ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING........................................................................................... 1

LABORATORY MANUAL ...................................................................................................... 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 2

EXPERIMENTS .................................................................................................................... 3

EXPERIMENT 1: DETERMINATION OF THE PH OF GIVEN WATER SAMPLES USING THE DIGITAL PH

METER .............................................................................................................................. 4

EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINATION OF THE TURBIDITY OF WATER SAMPLES ............................... 7

EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL HARDNESS, CALCIUM HARDNESS AND

MAGNESIUM HARDNESS OF DIFFERENT WATER SAMPLES BY EDTA METHOD ........................ 11

EXPERIMENT 4: DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF CHLORIDES IN WATER SAMPLES

...................................................................................................................................... 16

EXPERIMENT 5: DETERMINATION OF THE SOLIDS CONTENT IN WATER SAMPLE ..................... 20

EXPERIMENT 6: DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO) IN WATER .. 25

EXPERIMENT 7: DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) IN WATER ....... 29

EXPERIMENT 8: DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD) IN

WATER ............................................................................................................................ 34

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 INTRODUCTION

This report is for the Laboratory Manual of the subject Environmental Engineering
and is submitted to the Madam Sarah Aurangzaib.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE

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 EXPERIMENTS

Experiment No. Description

Determination of the pH of given Water Samples using the

1.
Digital pH Meter
2. Determination of the Turbidity of Water Samples
Determination of the Total Hardness, Calcium Hardness and
3. Magnesium Hardness of Different Water Samples by EDTA
Method
Determination of the Concentration of Chlorides in Water
4.
Samples
5. Determination of the Solids Content in Water Sample
Determination of the Amount of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in
6.
Water
7. Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in Water
Determination of Amount of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
8.
in Water

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 EXPERIMENT 1:
DETERMINATION OF THE PH OF GIVEN WATER SAMPLES
USING THE DIGITAL PH METER
1. A

1.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the pH value of different water samples.

1.2. APPARATUS
i. pH meter
Figure 1 pH Meter

ii. Beakers

1.3. CHEMICALS
i. Water from different sources

1.4. RELATED THEORY

1.4.1. PH VALUE Figure 2 Beaker

pH is used to indicate the intensity of the acidic or alkaline condition

of a solution. The pH value of a solution has been defined to be the negative
log of the hydrogen ions (H+) concentration. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14,
with pH 7 representing neutrality.

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 1.4.2. POH VALUE
The pOH value of a solution has been defined to be the negative log
of the hydroxyl ions (OH-) concentration.

1.4.3. PH METER
It is a device which is used to measure pH of a solution. In pH meter,
there is an electrode which is placed in a solution. Calibration of pH meter is
done by buffer solutions (4, 7, and 10).

1.4.4. ACIDIC SUBSTANCE

A substance having pH value less than 7 is said to be acidic.

1.4.5. BASIC SUBSTANCE

A substance having pH value greater than 7 is said to be basic.

1.4.6. NEUTRAL SUBSTANCE

A substance having pH value equal to 7 is said to be neutral.

1.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of pH of water is:

i. pH affects most chemical and biological processes in water. It is one of

the most important environmental factors limiting species distributions
in aquatic habitats. Different species flourish within different ranges of
pH, with the optima for most aquatic organisms falling between pH 6.5-
8.

ii. If the pH of water is too high or too low, the aquatic organisms living
within it will die. pH can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals
and heavy metals in the water.

1.6. PROCEDURE
i. Perform calibration of the pH meter using standard pH solutions. The
calibration procedure would depend on the pH range of interest.

ii. In a clean dry 100 mL beaker take the water sample and place it in a
magnetic stirrer, insert the Teflon coated stirring bar and stir well.

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 iii. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the water sample and
check for the reading in the pH meter. Wait until you get a stable reading.

iv. Take the electrode from the water sample, wash it with distilled water
and then wipe gently with soft tissue.

v. Repeat the procedure for all samples.

1.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sample pH Type
1 (Distilled Water) 7 Neutral
2 (NaOH) 12.2 Basic
3 (H2SO4) 2.2 Acidic
Tap Water 7.1 Neutral Figure 3 Distilled Water

1.8. RESULTS
The observations show that one sample was acidic, one was basic while water
was neutral.

Distilled water had exactly 7 pH, while tap water had pH a bit greater than 7
indicating the presence of impurities in it.

