were replaced with smaller
north coast of Syria in the fifteenth to letters called minuscules*, more suited to
fourteenth centuries BCE and a key book production.
Canaanite centre of industry, trade and There are 268 uncial mss. of the NT
culture. Site for the discovery of the Ras extant, 4 of them (fragmentary) mainly
Shamra Tablets* in 1929. from the third to the eleventh centuries,
published between 1909 and 1935, and
Ulfilas, Bishop (311-81). Grandchild no more than about 60 anything like
of a couple deported from Cappadocia to complete. Because of their age they are
Dacia (Romania) c. 264 and probably the quite the most valuable of all early mss.
child of a Cappadocian mother and a for the reconstruction of the text of the
Gothic father who gave him a Gothic NT, though the papyrus discoveries of
name, 'Little Wolf. He became known the twentieth century, because of their
as the Apostle to the Goths of the greater age, have called for a few correc-
Danube. He invented an alphabet for the tions here and there. (Codex) Sinaiticus*,
Visigoths, reduced the spoken language Alexandrinus*, Vaticanus*, Ephraemi*,
to written form and translated the Bible Bezae and Claromontanus are regarded
from Greek into Gothic*. His translation as the most significant.
was very literal (verbal equivalence*) but When uncial mss. were tabulated they
he was judged a competent translator. were each given a letter from the Greek
or Latin alphabet for the purposes of
Uncials. An ancient form of writing identification and recognition. For exam-
Greek, as against cursives*, dating from ple, Codex Alexandrinus is A.
the third to the twelfth centuries, formal,
usually kept for literary works, and Unitarian Version, 1808. The name
found on vellum*. Fairly large, capital often wrongly given to the translations of
letters, not joined together. From the Gilbert Wakefield* and William New-
Latin uncial meaning one-twelfth, possi- come*, neither of*whom could be charged
bly used in this case because of the with issuing a sectarian version of the
174 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

scriptures. The Unitarian Society for Pro- from direct control of work in other
moting Christian Knowledge wanted a countries and autonomous national soci-
Bible devoid of technical theological eties developed, the work of the UBS
phrases which had no basis in the Bible became the provision of information,
itself. Wakefield was approached, but his technical resources and funding.
death in 1801 led them to look elsewhere,
so they simply adopted Newcome's text Unknown Sayings of Jesus. Sayings
(Newcome having died in 1800), gpt it attributed to Jesus in sources outside the
edited and adapted by Thomas Belsham , four gospels and known as agrapha*.
and published it in 1808 as The New Testa-
ment in an Improved Version, upon the basis of Uppsala, Sweden. Location for the Sil-
Archbishop Newcome's New Translation; with ver Codex*.
a corrected text. The fifth edition of 1819
simply bears the title Unitarian Version. Urtext. The original text of a book before
copying* and transmission became opera-
United Bible Societies. Founded in tive. Interest in the possibility of arriving
1946, on an initiative in the Netherlands, at such a text grew as a result of the work
as an international coordinating body for of Bauer and de Lagarde while some
some 16 national Bible Societies which scholars, following Kahle*, do not believe
had sprung up around the world follow- that any such urtext ever existed and that
ing the earlier initiative taken by the from a very early date there were several
British and Foreign Bible Society* and texts all claiming equal authority. One of
the American Bible Society*. With the the purposes of textual criticism* was to
addition of other national Bible Societies arrive as near as possible at the urtext.
the number quickly grew to over 100
and, as the larger societies withdrew Uvedale, John. See Udall.
 a

VaUotton, Annie (b. c. 1904). A Swiss Vellum. Parchment. Though it existed

artist, living in France, responsible for the much earlier, Pliny attributed its popu-
line drawings in Today's English Ver- larity (if not its origin) to KingEumenes*
sion*. of Pergamon (197-59 BCE), a city in Asia
Minor, who wanted to establish a library
Variant Readings. Readings (that is, let- to rival that of Ptolemy in Alexandria*.
ters, words or phrases) which differ from When Ptolemy realized what was happ-
what is regarded as the standard ms. In pening he put an embargo on papyrus*
the case of the OT that would be the exports, thus forcing Eumenes to turn to
Masoretic Text*, in the case of the NT or vellum which, because of its origins in
the English Bible, the Textus Receptus*. Pergamon, was given the name of
Wherever text is transmitted varia- pergamene, from which we get 'parch-
tions are likely to occur (on the principle ment'.
that 'if something can go wrong, it will'). An ideal writing material (not to be
Some are accidental, some are deliberate. confused with leather to which it is supe-
Accidental ones may be due to the rior) made from the skins of certain ani-
absence of punctuation, to scriptio con- mals, mainly sheep and calves, by soaking
tinua leading to ambiguity, to the eye in the skin in lime water, shaving off the
copying*, such as dittography*, haplogra- hair from one side and the flesh from the
phy*, homoioteleuton* or homoioarc- other, stretching and drying on a frame,
ton*, or to the ear in dictation, particu- smoothing with pumice and dressing
larly where two words sound alike but with chalk. The finest form, made from
may have different meanings. calf skin and kept for special purposes
As the text became standardized and such as a deluxe edition, is the true vel-
editions of the OT (in Hebrew) and the lum, though over the years the two terms
NT (in Greek) were published variant came to be used interchangeably. Vellum
readings were normally included in the leaves are fixed together to form a codex*
margin, or at the foot of the text, together or book as opposed to a scroll*.
with the source, to produce a critical Used only for notebooks and cheap
apparatus*. The first such systematic col- copies until the third century CE when its
lection is to be found in the London superior qualities were recognized: more
Polygot*. widely available (papyrus being confined
Variant readings are just that—vari- to the Nile Delta), more durable (espe-
ants. They are not inferior or secondary. cially in cool, damp climates), good writ-
In some cases they may be superior. ing surface, easier for making corrections,
176 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

