FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Dr. Doyel Dasgupta

Assistant Professor
What is forensic anthropology ?
• Forensic anthropology is a special sub-field
of physical anthropology (the study of
human remains) that involves applying
skeletal analysis and techniques in
archaeology to solving criminal cases.
• When human remains or a suspected burial
are found, forensic anthropologists are
called upon to gather information from the
bones and their recovery context to
determine who died, how they died, and how
long ago they died.
• Forensic anthropologists specialize in
analyzing hard tissues such as bones. With
This skeleton of a 17th-century teenage boy was
their training in archaeology, they are also
found in 2001 at the Leavy Neck site in Anne
knowledgeable about excavating buried
Arundel County, Maryland. Smithsonian photo
remains and meticulously recording the
18AN828. evidence.
Skeletal analyses
The techniques they use to answer questions in criminal cases can be
applied to skeletons of any age, modern or ancient.

The stages of growth and development in bones and teeth provide

information about whether the remains represent a child or adult.
The shape of pelvic bones provides the best evidence for the sex of the
person.

Abnormal changes in the shape, size and density of bones can indicate
disease or trauma. Bones marked by perimortem injuries, such as
unhealed fractures, bullet holes, or cuts, can reveal cause of death.
The trained anthropologist is also able to identify skeletal clues of
ancestry.

Even certain activities, diet, and ways of life are reflected in bones and
teeth.
• Smithsonian anthropologist Dr. Douglas Owsley,
examining a skeleton from historic Jamestown,
found by archaeologists from Preservation
Virginia, they discovered evidence of chops to
the skull from an axe or other sharp bladed,
implement. Knife cuts were also observed on the
bone.
• “The chops to the forehead are very tentative,
very incomplete,” says Douglas Owsley, “Then,
the body was turned over, and there were four
strikes to the back of the head, one of which was
the strongest and split the skull in half. A
penetrating wound was then made to the left
temple, probably by a single-sided knife, which
was used to pry open the head and remove the
brain.”
• Along with other information such as biological
indicators and discovery location of the remains,
Dr. Owsley concluded that a 14-year-old girl had
been cannibalized after she died. His discovery
supported other historic data that the colonists
of Jamestown suffered severe starvation during
the harsh winter of 1609-1610.
Definition of forensic anthropology What Does a Forensic Anthropologist Do?
1. Analysis of skeletal, badly decomposed, or
otherwise unidentified human remains in legal
• Forensic anthropology is that branch of applied physical contexts.
anthropology concerned with the identification of human 2. Locating and recovering human skeletal remains
and determine the age, sex, ancestry, stature of a
remains and associated skeletal trauma related to decedent by developing a biological profile (St.
manner of death in a legal context (Keichs 1998). Thomas University, 2010). Further analysis may
reveal the state of the health of the decedent(s), if
they were right or left-handed, if they had a child,
and sometimes their occupation could be
• In 1976, T. D. Stewart (1901–1907) defined forensic determined (Nafte, 2000).
anthropology as “that branch of physical anthropology,
which, for forensic purposes, deals with the identification 3. Application of techniques developed in physical
anthropology and archaeology to analyse human
of more or less skeletonized remains known to be, or remains, and to aid in the detection of crime. The
suspected of being, human”. forensic recovery and examination of human
remains cuts across several disciplines and thus
involves a team of experts from these disciplines.
• Forensic anthropology can be defined as the study of Often the levels of competencies and expertise cut
human skeletal remains in the course of a legal inquiry. across the disciplinary boundaries of members of
the team (James & Nordby, 2003).
It is a sub-discipline of physical anthropology- the study
of human evolution as it relates to biological variation
4. Document trauma to the skeleton, and/or estimate
and race classification, especially skeletal biology (Ball, the postmortem interval.
2010; James & Nordby, 2003).
5. Determine the cause and or manner of death.
 Work of a Forensic Anthropologist
• Skeletal remains have been found in various ways, locations and states. Forensic anthropologists usually get
involved after being notified by the law enforcement agents or agency. Often, they work with medical examiners
and coroners where the identity of the skeletal remains cannot be determined by other means (France, 2009).
They set out to develop a biological profile and also try to isolate any particular feature that gives better
recognition to the unidentified remains (James and Nordby, 2003). Forensic anthropologists may also testify in
court as expert witnesses for the prosecution or defence. Their role is to present the results of their assessment
of the skeletal remains impartially (Saferstein, 1982; Nafte, 2000; James and Nordby, 2003).
• They examine flesh, fragmented body parts from mass fatality, burnt bodies, decomposed and mummified
remains (Nafte, 2000; France, 2009). According to Nafte (2000), forensic anthropologists may also be involved
in locating and recovering of remains, interpreting movements before, during and after death, analyzing the
scene where the remains were found, and in the preservation of materials such as bodily fluids, soft tissue,
insects, soil, and clothing for other analysts.
• The analytical methods employed by forensic anthropologists when determining the biological identity of
decedents entail both direct observations and obtaining extensive measurements. Traits determined by shape
and size of the bones are analyzed, recorded, computed and compared to established standards. The aim of
the forensic anthropologist is to minimize the range of possible persons to a minimum population. Success
therefore demands that the forensic anthropologist is well vast in knowledge of, and also very familiar with the
differences in skeleton within and between populations (Nafte, 2000).Thus in order to establish the identity of a
decedent, the forensic anthropologist employ various methods to answer the following questions:
Questions deal with forensic anthropologist
 Are the Skeletal Remains Human?