1.9. COMMENTS
We determined the pH of water through a pH meter. The
pH was determined automatically through the pH meter.
There was a little difference in the pH of distilled and tap
water. Distilled water had a pH of exactly 7, while tap water
had a little bit higher pH. This may be due to the fact that tap
water contains some impurities and salts.

1.10. REFERENCES Figure 4 H2SO4 Sample

i. pH

ii. pH of Water

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 EXPERIMENT 2:
DETERMINATION OF THE TURBIDITY OF WATER SAMPLES
2. A

2.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine the turbidity value of different water samples.

2.2. APPARATUS
i. Nephelometer

ii. Beakers
Figure 5 Nephelometer

2.3. CHEMICALS
i. Water from different sources

2.4. RELATED THEORY

2.4.1. TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a
liquid. It is an optical characteristic of water and is a
measurement of the amount of light that is scattered Figure 6 Beaker

by material in the water when a light is shined through

the water sample.

The higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity.
Material that causes water to be turbid include clay, silt, very tiny inorganic
and organic matter, algae, dissolved colored organic compounds, and
plankton and other microscopic organisms.

2.4.2. UNITS OF TURBIDITY

The most common measurement units for turbidity are the
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

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 2.4.3. STANDARD VALUE
According to Punjab Environmental Health Standards (PEAS), the
turbidity of drinking water should be less than or equal to 5 NTU.

2.4.4. NEPHELOMETER
A nephelometer is an instrument dedicated to the measurement of
the turbidity or cloudiness of a sample. Turbidity is usually caused by the
presence of insoluble particles suspended in a liquid or gas.

2.4.5. CALIBRATION
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for calibration of your
particular meter. If the instrument does not have a prepared calibration
curve, make one by using various values of turbidity standards. Plot turbidity
reading versus the standard concentration to obtain curve.

2.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of turbidity of water is:

i. Turbidity is an important indicator of the amount of suspended sediment

in water, which can have many negative effects on aquatic life. The
suspended sediments that cause turbidity can block light to aquatic
plants, smother aquatic organisms, and carry contaminants and
pathogens, such as lead, mercury, and bacteria.

ii. High turbidity can significantly reduce the aesthetic quality of lakes and
streams, having a harmful impact on recreation and tourism.

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 iii. It can increase the cost of water treatment for drinking and food
processing.

iv. It can harm fish and other aquatic life by reducing food supplies,
degrading spawning beds, and affecting gill function.

2.6. PROCEDURE
i. Select the scale.

ii. Add the standard solution in turbidimeter cell and place it in turbidimeter.

iii. Calibrate the instrument.

iv. Thoroughly shake the sample. Wait until air bubbles disappear before
pouring sample in turbidity tube. When necessary, immerse the turbidity
tube in an ultrasonic bath for 1 to 2 seconds to dislodge the bubbles.
Letting the sample stand for period of time to allow air bubbles to
dissipate will also allow the solids to settle thus changes the
characteristics of the sample being evaluated.

v. Wipe outside of tube to remove fingerprints, dust dirt and water droplets.
Place tube in turbidity meter.

vi. Read turbidity from instrument by direct reading scale or from calibration
table.

2.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sample Source Turbidity
1 Syphon 56.5 NTU
2 Head Balloki 348 NTU
Rukh Canal Faisalabad
3 977 NTU
(River Chenab)
Tap
Tap Water 4.34 NTU
Water

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2.8. RESULTS
The turbidity values of different samples of water obtained from different
locations are given in the above table. Only the value of turbidity obtained from tap
water was less than 5 NTU.

2.9. COMMENTS
Turbidity is the measure of how clear the water is. High turbidity may not be
intrinsically harmful, but its effects can certainly be.

The sources from where the samples were taken are mostly earthen channels,
which carry a high quantity of silts and thus are highly turbid. Their water is
brownish in colour. Only tap water is clear, that is why its turbidity was less than the
amount fixed by PEAS.

2.10. REFERENCES
i. Turbidity

ii. Turbidity:
Description,
Impact on Water
Quality, Sources,
Measures

iii. Head Balloki

Figure 7 Head Balloki

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 EXPERIMENT 3:
DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL HARDNESS, CALCIUM HARDNESS
AND MAGNESIUM HARDNESS OF DIFFERENT WATER SAMPLES
BY EDTA METHOD
3. A

3.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine:

• Total hardness

• Calcium Hardness

• Magnesium Hardness

Figure 8 Beaker

3.2. APPARATUS
i. Beakers

ii. Titration apparatus & pipette

3.3. CHEMICALS
i. EBT

ii. 0.01 M EDTA

iii. Ammonia buffer solution Figure 9 Titration Apparatus

3.4. RELATED THEORY

3.4.1. HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is water that has high mineral content. Hard water is
formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk or
gypsum which are largely made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates,
bicarbonates and sulfates.

