Network Models

OSI Reference Model

&
TCP / IP Model
 Layering Scenario
➢ We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
➢ Let us consider an example, of two friends who
communicate through postal mail.
Layering Scenario
 Layering Scenario
➢ At the Sender Site
The activities that take place at the sender site.
❑ Higher layer.
❑ The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope,
writes the sender and receiver addresses, and drops the
letter in a mailbox.
❑ Middle layer.
❑ The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the
post office.
❑ Lower layer.
❑ The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the
letter.
 Layering Scenario

• 0n the Way: The letter is then on its way to the recipient's local
post.
• In addition, it may be transported by truck, train, airplane, boat,
or a combination of these.

➢ At the Receiver Site

❑ Lower layer.
❑ The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
❑ Middle layer.
❑ The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
❑ Higher layer.
❑The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and
reads it.
 OSI Reference Model

➢The Open System Interconnection(OSI)

reference model describes how information
from a software application in one computer
moves through a network medium to a
software application in another computer.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed
of seven layers, each specifying particular network
functions. The model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization(ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered the primary architectural model for inter
computer communications.
➢ An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
➢ The purpose of the OSI model is to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the existing hardware and
software.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ The OSI Model is composed of seven layers.

✓ Physical layer
✓ Data link layer
✓ Network layer
✓ Transport layer
✓ Session layer
✓ Presentation layer
✓ Application layer
OSI Reference Model
 OSI Reference Model
➢ The principles applied to arrive at the seven layer can
be briefly summarized as follows.
1. A Layer Should be created where a different level of
abstraction is needed.
2. Each Layer should perform well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen towards
defining internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize
the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that
distinct functions need not to be thrown together in
the same layer out of necessity.
OSI Reference Model

The OSI Reference Model

 OSI Reference Model
➢Physical Layer
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications
of the interfaces and transmission medium.
➢ Functions of Physical Layer
❑ Physical characteristics of Interfaces and Medium
• It defines the characteristics of the interfaces between
the devices and the transmission medium .
• It also defines the type of transmission medium.
❑ Representation of Bits
• The physical layer data consists of stream of bits.
• For transmission bits must be encoded into signals.
• The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 OSI Reference Model

➢Physical Layer
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Data Rate
• The number of bits sent within one second is also defined by the
physical layer.
❑ Synchronization of bits
• The sender and receiver must use the same bit rate as well as the
their clocks must be synchronized.
❑ Line Configuration
• The physical layer concerns with the device connections whether
they are connected as per point-to-point of multipoint configuration.
❑ Physical Topology
• It also looks after how the devices are connected to form the
network.
❑ Transmission Mode
• It also defines the transmission modes for the communicating
devices.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across
a physical network link.
➢ Functions of Data Link Layer
❑ Framing
• The data link layer divides stream of bits received form
Network layer into manageable data units called as frames.
❑ Physical Addressing
• It defines how the devices are addressed in the
network.
❑ Flow Control
• The data link layer imposes a mechanism to moderate
the transmission of data so that the receiving device is
not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle
at one time.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Data Link Layer
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Error Control
• The data link layer uses some mechanisms to detect and
retransmit the damaged or lost frames.
• Error control has been carried out by adding a trailer at the end
of the frame.
❑ Access Control
• The data link layer protocols are going to determine which
device has the control over the communication link at a
particular time if more than one device connected to a single
communication link.
➢ The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers:
✓ Logical Link Control(LLC)
✓ Media Access Control(MAC).
✓Logical Link Control(LLC)

▪ The primary function of LLC to multiplex protocols

over the MAC layer and de-multiplex while receiving
▪ LLC provides hop-to hop flow and error control
▪ It allows multipoint communication over computer
network
▪ Frame Sequence Numbers are assigned by LLC
▪ In case of acknowledged services , it track
acknowledgements
✓ Media Access Control(MAC).
▪ It takes responsible when to send from LLC makes a frame and
decides when to send the frame to the next station the source
and destination address is given
▪ It is responsible for encapsulating frames for transmission via
the physical medium
▪ It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the
destination station
▪ It performs multiple access resolution when more than one data
frame to be transmitted . It determines the channel access
methods for transmission for example CSMA/CD,ALOHA
▪ It performs collision resolution and initiating
retransmission in case of collision
▪ It generates the frame check sequences and checks
transmission errors
OSI Reference Model
OSI Reference Model
 OSI Reference Model
• In the above Figure a node with physical address 10
sends a frame to a node with physical address 87.
• The two nodes are connected by a link.
• At the data link level this frame contains physical
addresses in the header. These are the only addresses
needed. The rest of the header contains other
information needed at this level.
• The trailer usually contains frame Check Sequence
field extra bits needed for error detection.
 OSI Reference Model