 Are the Skeletal Remains of One or More Persons?

 Is the Decedent a Male or Female?

 What was Chronological Age of Decedent at the Time of Death?

 What was the Decedent’s Race?

 What Was the Decedent’s Stature?

 When Did Death Occur?

 What Was the Cause and Manner of Death?

 Identification of skeletal remains…….are they human????????
• To the untrained eyes, human skeletal remains are
very often confused with that of animals especially
where no skull exists or where human and animal
remains are mixed.
• Difficulties in identification can be further complicated
in instances where they have been scattered and
damaged. This is the more common scenario as
animals usually scavenge on dead remains (Ball,
2010).
• If all the bones are intact, it is easy to confirm if they
are human. In cases where the bones are from human
fetal or infants, they are very likely to be undeveloped,
small and different in shape from adult bones, thus
making distinction difficult from nonhuman animal
remains (Nafte, 2000).
• The forensic anthropologist is trained to determine
human skeletal remains by physical inspection.
However, if the bones are fragmented but recent and
still contain protein, then serological tests for specific
species are applied. Mitochondrial DNA tests can also
be used (Jackson & Jackson, 2008).
 Determination the number of deceased individuals from human skeletal
remains
• After confirmation of its human identity, the forensic anthropologist proceeds to determine the
number of persons that make up the skeletal remains. The recovery of human skeletal remains
from a possible crime scene is an essential aspect of the involvement of a forensic
anthropologist in an investigation.

• Bones are very carefully and systematically removed and collected from where they are
discovered. The operation requires mapping, video recording and/or photography, thorough
search of the site around the remains, collecting, packaging and transport of all the evidence
associated with the scene (James and Nordby, 2003; Nafte, 2000; Ball, 2010). This is where
forensic anthropology gets its tools from archaeology as a lot of the tools and techniques used in
excavating and packing human remains (particularly where the remains have been buried or
scattered) are those used in archaeology (James and Nordby, 2003; Nafte, 2000; Ball, 2010).

• The bones from the excavated remains are carefully sorted and catalogued in an inventory. As
part of the inventory, any particular bone found is described in detail and listed independently.
From this inventory, the number of persons making up the skeletal remains is determined. This
inventory also establishes whether there has been a commingling of human and animal
skeletons (Winson, 2004).
 Sex identification of Descendent
 The sex of the decedent is determined by utilizing sexual dimorphism- the difference
between male and female bones (Camp, 2005; France, 2009). According to France,
these differences are not usually established until after puberty and this makes
identification of very young individuals extremely difficult and unreliable. After puberty,
males tend to be larger than females and areas in the bones where muscle attachment
take place are larger and more rugged.

