GESTATION/PARTURITION MANAGEMENT

Gestation- period between conception and calving which is about

280±10days.
What maintains gestation?
This is maintained by interplay of maternal and foetal hormones i.e.
1) Progesterone- produced by the corpus luteum – mainly in earlier
pregnancy- this maintains pregnancy.
Progesterone has a number of functions:
 Blocks the release of gonadotrophins to stop cyclic oestrus.
 Prevents uterine contractions ensuring maintenance of pregnancy.
2. Relaxin- produced by corpus luteum. In late stages of pregnancy,
they are produced by the placenta. Relaxin softens the soft tissues
of the uterus to accommodate the growing uterus.
3. Oestrogen- work synergistically with progesterone in the
development of the mammary gland.

Gestation/lactation curve

Stop milking the animal in 10 months and marks the start of dry period
awaiting the next calving.

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The Physiological Priorities
A. Phase A (Early lactation): the priorities will be on milk
production. Thus, you have to feed the animal very well. Also
another priority is the reconditioning of the reproductive tract
especially uterine wall.
B. Phase B & C (Mid- and Late- lactation: priorities;
Partly for milk production-declines
Foetal growth- increases
C. Phase D (Dry period): priorities; maximum foetal
growth/development and the animal must be prepared for next
calving. Thus dry the animal off.

Management Activities of Gestation

1. Pregnancy diagnosis- due to confirm pregnancy and carried out
2-3 months after service.
2. Milk the animal for only 10 months i.e. 305 days lactation
period. During milking, undertake proper milking especially in the
late lactation to avoid mastitis.
3. Dry off the cow when 2 months to parturition. You can use
several techniques: i.e.:
● You can intermittent milking - skipping some days, but it may
introduce mastitis.
● Incomplete milking - particularly good for high yielding
animals.
● Sudden cessation of milking by stopping feeding the animal
and then stop milking the animal - this causes some pressure
on the mammary glands for some days. This method is not
good for high yielders.
4. Dry cow therapy – use of broad-spectrum antibiotics into the
mammary system to take care of any infection – as you stop
milking.

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5. Steaming up - during the last 2 months, you can increase the level
of nutrition of the animal. This is the time when there is the highest
foetal growth.
6. Regular herd health maintenance.

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Pregnancy Diagnosis
Done to confirm if the cow is pregnant. Mere absence of heat is not
necessary sign of pregnancy.
Methods used:
1. Rectal palpation- insert the hand into the rectum and press the
floor of the rectum towards the uterus. It is done at 3-4months. It is
accurate especially with experience.
2. Abdominal ballottement. place the hand on the abdomen in the
lower right flank trust/push inwards and upwards and the amniotic
fluid. This causes the foetus to move up and falls back and you feel
this. Its limitation is that it used only. at 5-7 months of pregnancy.
This is late.
3. Use of stethoscope- uses the machine to listen to the foetal
heartbeat-put on the lower part of abdomen. Foetal heartbeat has a
higher frequency than mature animals. The heartbeat is also lighter
and also has a high pitch.
4. Foetal movements- through the abdominal wall - the limitation is
that it only occurs in late pregnancy.

PARTURITION MANAGEMENT
Signs of Imminent Calving
1. Rotation of foetus to birth position - during most of gestation,
the foetus will be resting on its back with its feet pointing up. After
rotation into birth position, the foetus will be resting on its thorax
and abdomen with its feet positioned the uterine end and its nose
resting on the fore front.
2. Extensive enlargement of the udder - due to increased activity
of both oestrogen and progesterone.
3. Enlargement of the pelvis area- effect of relaxin.
4. Extended vulva-becomes loose and soft.
5. The animal isolates itself from the rest.
6. Becomes restless.
7. May not be feeding.

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When the animal approaches parturition, identify parturition site i.e.
indoors or outdoors. If indoors prepare maternity pen and if outdoors,
prepare maternity paddock.1 or 2 days before parturition time, bring the
animals to the sites of calving.