➢Network Layer
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Network Layer
It is responsible for source to destination delivery of the
packet.
It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination.
host to host / source to destination address
➢ Functions of the Network Layer
❑ Logical addressing
If a packet passes the network boundary. We need another addressing
system to distinguish the source and destination systems.
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer which includes logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Logical (IP address (Network and Host address both it consist in
subnetwork in which devices it as to communicate further))
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Routing
In a large network the routers are going to route the packets to
their final destination.
For routing of the packets from source to destination several
algorithms have been used.
Network layer uses router or bridges or switches or firewalls
But for bridges it uses only data and physical link but routers
uses all three network, data
and physical link layer in order decide the path to send the
packets to destination
Both source and destination should use same protocal to
communicate smoothly
OSI Reference Model
OSI Reference Model
 OSI Reference Model
➢ In the above figure we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on one
LAN, to a node with a network address P and physical address
95, located on another LAN.
➢ Because the two devices are located on different networks,
we cannot use physical addresses only.
➢ The physical addresses only have local jurisdiction. Here
we need universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries.
➢ The network (logical) addresses have this characteristic.
➢ The Logical Address is generated by the CPU while the
program is running and the Physical Address is the location
inside the main memory. The Logical Address is Virtual and the
Physical Address is the actual address of the memory.
 OSI Reference Model

➢ Transport Layer
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Transport Layer
• It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
complete message.
• It decides id data transmission should be parallel or
single path
• Multiplexing , Splitting on data are done
• Provides additional quality of service
• Converting message to smaller units
• Responsible for end to end delivery of complete message
➢Functions of the transport Layer
❑ Port Addressing
Computers run several processes at the same time.
The transport layer delivers the message from a specific
process on one computer to a specific process on another
computer.
Hence the transport layer includes a header which contains a
address called as service point address or port address.
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Segmentation and Reassembly
The complete message at the source has been divided into
transmittable segments and the segments are assigned a
sequence number.
At the destination the transport layer reassembles the message
segments correctly using the sequence numbers.

❑Connection control
The transport layer can be either connection oriented or
connection less.
The connectionless transport layer treats each message segment
as independent unit and delivers at the destination.
The connection oriented transport layer delivers the message
packets after establishing a connection with the transport layer
at the destination.
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Flow Control
The transport Layer is responsible for flow control.
Here Flow control is performed end to end.
❑ Error Control
Here the error control has been performed process-to-process.
The sending transport layer make sure that the entire message has
been arrived at the receiving transport layer without error.
Error correction has been done through retransmission.
 OSI Reference Model

➢ Transport Layer
OSI Reference Model
 OSI Reference Model
➢ The below figure shows an example of
transport layer communication.
➢ Data coming from the upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving
process).
➢ Since the data size is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are split into two
packets.
➢ Each packet retains the port addresses (j and k).
➢ Then in the network layer, network addresses (A
and P) are added to each packet.
 OSI Reference Model

➢ Session Layer
 OSI Reference Model
➢It manages and synchronize the conversion
between two different application
➢It is responsible for establishment of connection
,maintenance of session , authentication and
also ensure the security
➢Functions of Session Layer
The session layer allows different users on
different machines to establish sessions between
them.
❑Dialog Control
It keeps track of whose turn it is to transmit. Which
device communicate first and the amount of data that is
sent .
❑ Token Management
It Prevents two parties from attempting the same
critical operation at the same time.
❑Synchronization
It adds check points for long data transmission to
allow them to continue from where they were after a
crash
 OSI Reference Model