 However, in order to utilize sexual dimorphism the race needs to be known (France,
2009; Winson, 2004). The average skeleton size and degree of sexual dimorphism and
proportions differ greatly between populations (Nafte, 2000; France, 2009). For
example, the skeletons of native Indian populations are usually smaller and show less
sexual dimorphism than Australian Aborigines. Consequently, an adult skeleton of an
Asian Indian male placed alongside that of an adult male (or many females) Australian
Aborigine would be wrongly classified as female based on size (France, 2009).

To the forensic anthropologist, the most reliable and obvious difference between male
and female skeletons can be found by direct observation of the pelvis (Rhine, 1998;
France, 2009). This difference is more pronounced in this region because the female
pelvis is shaped differently to allow for child bearing (Ball, 2010; France, 2009; Adebisi,
2009).
 Sex identification from Skull
• Sex determination becomes the first priority in the process of identification of a person by a forensic investigator in the case of mishaps,
chemical and nuclear bomb explosions, natural disasters, crime investigations, and ethnic studies. Determination of sex/gender using skeletal
remains presents a great problem to forensic experts, especially when only fragments of body are recovered. Forensic odontologist can assist
other experts to determine the sex of the remains using teeth and skull traits. Various features of teeth such as morphology, crown size, and root
length are characteristics for male and female sexes. There are also differences in the skull pattern and skull traits of two sexes. These will help
forensic odontologists to identify the sex of the remains.

• Methods Used for Sex Determination

• Visual method or clinical method: Teeth may be used for differentiating sex by measuring their mesiodistal (m-d) and buccolingual
dimensions. This is of special importance in young individuals where skeletal secondary sexual characters have not yet developed. Among
teeth, mandibular canines show the greatest dimensional difference with larger teeth in males than in females. Premolars, first and second
molars, as well as maxillary incisors, are also known to have significant differences. mandibular canine showed a greater degree of sexual
dimorphism than the maxillary canine.
Sex can be identified from craniofacial morphology and dimensions. It involves morphology of the skull and mandible and frontal sinus
dimensions.

• Microscopic methods: Sex can also be determined by the study of X and Y chromosomes in the cells which are not undergoing active division.
The presence or absence of X chromosome can be studied from buccal smears, skin biopsy, blood, cartilage, hair root sheath, and tooth pulp.
After death, it persists for variable periods depending on the humidity and temperature of the ambient atmosphere.

• Advanced Methods: PCR is a method of amplifying small quantities of relatively short target sequences of DNA using sequence-specific
oligonucleotide primers and thermostable Taq DNA polymerase. From blood and teeth by PCR amplification using amplification of X-specific
(131 bp) and Y-specific (172 bp) sequences in males and Y-specific sequences in females. Amelogenin or AMEL is a major matrix protein found
in the human enamel. It has a different signature (or size and pattern of the nucleotide sequence) in male and females.
 Sex identification from Pelvic

 Pelvic bones are composed of three bones, namely the pubic, ischial, and iliac. Morphologically, the male pelvic is longer, robust, and
displays more rugged features with marked muscle insertions whereas the female pelvic shows a wider sciatic notch with an obtuse
angle (Gomez-Valdes., et al., 2011). Because the female pelvis is adapted for childbirth, it is wider than the male pelvis as evidenced
by the distance between the anterior superior iliac spines.

 The subpubic angle in females was significantly larger than in males. Inverse correlation was found between the subpubic angle and
age, in both males and females (Ali et al., 2020).