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 3.4.2. TYPES OF HARDNESS
There are two types of hardness:

i. Temporary hardness

ii. Permanent hardness

3.4.3. TITRATION THEORY

When a small amount of EBBT is added to the solution containing hard
water, the indicator forms its complex with metal ions and gives wine red
color. But EDTA is capable of forming more stable complex with EBBT the
addition of EDTA. EDTA replaces EBBT ions and again the blue color of
solution is obtained due to free indicator ions.

EBBT = Erich Rome Blue Black R

EDTA = Ethylene Di-amine tetra acetic acid

3.4.4. TITRATION REACTION

𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎+2 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑌𝑌 −2 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑌𝑌 −2 + 2𝐻𝐻 + + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻2 − 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

Ions that cause hardness are Ca+ and Mg+.

3.4.5. STANDARD VALUES

WHO guidelines for hardness are 500 mg/L of CaCO3.

For treatment of drinking water, desirable limits are 75 – 120 mg/L.

Concentration of CaCO3
Sr. No. Description
Mg/L
1. 0 – 75 Soft
2. 75 – 150 Moderately hard
3. 150 – 300 Hard
4. 300 and up Very hard

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3.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
The environmental significance of hardness of water is:

i. The most important impact of hardness on fish and other aquatic life
appears to be the affect the presence of these ions has on the other more
toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium, and zinc. Generally, the
harder the water, the lower the toxicity of other metals to aquatic life.

ii. In hard water some of the metal ions form insoluble precipitates and drop
out of solution and are not available to be taken in by the organism. Large
amounts of hardness are undesirable mostly for economic or aesthetic
reasons.

iii. If a stream or river is a drinking water source, hardness can present

problems in the water treatment process. Hardness must also be
removed before certain industries can use the water. For this reason, the
hardness test is one of the most frequent analyses done by facilities that
use water.

3.6. PROCEDURE
3.6.1. TOTAL HARDNESS
i. Take 50ml of sample in a titration flask.

ii. Add 1-2ml of ammonia buffer in it to attain pH in solution 7-9.

iii. Add a pinch of EBT (Eriochrome Black Tea) as an indicator.

iv. As a result of addition of EBT, solution color changes to wine red.

v. Titrate against 0.01M EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid).

vi. Test three samples and determine mean volume of titrant used.

The hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3 is calculated from following formula:

Volume of titrant x 1000
Total Hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 =
25

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 3.6.2. CALCIUM HARDNESS
i. Take 50ml of sample in a titration flask.

ii. Add 1ml of Sodium Hydroxide buffer solution in it.

iii. Add a pinch of EBBR (Eriochrome Blue Black R) as an indicator.

iv. As a result of solution color changes to wine red.

v. Titrate against 0.01M EDTA from burette until color changes to blue.

vi. Note color change for end point.

vii. Test three samples and determine mean volume of titrant used.

The hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3 is calculated from following formula:

Volume of titrant x 1000
Calcium hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 =
25

Volume of titrant x 400

Concentration of ions =
25

3.6.3. MAGNESIUM HARDNESS

Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness

Magnesium Hardness = Total Hardness – Calcium Hardness

3.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Vol of EDTA for total hardness Total hardness

Sample
1 2 3 Avg. Mg/l
1 24.5 23 25 24.17 960.8
2 44 45 39.5 42.83 1713.33
3 (tap water) 11.6 12.4 12.6 12.2 244

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 Vol of EDTA for calcium hardness Calcium hardness
Sample
1 2 3 Avg. Mg/l
1 20.5 20.5 23.5 21.5 860
2 44 55 52 50.3 1160
3 (tap water) 6.2 6.8 6.5 6.5 52

3.8. RESULTS
Total hardness Calcium hardness Magnesium hardness
Sample
Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l
1 960.8 860 100.8
2 1713.33 1160 553.33
3 (tap water) 244 52 192

3.9. COMMENTS
We determined total hardness, calcium hardness and magnesium hardness of
the given water samples.

Only the tap water was fulfilling the criteria of drinking water as it had
hardness less than 120 mg/L, while both the samples
had hardness value more than the limit. Samples 1 & 2
can both be classified as very hard, because their
calcium hardness exceeded 300 mg/L.