alterations and deletions, capable of same Hebrew or Greek word every time
being used on both sides and therefore it occurs. Popular verbal equivalence
more economical, able to contain much translations are the AV*, the RV*, the NIV*,
more writing than a scroll*, and some- the NJB* and (to a lesser extent) the RSV*
times capable of being used more than and the NRSV*.
once thus giving a palimpsest*. Its disad-
vantages were that it was more costly, its Verbum Sempiternum, 1614. The sec-
edges easily became uneven, and because ond oldest and perhaps best-known
its shiny surface reflected more light it Thumb Bible*, printed in London and
was thought by some to cause more eye reprinted well into the nineteenth cen-
strain. tury, containing summaries of OT and
Used increasingly for mss. of the NT by John Taylor (1580-1653). The
scriptures from the second century CE, first American edition was published in
replaced papyrus by the fourth, and was Boston, 1786, measuring 2.5 x 1.5
the main writing material* until it was inches. The first prose edition, 1727, ran
itself superseded in the twelfth with the to nearly 300 pages, with 16 engraved
arrival of paper and printing*. plates, and measured 1.5 x 1 inches.
'writing on vellum is usually uncial*.
(See The Price of Vellum, below.) Verkuyl, Gerrit (b. 1872). Professor of
New Testament, Princeton University,
Venice Edition, 1517-48. The first edi- and a member of the Board of Christian
tion to divide Samuel, Kings, Chronicles Education of the Presbyterian Church,
and Ezra-Nehemiah into two separate USA. Translated The Berkeley Version*
parts respectively. of the NT, 1945, and subsequently acted
as Editor-in-Chief of a translation of the
Venice, Italy. Site for the famous Bom- OT.
berg* press and for the printing of the
first two Rabbinic Bibles*. Verse Division. Verse division in the
OT goes back to c. 200 CE and was finally
Verbal equivalence. A method of trans- fixed in the tenth century when Ben
lation* which aims at 'word-for-word' Asher divided the Pentateuch* into 5845
rather than dynamic equivalence* or verses instead of the 5888 according to
'sense for sense' and in its extreme form the Babylonians or the 15,842 according
may retain the same English word for the to the Palestinians. From c. 500 the divi-

The Price of Vellum

It took the hides of 4500 animals to make the vellum* for just 50 Bibles.
Add to that the cost for the preparation of the parchment and the scribal
fee and producing a Bible was a very expensive operation which only the
wealthy could afford. Copy by dictation may have made materials more
abundant and copies cheaper but even so it is estimated that a copy of
Luke-Acts might cost as much as £100 or more in today's money. Books
were clearly not for ordinary people.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 177

sion is marked by the insertion of two the chapter heading to Luke 20 had
dots. The criteria for determining a verse 'vinegar' for Vineyard'.
division are less clear. One suggestion is
that it was the length of a line of poetry, Vocalization. The addition of vowels to
another that it was the amount read out the consonantal Masoretic Text* by the
at one time for translation into Aramaic Masoretes* to assist and standardize
in the synagogue. vocalization, and to remove doubts as to
Verse division in the NT first appears the meaning of the word where the con-
in the Stephanus edition of 1551, made sonants alone allowed for more than one
by Stephanus* himself while travelling interpretation. The purely consonantal
from Paris* to Lyons, and the Stephanus text persisted until the Middle Ages and
Latin Bible (1555) was the first to show even in the twelfth century there was still
the present division in both Testaments. some opposition to adding vowels to
Early editions of the English Bible assist vocalization on the grounds that
were in paragraph form without any they did not 'come from Sinai', but
verse division. The first English NT to change had been coming much earlier.
have verse division was that by Whitting- By the ninth century, three systems of
ham*, 1557, who adopted the division vocalization had emerged: the Babylon-
used by Stephanus* in his edition of the ian (eighth century), the Tiberian (780-
Greek NT The first English Bible to 930), and the Palestinian (700-850)
adopt verse division was the Geneva which evolved until it gave way to the
Bible* which followed that introduced Tiberian, the one in current use and the
by Rabbi Nathan in 1448, first printed in one found in today's Hebrew grammars.
1524. Both Christians and Jews have tried to
credit the system with divine authority
Version. A translation from the original which was not seriously questioned until
language of a text into another one. the sixteenth century.

Vespasian Psalter. One of the oldest Vorlage. See Translations.

examples of biblical text in Old English,
the other being the Paris Psalter*, dating Vulgate. A Latin* translation produced
from the ninth century, in Latin, with a as Christianity spread west into the world
very literal translation of the Psalms, pos- where Greek was not understood, and
sibly for use in monasteries by monks the Bible in general use throughout the
who knew no Latin. Located in the Brit- Western world all through the Middle
ish Library. Ages. Change came with new transla-
tions from the Hebrew and the Greek,
Vilvorde, Belgium. A fortress, six miles beginning with Tyndale*, and from the
north of Brussels where Tyndale was time of the Reformation Protestants
imprisoned, May to October 1535, after adopted such translations for common
being kidnapped in Antwerp* and where use. The Council of Trent*, 1545-63,
he was first tied to the stake, then stran- declared the Vulgate the authentic ver-
gled by the hangman, and finally burned, sion of the church but this did not imply
6 October 1536. (One record puts his an indifference to the original Greek and
imprisonment at 1 year plus 135 days.) Hebrew and the Vulgate, albeit in English
translation, continued to be the Bible for
Vinegar Bible, 1717. An Oxford edi- Roman Catholics up to the middle of the
tion of the AV* which got its title because twentieth century.
178 A Dktionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Its origins go back to the fourth cen- 570) and Alcuin* and it replaced the Old
tury, by which time the Old Latin* text Latin in the eighth to ninth centuries.
had reached such a state of corruption There are estimated to be over 10,000
that, coupled with a growing apprecia- mss. of the Latin Vulgate and they have
tion of the Alexandrian* text and the been classified in families: Italian,
Greek uncials* of the fourth century, it French, Spanish, Irish, French, Alcuin
paved the way for a revision or fresh and Theodulf. The most reliable extant
translation, undertaken by Jerome*, ms. was made in England (at either Jar-
completed in 405 and given the title 'Vul- row* or Wearmouth*), copied under the
gate', meaning 'public' or 'common'. direction of Coelfrid*, presented to Pope
Jerome's principles of translation Gregory II in 716 and now in the Lau-
were sound, even if his work did not rentian Library at Florence, known as the
always follow a consistent pattern, and Codex Amiatinus*. The first printed edi-
the translation had a literary quality tion was the first printed book of any
about it. Besides the Hebrew text he also importance, the Mazarin Bible*, 1452-
used the LXX*, Aquila*, Symmachus* and 56, and the first critical edition* was that
Theodotion*. His plan was to render the by Stephanus*, 1528. The definitive edi-
general sense of a passage rather than to tion of the Vulgate NT is that by John
achieve a word for word translation. Wordsworth published by the Clarendon
There were revisions by Cassiodorus (d. Press, Oxford, 1889.
 w