➢ For example if a system is sending a file of 2000

pages.
➢ It is advisable to insert check points after every
100 pages to ensure each 100 page unit is received
and acknowledged.
➢ If a crash happens during the transmission of
page 616.
➢ After the system recovery it needs to resend the
pages 601 to 616.
➢ The pages prior to 601 need not to be resent.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Presentation Layer
It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information to be exchanged.
 OSI Reference Model
✓ Code conversation (Formatting)
✓ Compression unnecessary data removed redundancy
The lossy compression technique does not restored the data in
its original form, after decompression on the other hand lossless
compression restores and rebuilt the data in its original form,
after decompression.
✓ Encryption /Decryption
➢Responsibilities of the Presentation Layer
❑ Translation
•Generally users exchange the information using text
strings and the numbers.
•Before transmission if the information its has to be
changed to a bit stream.
•Different devices use different encoding schemes.
•The sender presentation layer changes the information
from sender dependent encoding to a common encoding.
•The receiver presentation layer will change the common
encoding scheme to the receiver dependent encoding
format.
 OSI Reference Model
❑Encryption
• In data communication the devices must ensure the privacy
of the information to be transmitted.
• The sending device uses a mechanism called as encryption to
transform the original message to another form and send over
the network.
• The receiving device presentation layer uses a mechanism
called as decryption to transform the message to its original
form.
❑ Compression
• It reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
• It is important in the transmission of multimedia data.
 OSI Reference Model
➢ Application Layer
Its enables the user to access the network.
 OSI Reference Model
• Services Provided by the Application Layer
❑ Network Virtual Terminal
Virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal.
It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
❑ File Transfer, Access and Management
It allows a user to access files in remote host, to
retrieve files from a remote host and manages files in a
remote computer locally.
 OSI Reference Model
❑Mail Service
It provides the protocols for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
❑ Directory Services
It provides the basis for distributed database sources.
It allows the user to access the global information.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ TCP / IP protocol suite has been developed prior to the
OSI model.
➢ The major design goals of this model were:
1. To connect multiple networks together so that they
appear as a single network.
2. To survive after partial subnet hardware failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
➢ TCP/IP reference model has only 4 layers. They are:
1. Host-to-Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
TCP / IP Protocol Suite
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

➢ Host-to-Network Layer
▪ The TCP/IP reference model does not define any
specific protocol.

▪ It Supports all the standards and the protocols.

▪ This protocol is not defined and varies from host to

host and network to network.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Network Layer / Internet Layer
• It allows the devices to inject packets into the network
and they will travel independently to the destination.
• The Packets may even arrive in a different order than
they were sent, in which case it is the job of higher layers
to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
• The internet layer defines an official packet format and
protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets
where they are supposed to go.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
• Packet routing is the major concern of the Internet
layer
• The TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to
the OSI network Layer.
• Internet Layer uses four supporting protocols:
– ARP
– RARP
– ICMP
– IGMP
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• It is used to map the logical address with the physical
address.

• The physical addresses are generally specified on the

network interface card (NIC).

• ARP finds the physical address of the node if the

internet address is known
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• It is used to find the internet address if the systems’s
physical address is known.

• Generally this protocol has been used when a system

is connected to the network for the first time.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

➢ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

It is used by the hosts and gateways to send

notifications and the error reports about the datagram
problems back to the sender.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

➢ Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

It Provides the facility for the simultaneous message

transmission to a group of systems.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Transport Layer
• It is an end to end protocols.
• It is going to deliver a packet from one physical
device to another physical device.
• It is responsible for delivering a message from one
process to another process.
• It uses the three supporting protocols.
• They are:
– TCP
– UDP
– SCTP
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• It is a process to process protocol that adds only the
port address.
• It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

➢ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• It is a connection oriented protocol.
• A connection must be established between both ends
before the transmission of data.
• It is a reliable protocol.
• TCP also handles the flow control.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite

➢ Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

• It provide support for the new applications such as
voice communication over internet.
• It combines the best features of TCP and UDP.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Application Layer
– It contains all the higher-level protocols.
– The early protocols includes
– Virtual terminal (TELNET)
– File transfer (FTP)
– Electronic mail (SMTP)
– The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one
machine to log onto a distant machine and work there.
– The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data
efficiently from one machine to another.
– Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file
transfer.
 TCP / IP Protocol Suite
➢ Application Layer
– But later a specialized protocol (SMTP) was
developed for electronic mail.
– Many other protocols have been added such as.
– HTTP
– DNS
– SNMP
 Addressing
➢ Four Levels of addresses have been used in internet that
employs TCP / IP.
– Physical address
– Logical Address / IP Address
– Port Address
– Specific Address
 Addressing
➢ Each Address is related to a specific layer of TCP / IP
architecture model.
 Addressing
➢Physical Address
• It is also known as link address.
• It is the address of the node defined by its LAN
or WAN.
• These addresses are attached to the frames by the
datalink layer.
• It is the lowest level address.
• The format and size of these addresses vary from
network to network.
 Addressing
• Ethernet uses a 6 byte physical address that is imprinted
on the network interface card (NIC).
• The 6 byte physical address specified as 12 hexadecimal
digits with every byte separated by a colon.
• For Example
08:17:02:01:2D:4B
 Addressing
• Logical Addresses
• It is necessary for universal communication that is
independent of physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not appropriate in an
internetwork environment where different network
have different address format.
• Hence a universal addressing scheme has been
necessary to identify each host uniquely.
• Currently a 32 bit address that uniquely identifies a
host connected to the internet.
• No two host on the internet can have the same IP
address.
 Addressing