Hardness of these samples can be reduced by

different processes such as chemical softening,
membrane separation softening, cation exchange
softening, etc.

3.10. REFERENCES
i. Hardness and water quality

ii. Scale Deposits Figure 10 End Point of Calcium Hardness

Test

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 EXPERIMENT 4:
DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF CHLORIDES
IN WATER SAMPLES
4. A

4.1. OBJECTIVE
To determine the concentration of chlorides in water
sample and distilled water.

4.2. APPARATUS
Figure 11 Beaker
i. Beakers

ii. Titration apparatus

4.3. CHEMICALS
i. HNO3 (0.1 n)

ii. Mercuric nitrate (0.141 n)

iii. Indicator
Figure 12 Titration Apparatus
iv. Water samples

4.4. RELATED THEORY

4.4.1. CHLORIDE
Chloride is a salt compound resulting from the
combination of the gas chlorine and a metal. Some
common chlorides include sodium chloride,
magnesium chloride and calcium chloride. Chlorine
alone as Cl2 is highly toxic, and it is often used as a Figure 13 HNO3 (0.1 n)
disinfectant. In combination with a metal such as
sodium it becomes essential for life.

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 4.4.2. CHLORIDES IN WATER
All natural waters contain chloride and sulfate ions. Their
concentrations vary considerably according to the mineral content of the
earth in any given area. In small amounts, they are not significant. In large
concentrations, they present problems. As chlorides concentration
increases, pH changes from basic to acidic. It results in corrosion and affects
the pH of concrete.

4.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of chloride concentration in water is:

i. Chloride may impact freshwater organisms and plants by altering

reproduction rates, increasing species mortality, and changing the
characteristics of the entire local ecosystem. In addition, as chloride
filters down to the water table, it can stress plant respiration and change
the quality of our drinking water.

ii. High levels of chloride can corrode and weaken metallic piping and
fixtures, give a "salty" taste to the drinking water, damage household
appliances, boilers, and, if the water is being used for irrigation, it may
inhibit the growth of vegetation.

4.6. PROCEDURE
i. Take 50ml of sample in titration flask

ii. Add 0.5ml of mixed indicator in it. Add indicator until color becomes
purple.

iii. Add 1ml of HNO3 and color of the solution turns yellow

iv. Titrate this sample with 0.0141N Hg (NO3)2 titrant till a definite purple end
point color is achieved

v. Repeat the same procedure by taking 100ml of distilled water in titration

flask

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 Chloride ions concentration can be determined form following formula:
(A−B)x N x 35.45 x 1000
Cl- in mg/L =
Volume of Sample (50ml)

Where:

A = mean volume of in ml used to titrate the sample

B = mean volume of Hg (NO3)2 in ml used to titrate the distilled water

N = normality of Hg (NO3)2 i.e., 0.0141N Hg (NO3)2

4.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

A
Initial reading Final reading Difference
(ml)
Sample 1
0 4.5 4.5
4.5 5.9 1.4 2.967
5.9 8.9 3
Sample 2
0 4.5 4.5
4.5 9 4.5 4.33
9 13 4
Sample 3 (tap water)
0 0.4 0.4
0.4 0.7 0.3 0.367
0.7 1.1 0.4

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4.8. RESULTS

A Cl-
Sample No.
(ml) (mg/l)
1 2.967 593.72
2 4.33 866.46
3 (tap water) 0.367 73.44

4.9. COMMENTS
We determined the concentration of chloride ions in the given water samples.
According to Public drinking water standards, the limit of chloride ions in water is
250 mg/L.

Only the tap water was conforming this limit, the rest of the two samples had
a much higher concentration. As chloride ions are toxic in higher concentrations,
hence their concentrations must be reduced to make the samples 1 & 2 drinkable.

The most common water treatment devices for reducing the chloride content
of drinking water are reverse osmosis, anion exchange or distillation treatment
systems.

4.10. REFERENCES
i. The Effects of Chloride from
Wastewater on the Environment

ii. Get Informed | Chloride

iii. A review of permissible limits of drinking

water

iv. Chloride in Drinking Water

Figure 14 Water Sample 1 for Chloride Test

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 EXPERIMENT 5:
DETERMINATION OF THE SOLIDS CONTENT
IN WATER SAMPLE
5. A

5.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine the total dissolved solids,
settleable solids, total suspended solids and total
solids in the water sample.