Wakefield, Gilbert (1756-1801). A dis- Wand, John William Charles (1885-

senter*, in both theology and politics, 1977). Educated at St Edmund Hall,
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, Oxford. Archbishop of Brisbane and
who rejected a free rendering of the AV* (subsequently) Bishop of Bath and Wells
by Edward Harwood and offered instead and then of London. Produced The New
his own Translation of the New Testa- Testament Letters*, 1943.
ment, 1791, sometimes known incor-
rectly as the Unitarian Version*, which Wansbrough, Henry (1934-). Editor of
stayed much closer to the AV. Other edi- the New Jerusalem Bible*, 1985. Born in
tions appeared in 1795 and 1820. London and educated at Ampleforth Col-
lege and Oxford, with a First in Classics
Walker, Obadiah (1616-91). Fellow of and Philosophy. Became a monk at
University College, Oxford, and a Dele- Ampleforth, 1953, and studied at the
gate of the Oxford University Press. One Catholic University of Fribourg, Switzer-
of three Oxford dons responsible for a land. Went to Israel to learn modern
Paraphrase on the Epistles of St Paul*, Hebrew and studied at the Ecole
1675. Biblique. Ordained a priest, 1964, and
returned to Ampleforth. Master of St
Walton, Brian (1600-61). Bishop of
Benet's Hall, Oxford. General Editor of
Chester. Edited and published the Lon-
The People's Bible Commentary.
don Polyglot Bible , 1657-69, containing
the readings of 14 previously unpub-
Wansburgh, Hans. See Henry Wans-
lished mss. One of the first people to
brough.
challenge the notion that there was only
one Hebrew text, the Masoretic, under-
Washington Codex. A group of four
lying the Hebrew Bible* by pointing out
vellum mss., two OT, two NT, discov-
that where there were two readings only
ered by Charles L. Freer* in Cairo*, 1906.
one could be original. This then gave rise
187 leaves, 5.5 x 8.25 inches, 2 columns
to the view that the text could be
to a page and dated c. sixth century. Usu-
improved by comparison, first with other
ally known as W and located at the Freer
Hebrew texts, such as the Samaritan Pen-
Museum, Washington*. OT consists of
tateuch*, and then with other versions*
107 leaves of a Psalter, with a text akin to
such as the LXX*.
Codex Alexandrinus*. NT has 80 of an
Walton's Polyglot, 1657. See London original 210 leaves, in fragmentary condi-
Polyglot. tion, containing the four gospels in the
180 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

so-called order of the Western* text (i.e. Weiss, Bernhard (1827-1918). Profes-
Matthew, John, Luke, Mark) and por- sor of New Testament at Kiel and Berlin
tions from all Paul's letters (except and editor of The New Testament in Greek,
Romans), with an Alexandrian* text and in three volumes, 1894-1900. Primarily
close similarities to Sinaiticus*. an exegete with a detailed knowledge of
the problems of NT translation and
Washington, USA. Home of the Wash- interpretation, Weiss avoided classifying
ington Codex in the Freer Museum, mss. according to families and preferred
and of the Mazarin* (Gutenberg) Bible to choose the one which seemed to him
in the National Library. most suitable from the variety of readings
available, working on the principle of
Way, Arthur Sanders (1847-1930). intrinsic probability*. He also listed and
Classical scholar who wanted his readers evaluated different types of error found in
to be able to understand Paul without variant readings*, including harmoniza-
reading a commentary and published a tions among the gospels, interchange of
popular translation, The Letters of St words, omissions* and additions*, word
Paul*, 1901. order and orthographical variations, and
then evaluated mss. according to their
Wearmouth. One of two possible sites freedom from such errors. His results
for the copying of the Codex Amiatinus , were not very different from those of
the other claimant being Jarrow*. Westcott* and Hort*, including the prior-
ity of Codex Vaticanus , but his work
Webster, Noah (1758-1843). American demonstrates how two different ways of
lexicographer and publisher of various working and assessing tended to reach the
dictionaries and grammars, the forerun- same conclusions.
ners of Webster's New International
Dictionary of the English Language. A Wells, Edward (1667-1727). Mathe-
Congregational layman who had a high matician and theological writer, one of a
regard for the AV* but was also sensitive number of scholars in the eighteenth and
to the way some words had changed their nineteenth centuries who attempted to
meaning over 250 years, so he identified incorporate the fruits of fresh knowledge
about 150 words and phrases which into Bible translation, the first to produce
needed attention and produced The Holy a revised Greek NT text, with helps for
Bible, containing the Old and New Testa- the reader, 1707-19, largely based on the
ments, in the Common Version, with Amend- work of John Mill but abandoning the
ments of Language, 1833, with a second Textus Receptus* in favour of readings
edition in 1841, so paving the way for from the more ancient mss.; and author
many future revisions as later translators of The Common Translation Corrected,
accepted his judgements. 1718-24, a revised text of the AV*.