➢Port Addresses
• Now-a-days computers can run multiple
processes at the same time.
• The objective of computer communication is a
process communicating with another process.
 Addressing
➢ Special Addresses
• Some applications have user friendly addresses called
as specific addresses.
• For example the e-mail addresses and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL).
• These addresses are get changed to the corresponding
port and logical addresses by the sending Computer.
• Examples
• URL
– www.mhhe.com
– www.cmrtc.ac.in
E-mail
[email protected]
[email protected]
 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET-Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
• The story begins in the late 1950s.
• The DoD wanted a command-and-control network that could
survive a nuclear war.
• At that time, all military communications used the public
telephone network, which was considered vulnerable.
• The reason for this belief can be gleaned from Fig(a).
• Here the 45 black dots represent telephone switching offices,
each of which was connected to thousands of telephones.
• These switching offices were, in turn, connected to higher-level
switching offices (toll offices), to form a national hierarchy with
only a small amount of redundancy.
• The vulnerability of the system was that the destruction of a few
key toll offices could fragment the system into many isolated
islands.
 Examples of Networks
➢ARPANET

Figure (a) Structure of the telephone system. (b) Baran's

proposed distributed switching system.
 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET
• Around 1960, the DoD(Department of Defense ) awarded a contract to the
RAND Corporation to find a solution.
• One of its employees, Paul Baran, came up with the highly distributed and
fault-tolerant design of Fig. (b).
• Since the paths between any two switching offices were now much longer
than analog signals could travel without distortion, Baran proposed using
digital packet-switching technology throughout the system.
• Baran wrote several reports for the DoD describing his ideas in detail.
• Officials at the Pentagon liked the concept and asked AT&T, then the U.S.
national telephone monopoly, to build a prototype.
• AT&T dismissed Baran's ideas out of hand.
• The biggest and richest corporation in the world was not about to allow
some young whippersnapper tell it how to build a elephone system.
• They said Baran's network could not be built and the idea was killed.
 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET
• Several years went by and still the DoD did not have a better
command-and-control system.
• To understand what happened next, we have to go back to October
1957, when the Soviet Union beat the U.S. into space with the
launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik.
• When President Eisenhower tried to find out who was asleep at the
switch, he was appalled to find the Army, Navy, and Air Force
squabbling over the Pentagon's research budget.
• His immediate response was to create a single defense research
organization, ARPA, the Advanced Research Projects Agency.
• ARPA had no scientists or laboratories; in fact, it had nothing more
than an office and a small (by Pentagon standards) budget.
• It did its work by issuing grants and contracts to universities and
companies whose ideas looked promising to it.
 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET
• The subnet would consist of minicomputers called IMPs (Interface
Message Processors) connected by 56-kbps transmission lines.
• For high reliability, each IMP would be connected to at least two
other IMPs.
• The subnet was to be a datagram subnet, so if some lines and IMPs
were destroyed, messages could be automatically rerouted along
alternative paths.
• Each node of the network was to consist of an IMP and a host, in
the same room, connected by a short wire.
• A host could send messages of up to 8063 bits to its IMP, which
would then break these up into packets of at most 1008 bits and
forward them independently toward the destination.
• Each packet was received in its entirety before being forwarded, so
the subnet was the first electronic store-and-forward packet-
switching network, packet-switched is also called a connectionless
network.
 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET
• ARPA then put out a tender for building the subnet.
• Twelve companies bid for it.
• After evaluating all the proposals, ARPA selected BBN, a consulting
firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in December 1968, awarded
it a contract to build the subnet and write the subnet software.
• BBN chose to use specially modified Honeywell DDP-316
minicomputers with 12K 16-bit words of core memory as the IMPs.
• The IMPs did not have disks, since moving parts were considered
unreliable.
• The IMPs were interconnected by 56-kbps lines leased from
telephone companies.
• The software was split into two parts: subnet and host.
• The subnet software consisted of the IMP end of the host-IMP
connection, the IMP-IMP protocol, and a source IMP to destination
IMP protocol designed to improve reliability.
• The original ARPANET design has shown in below figure.
 Examples of Networks
➢ARPANET

The original ARPANET design

 Examples of Networks
➢ ARPANET
• Somehow the experimental network went on the
air in December 1969 with four nodes: at UCLA,
UCSB, SRI, and the University of Utah.
• These four were chosen because all had a large
number of ARPA contracts, and all had different
and completely incompatible host computers.
• The network grew quickly as more IMPs were
delivered and installed; it soon spanned the
United States.
• Below Figure shows how rapidly the ARPANET
grew in the first 3 years.
 Examples of Networks
➢ARPANET

Growth of the ARPANET. (a) December 1969. (b) July 1970. (c) March
1971. (d) April 1972. (e) September 1972.