5.2. APPARATUS Figure 15 Water Bath

i. China Dish

ii. Water Bath

iii. 0.45µm filter paper

iv. Oven

v. Imhoff Cone

Figure 16 Oven
5.3. CHEMICALS
i. Water samples

5.4. RELATED THEORY

5.4.1. TOTAL SOLIDS (TS)
It is the material residue left in a dish after
evaporation of a sample and its subsequent drying in
an oven at a defined temperature. Total solids include Figure 17 China Dishes and
Filter Paper
total suspended solids and total dissolved solids.

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 5.4.2. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)
It is the solid material in water or wastewater sample, which is
retained by a filter of 2µm nominal size under specified conditions.

5.4.3. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

It is portion of solids present in water or wastewater through a filter
of 0.45µm nominal pore size under specified conditions. The principal ions
contributing to TDS are carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate,
sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. TDS in water may originate
from natural source or sewage effluent discharges.

5.4.4. SETTLEABLE SOLIDS (SS)

It refers to material settling out of suspension within a defined period.

5.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of solid contents in water is:

i. Higher solids decrease the passage of light through water, thereby

slowing photosynthesis by aquatic plants. Water will heat up more rapidly
and hold more heat; this, in turn, might adversely affect aquatic life that
has adapted to a lower temperature regime.

ii. Suspended solids can clog fish gills, either killing them or reducing their
growth rate. They also reduce light penetration. This reduces the ability
of algae to produce food and oxygen.

iii. Pollutants such as dissolved metals and pathogens can attach to

suspended particles and enter the water. This is why an increase in
turbidity can often indicate potential pollution, not just a decrease in
water quality.

iv. Settleable solids can suffocate benthic organisms and fish eggs. In
addition, the sediment may smother insect larvae and other fish food
sources.

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5.6. PROCEDURE
5.6.1. TOTAL SOLIDS (TS)
i. Take 100ml of sample.

ii. Take a China dish and note its empty weight.

iii. Pour the sample in China dish.

iv. Place it in water bath, as a result solid residues will be left in China dish.

v. Take the weight of this China dish.

(A−B) x 1000 x 1000
TS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

5.6.2. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

i. Take 100ml of sample of water.

ii. Pass it through 0.45µm filter paper.

iii. Take the filtrate and pour it in China dish.

iv. Dry it in water bath and then take the weight the China dish.
(A−B) x 1000 x 1000
TDS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

5.6.3. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

i. Take 100ml of sample of water.

ii. Take a filter paper and note its weight

iii. Pass it through filter paper

iv. Take the filter paper and dry it in oven and then note the weight
(A−B) x 1000 x 1000
TDS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

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 5.6.4. SETTLEABLE SOLIDS (SS)
i. Take 1 liter of sample in Imhoff Cone

ii. Settle it for 45 minutes

iii. After 45 minutes, gently stir this sample from edges 1-2 times

iv. Wait for 15 minutes and note the settleable solids.

5.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

• For Total Solids:

W1= 53.2353 g

W2=53.1851 g

TS= ((53.1851 - 53.2353) * 10002)/100

= 502mg/l

• For TDS:

TDS= ((w2 – w1) *10002)/100

= ((47.0705 - 47.0320) *10002)/100

= 385mg/l

• For TSS

TSS= ((F2– F1) *10002)/100

= ((0.0972-0.0961) *10002)/100

= 11mg/l

• For Total settle-able solids:

Total settle able solids = 2.7mg/l

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5.8. RESULTS

Sr. No. Description Value

1. TS 502 mg/L
2. TDS 385 mg/L
3. TSS 11 mg/L
4. SS 2.7 mg/L

5.9. COMMENTS
We determined the solids content of the given water sample. The amount and
type of solids in water are very important as they directly affect the quality of water.
Higher concentrations of solids usually lead to an undrinkable water.

Higher concentration of solids reduces the discharge carrying capacity of

water channels and may also clog pipes and other structures. They also increase the
turbidity of water.

According to Public Health Engineering, the limit for TS in water is 500 ppm,
which for water is about 500 mg/L. The given water sample almost conformed to
this limit, so it can be used for domestic purposes.

5.10. REFERENCES
i. Total Suspended Solids and water
quality

ii. Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids &

Water Clarity

iii. Total Solids

iv. Engineering: Public Health Engineering

Figure 18 Solids settling in Imhoff Cone

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 EXPERIMENT 6:
DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO) IN WATER
6. A

6.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in
water sample.