Weigle, Luther, A. (1880-1976). Dean Wesley, John (1703-91). Published a

of Yale Divinity School and Chairman of translation of the NT with notes, 1755.
the Standard Bible Committee of the Revised the AV*, 1768, based on a fresh
National Council of the Churches of and independent study of the Greek text,
Christ in the USA and of each of the two adding notes and arranging the material
sections which produced the RSV* and of in paragraphs according to sense. An
that which revised the Apocrypha . Anniversary Edition (1953) compares it
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 181

with the AV, showing that he made first half of the second century) and
12,000 changes and that he was a good widespread, identified by Westcott* and
judge of the Greek text in that three- Hort* and most readily recognized in the
quarters of his changes were accepted by gospels and Acts of Codex Bezae*, the
the revisers in the 1870s. epistles of Codex Claromontanus*, the
Old Latin* and Old Syriac* versions, g)38
Wesley's New Testament, 1775. The and $348, and in quotations from the
name popularly given to Explanatory Latin Fathers up to 400 and Greek
Notes on the New Testament, by John Wes- Fathers such as Justin , Irenaeus , Mar-
ley. A conservative revision of the AV* cion* and Tatian* in the second century.
with the text in paragraphs to facilitate The oldest known form of the NT text,
reading. but not necessarily therefore the best
source because of its tendency to para-
West Saxon Gospels. A translation, phrase and to go in for additions*, omis-
perhaps described more accurately as a sions and harmonizations .
paraphrase*, which appeared in the tenth
century, attributed to Abbot Aelfric*, Westminster Version of the Sacred
consisting of parts of the first seven Scriptures, 1935 (NT). A translation
books of the OT and some homilies on by English Roman Catholic scholars,
Kings, Esther, Job, Daniel and Mac- based on the original Greek and Hebrew
cabees. Two copies are extant, one at texts, under the editorship of Cuthbert
Oxford and one in the British Library. C. Lattey , with introductions and com-
mentaries. Begun in 1913 and finished
Westcott, Brooke Foss (1825-1901). An in 1935. Sold in parts until 1948 when it
industrious Birmingham pupil who went appeared as a one-volume edition with
to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1844 abridged notes. The OT was started in
and gained a First in Classics. Taught at 1934 and appeared in parts but was never
Harrow, was ordained, became a Canon completed.
of Westminster and Peterborough, and,
after a spell as a Cambridge professor Wettstein, Johann Jakob (1693-1754).
from 1870, became Bishop of Durham in A native of Basle* with a flair for textual
1890. Worked with F.J.A Hort* in their criticism* who became a professor of phi-
epoch-making edition of the Greek NT, losophy and Hebrew in Amsterdam and
The New Testament in the Original Greek established the principle of lectio brevior .
(1881), a new text taking into account all Published a two-volume Greek text of
the variations in the mss. that were avail- the NT, 1751-52, very similar to the work
able, which appeared five days before the of the Elzevir* printers but indicating in
RV* of the NT. Volume 1 contained the the margin which readings he felt to be
Greek text and volume 2 an introduction correct. First to compile a list of mss. (21
and appendix setting out the critical prin- uncials* and over 250 minuscules*) and to
ciples in detail. One of the key figures in allocate letters to the uncials and numer-
the translation of the NT RV but was als to the minuscules, 1751-52. List sub-
uneasy about the Textus Receptus* and sequently extended by C.F. Matthaei* and
stressed the superior value of Codex Caspar Rene Gregory* at the end of the
Sinaiticus* and Codex Vaticanus*. nineteenth century.

Western Text. A text-type of the Greek Weymouth, Richard Francis (1822-

NT, ancient (possibly dating from the 1902). Born the son of a naval comman-
182 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

der, a Baptist, in what was then Plymouth ing in church. Rather he intended 'a suc-
Dock, had a private education and stud- cinct and compressed running commen-
ied in France for two years. Oxford and tary (not doctrinal) to be used side by
Cambridge being closed to Noncon- side with its older compeers'.
formists he entered University College, Distinguishing features include
London, where he studied Classics, grad- shorter, more manageable sentences, OT
uating in 1843, and being the first to quotations in capital letters, extensive
receive a Doctor of Literature from Uni- notes to support the translation in fine
versity College, 1868. The following year print at the bottom of the page, subject
he became Head of Mill Hill School. headings in black-faced type, chapter and
Produced an edition of the Greek NT, verse numbers in the margin and direct
The Resultant Greek Testament, reflecting speech in single quotes. Particularly valu-
the greatest measure of agreement on the able for its rendering of the Greek tenses
Greek text among nineteenth-century in which Weymouth was a specialist.
scholars, with a critical apparatus and an Frequently re-printed. The fourth
introductory note by JJ.S. Perowne, edition (1924) was thoroughly revised
Bishop of Worcester. He then translated by J.A. Robertson who supplied intro-
it into modern English to give The New ductions to the several literary divisions
Testament in Modern Speech, usually known of the NT and replaced Weymouth's
as Weymouth's New Testament*, 1903. mis-translation 'life of the ages' by the
One of the consultants on The Twentieth more accurate 'eternal life'.
Century New Testament*, 1902.
Whig Bible, 1562. The name given to
Weymouth's New Testament, 1903. A the 1562 edition of the Geneva Bible*
dynamic equivalence translation of R.F. because of an error in Mt. 5.9 which read
Weymouth's* The Resultant Greek Testa- 'place makers' instead of'peace makers'.
ment, made by Weymouth himself on the
basis of some of the most recent ms. evi- Whiston, William (1667-1752). Math-
dence available to him and published as ematician and theologian. Isaac New-
The New Testament in Modern Speech by ton's successor at Cambridge and best
James Clarke & Co., London. There known for his translation of Josephus.
were many editions, including revisions Published a Primitive New Testament*,
by E. Hampden-Cook* and J.A. Robert- 1745.
son .
Born of a strong desire to render the Whitby, Daniel (1638-1726). Rector of
best Greek text into dignified, modern St Edmunds, Salisbury, a controversial
English, Weymouth's intention was to writer and one of a number of scholars in
produce a translation without any the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
specific theological viewpoint. A scholar who attempted to incorporate the fruits
of distinction but a free translator, he of fresh knowledge into Bible transla-
asked himself, 'how would the sacred tion, though he began to show signs of
writer have said this if he had been living alarm lest the authority of the scriptures
in our age and country?' He then set out was in peril when John Mill* claimed to
to help the reader to appreciate Paul by have identified 30,000 variant readings*
cutting down his long sentences into in the Greek text. Produced Paraphrase
ones of more manageable size. He did and Commentary on the New Testa-
not wish to replace the AV* or the RV* and ment*, 1703, including an explanatory
had no desire to offer a version for read- expansion of the AV*.
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 183