Requirements of Sites of Calving

1. Clean environment.
2. Remove any sharp objects especially pen.
3. Provide water and feed.
4. Have closure supervision - this site should be nearer to the
homestead. Some animals tend to eat their placenta- thus close
watching.

During the process of calving, there are three stages

a) Dilation of the cervix and entry of the foetus into the cervix
and takes 2-3 hours.
b) Expulsion of the foetus- there is strong uterus contractions
and takes about 2 hours.
c) Expulsion of the placenta- takes ½ or 1-5 hours.

The farmer should know the imminent signs of the presentation (correct)
of the calf i.e. forelegs and the nose during parturition. The farmer should
also know when to intervene and help cow in case of difficult.
1) Know the date due.
2) Isolate the cow.
3) Keep a 24 hour watch on the cow.
4) Don’t intervene unless otherwise absolutely necessary i.e. intervene
when there is prolonged labour e.g. about 8 hours, also case of
malpresentation.
5) When intervening, wash hands and attempt to realign the calf in the
birth position and then if there are difficulties, then help by gently
pulling and if there is difficult, then call for help from a vet, livestock
officer or experienced farmer.

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 6) Immediately after calving, the calf should not be exposed to
extreme environmental conditions.
7) Remove the placental membrane from the nose, mouth and eyes of
the calf to enhance sight and breathing
8) Where necessary, provide artificial respiration.
9) Make sure the dam licks the calf dry.
10) Make sure the calf suckles colostrum within the first 5-6 hours after
birth.
11) If zero grazing or commercial farmer, isolate the damn and the calf.
Leave the damn and calf together for 3 days.
Production life of a dairy cow

Calving

 Dairy cows should calve in small sheltered paddocks separate from

other livestock. Use of these paddocks should be rotated to avoid an
excessive bacterial build-up.
 Alternatively, where there is a disease problem, or when there is
adverse weather, dairy cows should calve in maternity boxes (3.6 x
3.6m) which must be disinfected after each calving.

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 Ensure there are no sharp objects, on which the calf or the cow, can
injure itself, in the maternity box. Supply fresh bedding, which must
be burned after use, for each calving.
 The cow's first act after calving is to lick the calf dry. This not only
establishes a bond between mother and her offspring, but also
reduces the risk of the calf becoming severely chilled through
excessive heat loss from the evaporation of the foetal fluids.
 The stockman should be prepared to give the calf a good rub down,
especially in cold weather, if the cow is unable to lick the calf dry.
Once the calf is dry, and has had its first feed, it's ability to resist
cold becomes very impressive, provided that the calf does not
become saturated again.
 The stockman should clean the foetal membrane from the calf's
nose and mouth, rub the calf dry, and then disinfect the navel with a
20% iodine solution.

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CALF REARING

Calf Management

In any management of calves, aim at:

i. Rearing of good calves in terms of breed and performance.

ii. Minimising calf mortality.

iii. Low cost rearing systems.

Feeding Management of Calves

Aim/objective:

- To supply nutrients required for rapid growth rate.

- To stimulate onset of rumination as earlier as possible - this

reduces the amount of milk used for feeding and enables the
calf to utilise solid foods.

Basic Principles in Calf Feeding:

1) The calf at birth is essentially a non–ruminant – the rumen is

not well developed and non- functional. However, the abomasums is
highly functional. Thus the calf relies on milk alone.

2) The calf has an oesophageal groove - this enables milk to by-

pass the rumen. The groove starts from the oesophagus right to the
abomasum.

3) The calf has very low immunity at the earlier stages because
the body has not been challenged by microorganisms. Thus the calf
must feed in colostrums to have some passive immunity. Colostrum
is high in immunoglobulins.

4) Some enzymes are not active except rennin and lactose

mainly - the activity of maltase is very low. Sucrase has no activity
at all.