6.2. APPARATUS
Figure 19 Beaker
i. Beakers

ii. Titration apparatus

6.3. CHEMICALS
i. MnSO4

ii. Alkali azide iodine solution

iii. H2SO4
Figure 20 Titration Apparatus
iv. Na2S2O3 (0.025 n)

v. Starch solution

vi. Water samples

6.4. RELATED THEORY

6.4.1. DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is
dissolved in water. The oxygen dissolves by diffusion Figure 21 Na2S2O3 solution
(0.025 n)
from the surrounding air; aeration of water that has
tumbled over falls and rapids; and as a waste product of photosynthesis.

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 6.4.2. IMPORTANCE OF DO
• Fish and aquatic animals cannot split oxygen from water (H2O) or other
oxygen-containing compounds.

• Only green plants and some bacteria can do that through photosynthesis
and similar processes.

• A total of three-fourths of the earth’s oxygen supply is produced by

phytoplankton in the oceans.

6.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of dissolved oxygen in water is:

i. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important indicators of water

quality. It is essential for the survival of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Oxygen dissolves in surface water due to the aerating action of winds.
Oxygen is also introduced into the water as a byproduct of aquatic plant
photosynthesis.

ii. Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life including fish,

invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen in
respiration, similar to organisms on land.

6.6. PROCEDURE
i. Take BOD bottle (300 ml volume).

ii. Fill the bottle with water sample.

iii. Add 1 ml MnSO4 solution to it and mix uniformly with the help of pipette.

iv. Add 1ml alkali-azide iodide solution. On addition, if white ppts. are
formed, then there is no DO in water. Formation of Reddish brown ppts.
Indicates the presence of DO.

v. If Reddish brown ppts are formed, stopper the bottle, and shake it upside
down for 20 times and allow the ppts. To settle down for about 2 inches.

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 vi. Add 1 ml Concentrated H2SO4 and again shake for about 8 times.

vii. Take 200 ml of this water sample in a titration flask and titrate it with
0.025 N Na2S2O3 till the appearance of light-yellow color.

viii. Then add 1ml starch solution. The color of solution becomes blue on this
addition.

ix. Again, titrate it with 0.025N Na2S2O3 till the disappearance of blue color.

x. Note the volume of titrant used.

ml of titrant used = DO in mg/liter

The above formula is applicable if we use 200ml of water sample solution and
0.025N Na2S2O3. General formula is given by:
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖∗𝑵𝑵∗𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
DO (mg/l) =
𝑭𝑭∗ 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Where:
𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃−𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
F =
𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩

6.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sr. No. Sample Volume of sodium thiosulfate solution used

For 1st 100 ml (a1) For 2nd 100ml (a2) For 3rd 100ml (a3)

1 Tap water 2.4 2.5 2.5

2 Aerated 4.2 4.3 4.2
3 Lab Sample 0 0 0

2018-CIV-67 P a g e | 27
6.8. RESULTS

A
DO
Sample (A1+A2+A3)
(ml) (mg/l)
Tap water 7.4 4.983
Aerated 12.7 8.552
Lab Sample 0 0

6.9. COMMENTS
We determined Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the given samples. Healthy water
should have dissolved oxygen concentrations between 6.5 – 8 mg/L.

The tap water has DO less than the given range limits while aerated water has
DO slightly more than the upper limit of range. Lesser amount of DO would
negatively affect aquatic life while a slightly more DO is more or less fine. So, we
should increase DO in tap water more before supplying it to water bodies.

6.10. REFERENCES
i. Learn More: Dissolved Oxygen

ii. Dissolved Oxygen

iii. Dissolved Oxygen

2018-CIV-67 P a g e | 28
 EXPERIMENT 7:
DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
IN WATER
7. A

7.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine the amount of Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD) in different water samples.

7.2. APPARATUS
Figure 22 Titration apparatus
i. 11 BOD Bottles

ii. Beakers

iii. Burette

iv. Titration flask

v. Pipette

vi. Measuring Cylinder

vii. Incubator
Figure 23 Buffer solutions Figure 24 Beaker

7.3. CHEMICALS
i. 1 L Dilution media

ii. 1 L Distilled water

iii. 1 ml of nutrients (Zn, Ca, Mn, Fe, salts)

iv. 1 ml of buffer solution

v. Aeration for 45 minutes

Figure 25 BOD bottles

vi. Wastewater

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 vii. Na2S2O3 (o.2 n)

viii. MnSO4

ix. Alkali azide

x. Conc. H2SO4

xi. Starch

Figure 26 Water Bath Incubator

7.4. RELATED THEORY

7.4.1. BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
The amount of oxygen required by the bacteria while stabilizing
decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. Decomposable
means that organic matter can serve as food for the bacteria and energy is
derived from its oxidation.

Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the quantity of oxygen

used by microorganisms (e.g., aerobic bacteria) in the oxidation of organic
matter.

7.4.2. STANDARD VALUES

Sr. No. BOD Level (mg/L) Water Quality
1. 1–2 Very Good
2. 3–5 Fair
3. 6–9 Poor
4. 100+ Very Poor
PEQs standard for wastewater discharge is 80 mg/L (in receiving body).

7.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of Biological Oxygen Demand is:

i. The BOD is an important parameter for assessing water quality. It deals

with the amount of oxygen consumption.

2018-CIV-67 P a g e | 30
 ii. Higher BOD indicates more oxygen is required, which is less for oxygen-
demanding species to feed on and signifies lower water quality. Inversely,
low BOD means less oxygen is being removed from water, so water is
generally purer.by aerobic biological organisms to oxidize organic
compounds. Sewage with high BOD can cause a decrease in oxygen of
receiving waters, which in turn can cause the death of some organism.

iii. BOD gives the respiration rate of sewage, sludge, soil, and garbage. It
determines the rate of respiration in living beings. Measuring BOD gives
the COD or Chemical Oxygen Demand of inorganic substances.

7.6. PROCEDURE
i. First of all, it is important to know the number of samples to be used for
test. For this purpose, the source of sample is to be recorded which will
indicate the approximate value of BOD5 for the sample.

a. Domestic sewage BOD5 =100-500mg/L

b. Effluent from treatment plant= 20-80mg/L

c. River water = 2-4mg/L

ii. Take 9 BOD bottles note their numbers and arrange them in 3 groups.

iii. Fill each bottle half with dilution media ensuring that no air gets mixed
with the media while fill in as in DO test.

iv. Add 2ml sample in each of the three bottles marked as first group: 5 ml in
each bottle pf 2nd group and 10ml in each bottle of the 3rd group.

v. Fill the bottle completely with dilution media and place the stopper such
that no air bubbles are trapped.

vi. Now take one bottle from each set and estimate its DO. This will be DO
initial or DO 0days.

vii. For comparison prepare two more bottles with blank dilutions media
(without sewage sample) and find the DO from one bottle.

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 viii. Place the rest of the six bottles with sewage samples and one bottle for
blank in the incubator at 200C.

ix. After 5 days find out DO in all bottles.

x. That value of oxygen depletion should be considered correct which gives

an oxygen depletion of at least 2 mg/L., and which have at least 0.5 mg/L
DO after 5 days of incubation.

xi. Calculate BOD5 at 20 C for the sample using following relationship.

mg DO depletion (mg/L) ∗ 300

BOD � �=
L Volume of sample in bottle (ml)

7.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Bottle Sample added Volume of Volume of DO volume

Bottle
no. (ml) sample (ml) Na2S2O3 (ml) (mg/L)
1 A1 1 300 9.7 6.47
2 A2 3 300 9.8 6.53
3 A3 5 300 9.6 6.4
4 Blank 1 Blank 300 10.2 6.8

Bottle Sample Volume of Volume of DO

Bottle Mean DO
no. added sample Na2S2O3 volume
(ml) (ml) (ml) (mg/L) (mg/L)
1 B1 1 300 7.2 4.8
2 C1 1 300 7.3 4.87 4.83
3 B2 3 300 6.9 4.6
4 C2 3 300 7.1 4.73 4.67
5 B3 5 300 6.5 4.33
6 C3 5 300 6.4 4.27 4.3
7 Blank 2 Blank 300 10.1 6.73 6.73

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 Volume of
Bottle DO at day 0 DO at day 5 DO depletion BOD at day 5
sample
(ml) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
A1, B1, C1 1 6.47 4.83 1.64 491
A2, B2, C2 3 6.53 4.67 1.86 186
A3, B3, C3 5 6.4 4.3 2.1 126
Blank 1,2 Blank 6.8 6.78 0.02

Mean (BOD)5 = 268 mg/L

7.8. RESULTS

Mean BOD = 268 mg/L

7.9. COMMENTS
We determined Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in the given samples.
Typical maximum values range from 10 mg/L for direct environmental disposal and
300 mg/L for disposal to sewer systems.