Whitby, Yorkshire. Home of an ancient printers, Robert Barker* and Associates

monastery associated with Caedmon . of Cambridge*, were fined £300 by Arch-
bishop Laud and ordered to destroy the
Whitchurch, Edward (d. 1561). One whole edition. Sometimes called the
of the printers of the Great Bible*. Adulterous Bible.

Whitgift, John (1530-1604). Arch- Wife-Hater Bible, 1810. An edition of

bishop of Canterbury and leader of the the Bible which substituted 'wife' for
Anglicans at the Hampton Court Con- 'life' in Lk. 14.26.
ference*, 1604.
Wilberforce, Samuel (1805-73). Son
Whittingham, William (1524-79). of William Wilberforce, educated at
Born in Chester, brought up as a gentle- Oxford and Bishop of'Winchester. Pro-
man, lover of music, educated at Oxford, posed to the Convocation of Canterbury
Fellow of All Souls, Oxford, and Dean of the setting up of a body of scholars to
Durham who married John Calvin's sis- undertake a revision of the AV*, 10 Febru-
ter (or sister-in-law) and succeeded John ary 1870.
Knox as pastor of the English church in
Geneva*, where he and other exiles had Wilfrid (634-709). Educated at Lindis-
fled to escape the Marian persecutions, farne*, Canterbury and Rome, Abbot of
and where they produced an English ver- Ripon and Bishop ofVfork, where he dec-
sion of the New Testament and the orated the walls of the church with paint-
Psalms, 1557, a revised Psalter, 1559, and ings and carvings as a way of teaching
the Geneva Bible , Whittingham being people the Bible, and so regarded by
personally responsible for the 1557 New some as a forerunner of all Bible transla-
Testament, often known as Whitting- tors.
ham's New Testament, using Tyndale
as his basic text. Williams, Alwyn Terrell Petre (1888-
1968). Educated at Jesus College,
Whittingham's New Testament, 1557. Oxford, Bishop of Durham and (later)
A revision of the NT in English, pro- Winchester, Chairman of the Literary
duced by William Whittingham*, in Panel for the NEB* and Chairman of the
small octavo form, with the text divided Joint Committee in succession to J.W
into verses. Soon superseded by a more Hunkin* in 1950.
comprehensive edition of the whole
Bible, the Geneva Bible*. Uses the word Witham, Robert (d. 1738). Biblical
'church' for 'ecclesia' where Tyndale* scholar, educated at the English College,
and Coverdale* had used 'congregation'. Douay*. President of the Roman Cath-
Calls James, Peter, 1 John andjude 'Gen- olic college at Douay and publisher of a
eral Epistles' where they had been previ- revision of the Douay-Rheims Bible*,
ously been called 'Catholic Epistles' and 1730.
omits the name Paul from the title of the
Letter to the Hebrews. Women's Bible, 1895. The work of
Elizabeth Cady Stanton*, with help from
Wicked Bible, 1631. An edition of the a review committee, in the form of a
AV* which earned its title by accidentally commentary and revision of those por-
omitting the word 'not' from the seventh tions of the Bible which related to
commandment (Exod. 20.14). The women, particularly where women were
184 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

conspicuous by their absence, as for Writing. Cuneiform* writing goes back

instance when Sarah appears to be unin- to the ancient Sumerian invaders of
volved in the sacrifice of Isaac or when Mesopotamia c. 3500 BCE. The earliest
the incidents connected with Abraham, examples come from Uruk (the biblical
Sarah and Hagar are presented as the Erech, Gen. 10.10), now Worka, south of
story of a man rather than the story of Babylon, in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
two women. The earliest writing material* was clay,
and the text consisted of pictures repre-
Woodhead, Abraham (1610-78). Fel- senting words, usually written in vertical
low of University College, Oxford, and columns starting in the top right-hand
one of three Oxford dons responsible for corner. As the Sumerians adopted the
a Paraphrase on the Epistles of St Paul*, practice of their invaders it provided a
1675. basis for Babylonian cuneiform c. 2500
which later became the lingua franca of
Woolsey, Theodore Dwight (1801- the Near East. From Egypt we have
89). Professor of Greek at Yale Univer- papyri* dating from c. 2000 BCE with evi-
sity and president till 1871. Chairman of dence that writing was known there
the NT panel for the ASV*. from 500 to 1000 years earlier, mainly
hieroglyphics, with signs for consonants
Word Division. Documents written in and no vowels, and usually found on
the Aramaic and Assyrian square scripts stone inscriptions. Writing on papyri
had spaces between the words from the called for a more cursive* script.
seventh century BCE and many ancient From 1880-1900 thousands of clay
Hebrew texts had words divided either tablets were found at Nippur, many con-
by a vertical line or a dot, but there is also taining writing which can be dated c.
evidence that some early biblical texts 2100 BCE or even earlier. Others from
had no word division at all, sometimes about the same period were found at Ur,
described as scriptio continua . This was containing temple records and accounts
the case with many NT Greek mss., par- in minute detail. Some found at Kish are
ticularly uncials*, sometimes leading to thought to go back about 1000 years ear-
variant readings* where words could be lier still, so that by the time of David and
divided differently or simply heard dif- Solomon writing had been known in the
ferently when read aloud. (See Word Near East for close on 2000 years, and
Division, p. 185.) discoveries of Hebrew texts on stone,
metal and pottery suggest that writing
Worms, Germany. City where Tyn- was widely known in the days of the
dale's Translation* was first printed, kings.
1526. There were six thousand copies on By the time we get to to the New Tes-
sale at a few shillings each until it was tament there is ample evidence for liter-
prohibited by Tunstall* in 1526 and by ary activity in the libraries of ancient
the king in 1530. cities and centres of learning such as
Nineveh, Babylon, Thebes, Athens,
Worthington, Thomas (1549-1672), Alexandria* and Ephesus, whilst Rome
Educated at Brasenose College, Oxford. had a reputation as a city of writers, pub-
President of the Roman Catholic Col- lishers and book shops in the first cen-
lege at Douay*. Responsible for con- tury CE. The most famous library for
tributing the notes and printing of the early Christianity was that in Caesarea*,
OT of the Douay-Rheims Bible*, 1730. founded in 253 by Pamphilus, a disciple
 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins 185