 The ischial tuberosities of females are also farther apart, which increases the size of the pelvic outlet. The female sacrum is wider,
shorter, and less curved, and the sacral promontory projects less into the pelvic cavity, thus giving the female pelvic inlet a more
rounded or oval shape compared to males. The lesser pelvic cavity of females is also wider and more shallow than the narrower,
deeper, and tapering lesser pelvis of males.
 Chronological Age of Decedent at the Time of Death
• During the formative years of an individual, growth and development are regular processes and the way and
stages that bones mature follow an observed pattern. Thus under normal circumstances, they are measurable
and predictable (Nafte, 2000). Forensic anthropologists use these observations to determine the age of the
decent.
• According to Klepinger (2006), these measurable features include eruption of tooth, length of bone, dental
development, as well as appearance and fusion of growth centres.
• Measurements of these from different populations of living and dead individuals have been catalogued over
several years to a data source known as growth standards (Nafte, 2000). According to Nafte, forensic
anthropologists apply these standards comparatively when observing the final stage of growth reached by the
decent at the time of death. Unknown skeletal remains can thus be assigned an age with a considerable high
degree of accuracy.
• The general category of the skeleton however determines the specific age determination technique to be
used. For a relatively young individual, the most accurate methods of age determination are tooth eruption
times and dental formation (Fisher, 2000; France, 2009). However, in evaluating the age of a fully adult
skeleton, forensic anthropologists usually observe degenerative features of bones in other parts of the
skeleton. These changes provide corroborative evidence of age but are unreliable as injury and diseases may
produce such changes (France, 2009). Comparative analysis of cranial sutures (areas that separate bones of
the cranium where growth takes place) and epiphyseal fusion (closing of the growth plates at end of long
bone and clavicle) in the young adult skeleton were previously extensively used for age determination but
this technique has been proven unreliable by further research (France, 2009; Winson, 2004). Other methods
include using pubic symphysis analysis and sterna rib analysis (Nafte, 2000).
 Age estimation from teeth
Krishan, K., Kanchan, T., & Garg, A. K. (2015). Dental Evidence in Forensic Identification - An Overview, Methodology and Present
Status. The open dentistry journal, 9, 250–256. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874210601509010250 cited these works

Dental maturity plays an important role in the estimation of age in children and adolescents (Ambarkovaet
al., 2013).
The number and sequence of the teeth erupted can fairly determine the age of an individual.
The teeth mineralization give a better estimate of chronological age than the bone mineralization ( Willems,
2001). since mineralization stages in the teeth are less affected by variation in nutritional and endocrine
status of the individual. In this regard, the developmental stages of the teeth as given by Demirjian et
al. (Demirjian , Goldstein & Tanner, 1973) are much in use for estimation of chronological age throughout
the world.
For estimation of age in adults, Gustafson developed a method of age estimation from a single tooth way
back in 1950 (Gustafson, 1950). The technique utilizes various stages of regressive changes in the teeth
such as occlusal attrition, coronal secondary dentin formation, the loss of periodontal attachment, cementum
apposition, amount of apical resorption and the transparency of the root (Willems, 2001).
Kvaal et al. (Kvaal et al., 1995) developed another method of age estimation in adults by measuring the size
of the pulp from periapical radiographs of the teeth dependent upon the sex of the individual.
 Decedent’s Race?
 Forensic anthropologists are required to provide the racial identity of a decedent. Bones however do not manifest racial
specific genes (Nafte, 2000). According to Nafte, the forensic anthropologist must utilize the extent of visible genetic
features observed in the skeletal remains. These features are examined, measured and compared to samples of known
individuals to enable the determination of a probable ancestry. The traditional classes of race are Caucasoid, Mongoloid
and Negroid. However, with more available data coming from research, six geographical races of the world have been
classified – Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid, Australoid (Melanesian/Australian), American Indian, and Polynesian
(Nafte, 2000).
 Very often, the skeletal features of the face, mandible and cranium (craniofacial traits) are first analyzed and measure and
then compared to known samples to obtain an approximate race affiliation. This then enables the degree of sexual
dimorphism to be better accurately assessed. Next, the nature of the size and shape of the teeth are analyzed, as specific
cultural and genetic features may point to certain populations. Finally, the profile of the skull is examined to determine
the extent to which the upper and lower jaw project outwards. The information obtained from all of the processes
indicates a particular population over the others (Nafte, 2000).
 What Was the Decedent’s Stature?
• The height of the decedent may be determined by direct measurement in cases where the skeleton is complete. In such
cases, the lack of tissue must be taken into account (Fisher, 2000; Jackson & Jackson, 2008). Where the skeleton is
incomplete, measurements are taken of one of the long bones (femur or tibia) and the results applied to a set of formulae
known as “regression formulae” to determine the stature of the decedent (Fisher, 2000; Winson, 2004; Nafte, 2000). The
computed result gives an estimate of the decedent’s height, placed within a range using an osteometric table. Accuracy
however is subject to correct interpretation and use of the formulae (Nafte, 2000).
 When did the death occur?
• Medically and legally, interest in bones forensically is limited to recent remains (less than 100 years) as suspects would
probably be dead after this time (Jackson & Jackson, 2008). For the forensic anthropologists, estimating the time of
death can be very difficult. Unfortunately, radio-carbon dating technique used on archaeological artefacts cannot be
applied effectively to bones less than about 100 years old (Jackson & Jackson, 2008). Thus estimating the time of death
would depend on the condition of the bones, soft tissue, ligaments present, odor, extent of plant, insect and animal
activities as well as environmental conditions (Mann & Ubelaker, 1990).