We obtained a BOD value of 268 mg/L for given water sample. This shows that
we can dispose this water to sewer systems, but not directly to water bodies. Also,
according to PEQ, standard for wastewater discharge is 80 mg/L (in receiving body).

So, we should treat this water before discharging it to water bodies.

7.10. REFERENCES
i. Biochemical Oxygen Demand

ii. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

iii. Biochemical Oxygen Demand

iv. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in Wastewater Treatment

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 EXPERIMENT 8:
DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD) IN WATER
8. A

8.1. OBJECTIVES
To determine the amount of Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in different
water samples.

8.2. APPARATUS
i. COD Flask

ii. Titration Flask

iii. Burette
Figure 27 COD Flask

8.3. CHEMICALS
i. K2Cr2O7

ii. HgCl2

iii. H2SO4

iv. Ferroin Solution

v. FAS (0.025N)

Figure 28 Titration Apparatus

8.4. RELATED THEORY

8.4.1. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
The Chemical Oxygen Demand, or COD, is a measurement of the
amount of material that can be oxidized (combined with oxygen) in the
presence of a strong chemical oxidizing agent. Since the COD test can be
performed rapidly, it is often used as a rough approximation of the water's

2018-CIV-67 P a g e | 34
 BOD, even though the COD test measures some additional organic matter
(such as cellulose) which is not normally oxidized by biological action. As with
the BOD test, the COD test is reported as mg/Lit of oxygen used.

8.4.2. SIGNIFICANCE
• Chemical Oxygen Demand is an important water quality parameter
because, similar to BOD, it provides an index to assess the effect
discharged wastewater will have on the receiving environment.

• Higher COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic material

in the sample, which will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) levels.

• A reduction in DO can lead to anaerobic conditions, which is deleterious

to higher aquatic life forms.

8.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

The environmental significance of chemical oxygen demand is:

i. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen that

must be present in water to oxidize chemical organic materials, like
petroleum. COD is used to gauge the short-term impact wastewater
effluents will have on the oxygen levels of receiving waters.

ii. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of water and

wastewater quality. The COD test is often used to monitor water
treatment plant efficiency.

iii. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used to determine the quantity of

pollution in water after wastewater treatment. The higher value of
chemical oxygen demand indicates the higher organic pollution in the
water sample.

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8.6. PROCEDURE
i. Place 50ml sample in 500ml refluxing flask (for samples with
COD>900mg/L use a smaller sample diluted to 50ml).

ii. Add 1g HgSO4 and several glass beads.

iii. Add slowly 5ml H2SO4 reagent while mixing to dissolve HgSO4

iv. Cool while mixing to avoid the loss of volatile materials.

v. Add 25 ml 0.25N K2 Cr2O7 solution and mix.

vi. Attach the flask to the condenser and turn on cooling water.

vii. Add remaining H2SO4 (70ml) through open end of the condenser
continue mixing while adding H2SO4.

viii. Reflux the mixture for 2 hrs. and cool to room temperature, after diluting
the mixture to about twice its volume with distilled water.

ix. Titrate excess of K2 Cr2O7 with Ferrous ammonium sulfate using 2,3
drops of ferroin indicator. The end point will be from blue green to
reddish brown.

x. Reflux and titrate in the same manner a blank containing the reagents
and the volume of the distilled water will be equal to that of sample.

8.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sr. No. Vol. Of sample Initial volume Final volume Volume used “a”

1 100 0 4.7 4.7

2 100 4.7 9.7 5
3 150 9.7 14.6 4.9
Total volume used
A = 14.6

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 Sr. No. Vol. Of sample Initial volume Final volume Volume used “b”
1 100 0 5.4 5.4
2 100 5.4 10.8 5.4
3 150 10.8 17.6 6.8
Average volume used
B= 17.6

8.8. RESULTS

COD = [(17.6-14.6) *0.25*8*1000] / 350

COD = 17.142 mg/L

8.9. COMMENTS
We determined Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in the given samples. Typical
maximum values range from not more than 120 mg/l depending on receiving water
or type of industry under consideration of PCC but not exceeding 400 mg/l.

We obtained a COD value of 17 mg/L, which is well within limits. A higher value
of COD indicates that water requires more oxygen, hence it has more organic
pollution in it. The given sample had a less amount of COD, hence it shows that it is
relatively free from organic matter.

8.10. REFERENCES
i. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

ii. Water for COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand

iii. Determination of COD of Wastewater

iv. Water Quality Standards

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