Word Division
A good example in English of the difficulty of working without spaces is provided
by the string of letters, GODISNOWHERE, which may be read as 'God is
nowhere' or God is now here'.

Gen. 49.10. Jl4?"^ (sylh) may be read as one word meaning 'until Shiloh
come' or divided so as to give if? ^ (fy lo), meaning 'so long as tribute is
brought to him1.
Jer. 23.33. KtoDTIDTIK ('t mh ms') ('what burden') in the MT is contex-
tually difficult because there is no other example of the Hebrew HK ('t)
being used in this way. Possibly as a result of a different word division*,
KtoQn DDK (tm hms'), the ucx* and Vulgate* have 'you are the burden',
which gives good sense. So was the MT scribe simply making a mistake
or was he recalling a similar phrase in the first half of the verse?
Amos 6.12 reads DHpIQ (bbqrym) ('does one plough with oxen?') The
obvious answer is 'Ves', but the one required by the context is 'No'. By
a different word division, however, we get D^ "1p!H (bbqrym) ('does one
plough the sea with an ox?'). Intended answer: 'No'.
1 Tim. 3.16 contains the letters 6|ioAx>yo'UfievG)a^eya. Some mss.
have three words (o^ioXoyo'DjLiev ox; jieya) meaning 'we acknowledge
how great' whereas others have two words (6fioXoyo\)^ev(oq jieya)
meaning 'confessedly great'.

of Origen*, while the finding of the DSS* Siloam Inscription*. Other ancient writ-
suggests a significant collection of mss. ing materials included wood and pottery,
there in the first century. It is also likely though none was really suitable for long
that many of the early churches and even texts. Clay, gold, silver, copper (one of the
some of the more well-to-do members DSS* is on copper), bronze and lead were
had their own private collections. all used, as were ostraca*, papyrus* and
Prior to the invention of printing in vellum*, the most common and impor-
1450 CE every copy of a book had to be tant for biblical texts being papyrus and
copied by hand. vellum, particularly in the late centuries
BCE and the early centuries CE. The use of
Writing Materials. Many ancient in- papyrus as writing material spans about
scriptions, such as the Code of Ham- 3500 years, the oldest preserved papyrus
murabi in Babylon, 1792-1750 BCE, writing going back to 2470 BCE in Egypt.
appear in stone. Stone inscriptions are The dry warm weather of Egypt was con-
particularly prevalent in Egypt on the ducive to its preservation and explains
walls of temples and tombs or on stelae or why virtually no NT papyri have turned
rock faces. The Gezer Calendar* is the up anywhere else. Ninety-seven papyri of
earliest known Hebrew inscription, NT material exist, none of them com-
alongside the Moabite Stone* and the plete and not necessarily the most reliable
186 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

witnesses to the original text, the best WyclifFe Bible Translators. Founded
known being the Chester Beatty* and the in 1942 as a sending agency for the Sum-
Oxyrhynchus*. mer Institute of Linguistics, formerly
The tools of the scribe were pen* and Camp Wycliffe, founded in 1934. Their
ink*, a knife (for sharpening pens), a Bible translation programme focuses on
sponge (for wiping them and for erasing translation and literacy in vernacular lan-
text), a whetstone, and some pumice guages, especially minority groups with
stone for smoothing rough spots on vel- languages previously unwritten. Their
lum*. doctrinal statement includes divine inspi-
ration and the authority of the whole of
Writings, The. The third of the three the canon.
main sections of the Hebrew Bible*, the
other two being the Torah* and the Wycliffe, John (c. 1320-84). Born in
Prophets . Yorkshire. Master of Balliol College,
Oxford. Rector of Lutterworth*, Leices-
Wuest, Kenneth Samuel (b. c. 1893). tershire, 1374. Keen Bible student and
Translator of a three-volume Expanded preacher, scholarly commentator on the
Translation of the New Testament*, text and the most eminent Oxford the-
1956-59. ologian of his day. Concerned about the
corruption of the church and interested
Wycliffe Bible, 1380. The first com- in its reform. Organized a body of travel-
plete English Bible. Wycliffe* was prob- ling preachers called Lollards*, each of
ably more the inspiration and driving whom carried a Bible in English from
force, the actual translation being done which they read to the people. The
by his friends, two of whom were John Wycliffe Bible*, 1380, a translation from
Purvey and Nicholas of Hereford . Two the Vulgate*, published in 1382 (NT)
versions, both based on the Latin Vul- and 1384 (OT), was the first complete
gate*, one (1380-84) before his death English Bible and the first which the
and the other (1384) after, the second English people had in their own lan-
necessary because of the inadequacy of guage, Middle English. Each copy took
the first which was very literal. The later nine months to write and cost £40 at a
version has more native English idiom time when a country parson with £10 pa
and became the accepted one. Each copy from all sources was considered to have a
had to be written by hand and large tolerable income. Uncertain how much
sums of money (the equivalent of four- Wycliffe actually translated but he was
figure sums today) were paid for it by certainly the inspiration behind it. Some
the rich. A load of hay was the price for of the work was probably done by
the use of the NT for one day. Con- Nicholas of Hereford* and Wycliffe's
demned by the church, 1408, for fear of disciple, John Purvey*, continued the
erroneous doctrine. work after his death. Over 150 copies are
First printed edition (NT only) was still in existence, all of them hand-writ-
not until 1731 because it pre-dated the ten mss. Held responsible for the Peas-
invention of printing and when printing ants' Revolt, 1381, and put on trial.
arrived there were newer translations to Attacked in a sermon preached at Ox-
hand. A copy of the earlier version, per- ford, 1382, and, following a controversy
haps the original, is found in the in Oxford, his teachings were pro-
Bodleian Library, Oxford*. nounced heretical.
 A