•
 Cause and Manner of Death?
• According to Ball (2010), the cause of death refers to what caused the person’s death (gunshot wound, blunt force
trauma, and/or disease), while manner of death refers to how death may have occurred (accident, murder, suicide, natural
or unknown).
• Forensic anthropologists typically examine bones void of flesh or where the remaining flesh has decomposed beyond the
possibility of having an autopsy. This makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible for the forensic anthropologist to
determine the cause or manner of death (Nafte, 2000). According to Nafte, the forensic anthropologist primarily
comments on the condition of the remains (e.g. intact, burned, fractured, or chewed) and describes the possible types of
objects and events that may have resulted in the state in which the remains were found.
• A team of Indian and South Korean researchers, led by Vasant
Shinde of Deccan College, Pune, carried out excavations in
Rakhigarhi, one of the most prominent sites of the Harappan
civilisation, between 2013 and 2016. The skeletal remains of the
couple were discovered from a site where nine graves were
unearthed in one trench. Except for the foot bones, the two
skeletons have been found almost entirely intact. The researchers
believe the couple were buried at almost the same time, perhaps
even together, following their deaths which could have occurred
about 4,700 years ago. They believe the male was around 38 years
old at the time of his death, while the female was around 25.
• In the present case, however, the skeletal remains were found in a
supine position with arms and legs extended. The head of the male
was found facing towards the female’s, possibly indicating an
intimate relationship. Remains of pots and stone-bead jewellery
found close to the burial site of the couple point to the possibility of
a ceremonial burial with rituals. These remains also suggest they
belonged to a middle-class family.
• No lesions have been found on the bones the couple, leading What a Harappan grave says about marriage
researchers to rule out the possibility of their having been
murdered. Of the 62 graves discovered in Rakhigarhi,
only this one had more than one skeleton —
• Shinde said the Harappan people were generally known to strictly
adhere to only legal relations, and the fact that the couple were and of individuals of the opposite sex,
buried in the same pit together could be an indication of societal together.
acceptance of their relationship. The researchers, he said, were
inclined to believe that they could have been married — which
would in turn suggest the possibility that the institution of marriage
originated in the Harappan civilisation.
• That a pair of hand-holding skeletons, known as the “Lovers
of Modena”, whose gesture of love has been preserved in
mud for 1,500 years, were both male . The bones, from
between the 4th and 6th century AD, were found in a
cemetery in 2009 near Modena in northern Italy.”
• Researchers at the University of Bologna, in Italy, can now
only speculate on how these two men were connected —
perhaps as relatives or fellow soldiers, according to the
study appearing in Nature’s Scientific Reports journal.
• .Researchers also say the couple was likely buried this way
intentionally which was not an unusual funeral practice
during that time. The 6,000-year-old “Lovers of Valdaro,”
dug up from a Neolithic tomb near Mantua in northern Italy,
were discovered in a full-on embrace, as well as couples
found at the Alepotrypa Cave in Greece; Diyarbakir, Turkey;
and Staryi Tartas in Siberia — all of them presumed to be
heterosexual pairings. They add that social and religious
restrictions on homosexual relationships make it unlikely
that the two men were positioned in a “deliberate
manifestation of homosexual relationship.”
• “Although we cannot exclude that these two individuals
were actually in love, it is unlikely that people who buried Study Reveals the ‘Lovers of
them decided to show such bond by positioning their bodies
hand in hand,” they conclude. Modena’ Are Both Men