Ximenez de Cisneros, Francisco an edition of the entire Greek Bible,

(1436-1517). Archbishop of Toledo who which after many delays was completed
in 1502 set in motion the preparation of in 1522 as the Complutensian Polyglot*.
 A

York, England. Home of Alcuin* and who believed in literal inspiration, with
birthplace of Miles Coverdale*. an insatiable appetite for eastern lan-
guages, ancient and modern, and best
Young Church hi Action, The, 1955. known for his Analytical Concordance to the
A paraphrase of the Acts of the Apostles Bible, 1879, containing 118,000 refer-
by J.B. Phillips* subsequently incorpo- ences with each English word arranged
rated into The New Testament in Mod- under its own Hebrew or Greek original.
ern English, 1958*. Published by Geof- The seventeenth edition was revised by
frey Bles, London. WB. Stevenson and the publishers were
the Religious Tract Society, subsequently
Young, Patrick (1584-1652). Biblical the United Society for Christian Litera-
and Patristic scholar and Royal librarian ture and Lutterworth Press. His Literal
when Codex Alexandrinus* was pre- Translation of the Bible is often referred
sented to Charles I*. Probably assisted to as Young's Translation*, 1862.
James I* in preparing the Latin edition of
his work, 1619. Prepared an edition of
the entire Bible which was incorporated Young's Translation, 1862. The popu-
after his death in the London Polyglot*, lar name given to Robert \bung's* Literal
1657. Translation of the Bible. Almost a word-
for-word rendering of the original texts
Young, Robert (1822-88). Scottish the- into English and sometimes described as
ologian and Orientalist. Born in Edin- 'the most literal translation ever made'. A
burgh and apprenticed to a printer, a job third edition appeared in 1898. Though
which he combined with bookselling and affected in the OT also by Young's eccen-
studying languages. Went to India as a lit- tric theory on Hebrew tenses, his objec-
erary missionary in 1856 and became tive was to put the English reader on a par
superintendent of the mission press at with those who were able to read the
Surat in 1861. A Calvinist in theology Bible in their original languages.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

*Recommended for further reading.

Text
Driver, G.R., Semitic Writing: From Pictograph to Alphabet (The Schweich Lectures, 1944;
London: Oxford University Press, 2nd rev. edn, 1954).
*Flack, E.E., et al., The Text, Canon and Principal Versions of the Bible (1956).
*Kenyon, EG., Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode,
1958).
—The Story of the Bible (London: John Murray, 2nd edn, 1964).
—The Text of the Greek Bible (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1949).
Pritchard, James B. (ed), The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures (London:
Oxford University Press, 1958).
Roberts, C.H., and T.C. Skeat, The Birth of the Codex (London: The British Academy,
1983).
Thomas, D. Winton (ed.), Documents From Old Testament Times (London: Thomas
Nelson, 1958).
*VanderKam, James C, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994).
*\fermes, Geza, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (London: SCM Press, rev. edn,
1994).

Formation of the Canon

*Barton, John, Making the Christian Bible (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1997).
—People of the Book (London: SPCK, rev. edn, 1993).
*Baxter, Margaret, The Formation of the Christian Scriptures (NT Intro. 2. TEF Study
Guide, 26; London: SPCK, 1988).
Beckwith, Roger, The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament Church and its Background
in Early Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985).
Campenhausen, Hans von, The Formation of the Christian Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1972).
*McDonald, Lee M., The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon (Peabody, MA:
Hendrikson, 1995).
Miller, John W, The Origins of the Bible: Re-thinking Canon History (New York: Paulist
Press, 1994).
190 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

Old Testament
*Ap-Thomas, D.R., A Primer of Old Testament Text Criticism (London: Epworth Press,
1947).
Roberts, B.J., The Old Testament Text and Versions (Cardiff: University of Wales Press,
1951).
*Tov, Emanuel, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992).
Wuerthwein, E, The Text of the Old Testament (ET of 1st edn [Stuttgart, 1952] by PR.
Ackroyd; Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1957).

New Testament
*Comfort, Philip Wesley, Early Manuscripts and Modern Translations of the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990).
*Grant, Robert M, The Formation of the New Testament (London: Hutchinson University
Library, 1965).
*Metzger, B.M., The Canon of the New Testament, its Origin, Development and Significance
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987).
*—The Early Versions of the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977).
*—The Text of the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968).
*Parker, D., The Living Text of the Gospels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1997).
*Pattie, T.S., Manuscripts of the Bible: Greek Bibles in the British Library (London: The
British Library, rev. edn, 1995).
*Patzia, Arthur G., The Making of the New Testament: Origin, Collection, Text and Canon
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1995).

Non-Canonical
*Cameron, Ron (ed.), The Other Gospels: Non-Canonical Biblical Texts (London: Lutter-
worth Press, 1983).
*Dunkerley, Roderic, Beyond the Gospels (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1957).
Grant, Robert M., and David Noel Freedman, The Secret Sayings of Jesus (London:
Collins, 1960).
Hennecke, E., New Testament Apocrypha (2 vols.; London: Lutterworth Press, 1963-65).
James, M.R. (ed.), The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924).
*Jeremias, Joachim, Unknown Sayings of Jesus (London: SCM Press, 1957).
*Kpester, Helmut, Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development (London:
SCM Press, 1990).

English Bible
*Bailey, Lloyd R., The Word of God: A Guide to English Versions of the Bible (Atlanta: John
Knox Press, 1982).
*Barrera, Julio Trebelle, The Jewish Bibk and the Christian Bible: An Introduction to the
History of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998).
*Bruce, F.F., The English Bible: A History of Translations from the Earliest English Versions to
the New English Bible (London: Lutterworth Press, 1961; New York: Oxford
University Press, 3rd edn, 1978).
^Cambridge Bible Handbook (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
Coleman, R., New Light and Truth: The Making of the Revised English Bible (Oxford:
Oxford University Press; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
*Duthie, Alan S., How to Choose your Bible Wisely (Swindon: Bible Society, rev. edn, 1995).
 Bibliography 191

*Hammond, G., The Making of the English Bible (Manchester: Carcanet, 1982).
Hills, Margaret T. (ed.)5 The English Bible in America: A Bibliography of Editions of the Bible
and the New Testament Published in America 1777-1957 (New York: American Bible
Society, 1962).
Hunt, G., About the New English Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press; Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1970).
Jones, G. Lloyd, The Discovery of Hebrew in Tudor England (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 1983).
Kubo, Sakae, and Walter Specht, So Many Versions (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983).
Levi, P, The English Bible 1534-1859 (London: Constable; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1974).
Lewis, Jack P, The English Bible, from KJVto NIV: A History and Evaluation (Grand Rapids:
Baker Book House, 1981).
*May, H.G., Our English Bible in the Making (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, rev. edn,
1965).
Metzger, Dentan, Harrelson, The Making of the New RSV (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1991).
Moulton, WE, The History of the English Bible, 1835-98 (London: Epworth Press, 5th
edn, 1937).
Mozley,J.E, Coverdale and his Bibles (London: Lutterworth Press, 1953).
—William Tyndale (London: ???, 1937).
Nineham, Dennis (ed.), The New English Bible Reviewed (London: Epworth Press, 1965).
Pope, Hugh, English Versions of the Bible 1869-1946 (revised and amplified by Sebastian
Bullough; London: Herder, 1952).
*Price, I.M., The Ancestry of our English Bible (repr.; ed. WA. Irwin and Allen P
Wikgren; New York: Harper & Brothers, 2nd rev. edn, 1956 [1949]).
^Robertson, E.H., Makers of the English Bible (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1990).
*—The New Translations of the Bible (London: SCM Press, 1959).
*—Taking the Word to the World: 50 Years of the United Bible Societies (London: Thomas
Nelson, 1996).
Robinson, H.W (ed.), The Bible in its Ancient and English Versions (London: Greenwood
Press, 1970).
Sheehan, B., Which Version Now? (Haywards Heath, West Sussex: Carey, 1980).
Sheeley, Stephen M., and Robert N. Nash, The Bible in English Translation: An Essential
Guide (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997).
Vance, Lawrence M., A Brief History of English Bible Translations (Pensacola, FL: Vance
Publications, 1993).
Walden, W, Guide to Bible Translations (Boston, MA: Livingworks, rev. edn, 1991).
*Weigle, L.A., The English New Testament from Tyndale to Revised Standard Version (Edin-
burgh: Thomas Nelson, 1950).
Wonderly, William L, Bible Translationsfor Popular Use (London: United Bible Societies,
1968).

Translation Issues
*Hargreaves, Cecil, A Translator's Freedom: Modern English Bibles and their Language
(BibSem, 22; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993).
Nida, Eugene A., and C.R. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1969).
192 A Dictionary of the English Bible and its Origins

General Reference
Blair, Edward V., Abingdon Bible Handbook (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1975).
Bowden, John, Who's Who in Theology (London: SCM Press, 1990).
Brauer, Jerald C. (ed.), The Westminster Dictionary of Church History (Philadelphia: West-
minster Press, 1971).
Cambridge History of the Bible. I. From the Beginnings to Jerome (ed. PR. Ackroyd and C.F.
Evans); II. The West from the Fathers to the Reformation (ed. G.WH. Lampe); III. The
West from the Reformation to the Present Day (ed. S.L. Greenslade; Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1970, 1969,1963).
Coggins, R.J., and J.L. Houlden, A Dktionary of Biblical Interpretation (London: SCM
Press, 1990).
Cross, F.L., and E.A. Livingstone (eds.), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, rev. edn, 1974).
Douglas, J.D. (ed.), The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church (Exeter:
Paternoster Press, 1974).
Kee, Howard Clark, (ed.), Cambridge Annotated Study Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1993).
Laymon, Charles M., The Interpreter's One-Volume Commentary on the Bible (Nashville:
_ Abingdon Press, 1971).
Manson, T.W., A Companion to the Bible (ed. H.H. Rowley; Edinburgh: T & T Clark,
2nd edn, 1963).
Metzger, Bruce M., and Michael D. Coogan (eds.), The Oxford Companion to the Bible
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
Saeb0, Magne (ed.), Hebrew Bible. Old Testament. The History of its Interpretation, From the
Beginnings to the Middle Ages. I. Antiquity (Gottingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht,
1996).
Soulen, Richard N., Handbook of Biblical Criticism (London: Lutterworth, 1977).