5) The calf grows fast, however, when born, it has low levels of
minerals and vitamins. If you give suitable amounts of milk, it is a
good source of minerals and vitamins except iron.

6) As the calf grows older, the GIT undergoes many changes.

The rumen slowly increases in capacity and will develop rumen

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 microbes. There is closing of the oesophageal groove slowly and the
enzyme activity pattern change i.e. maltose, amylase will have
increased activity and reduction in rennin.

There are about 4 phases of feeding in calves:

1) Colostrums period - 1st week.

2) Milk feeding period – next 3 weeks i.e 2,3,& 4th.

3) Milk + solid feed period- 4th week – 9/10th week

4) Weaning - feed on forage and concentrates

A. Colostrums Feeding Period

Colostrum is very important to the calf. Its high nutritive value ensures
that the calf has the best possible start to life. Colostrum is also the calf's
sole source of protection against the bacterial diseases which it is likely to
encounter early in life.

Research has shown that the rate of absorption of the protein antibodies,
which confer immunity, and are obtained from the mother's milk, is
greatest during the first six hours after birth. The calf should suckle its
dam for at least the first 24 hours of its life. The suckling of colostrum
from, or in the presence of, the dam has been found to be most effective
for the absorption of antibodies

This is the 1st week of the calf’s life. Feed the calf with colostrum for the
whole week.

Importance of Colostrums Milk to the Calf:

i. It contains a lot of nutrients necessary for calf growth. It

is rich in energy, having high oil content, and energy is more
important to the calf than is protein at this stage of life.

ii. Contains minerals e.g. calcium, phosphorus, iron, chlorine, etc

and in vitamin A.

iii. Rich in proteins immunoglobulins - provides passive

immunity.

iv. It is rich in vitamins, particularly vitamin A, which is essential

for the efficient development of the lymphatic system and

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 epithelium tissue, which are vital for the animal to resist
disease.

v. It is highly digestible - no wastage.

vi. It acts as a natural laxative or purgative and helps in the

removal of 1st fecal material (meconium) from the GIT.

vii. It contains proteolytic enzyme action.

NB: - the composition of the colostrums changes very fast e.g. after 3 rd
day and the absorption of colostrums is high normally with 72 hours of the
calf’s life - this is the time when the enzyme system is not yet developed.

Typical colostrum status of purchased calves with related health

and mortality data (for 2206 calves) (Wilson & Brigstocke, 1981)

Colostrum test Calves % Mortality Scours Pneumonia

results % % %

Little or none 20.4 7.9 42.2 5.2

Some, but 37.0 3.0 24.2 3.2

inadequate
42.6 1.3 5.4 2.4
Adequate

If no colostrum is available from the dam or another cow, the following

mixture may be substituted:

 One whipped egg

 0.3 litre water

 0.6 litre whole milk

 0.25 ml castor oil

Feed this mixture 3 times daily for the first 4 days of the calf's life, and in
addition, administer an injection of vitamin A. In addition, a daily injection
of a tetracycline antibiotic has been found to be successful in reducing
calf losses when no colostrum is available. Ideally, a quantity of frozen
colostrum should be available on the farm. Freeze in plastic packets, each
sufficient for a single feed.

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 B. Milk Feeding Period- liquid feeding period (2nd week-4th
week)

Feed the calf on whole milk alone. The amount depends on the growth
and the size of the calf. Give about 10% of the body weight. Adjust on
weekly basis. You should feed 2 times a day.

Do not overfeed because this may result in digestive upsets and scours.
But you can feed more than that if the calf is sick or very young i.e. low
birth rate.

Ideally milk should be fed at body temperature, 37° C, or, if this is not
possible, at a consistent temperature, and at the same time every day.

During this period ensure has access to adequate drinking water daily.
Sometimes a starter diet can be introduced from the 3 rd week such as
green forages (grass, napier) - the calf may not consume but will play with
it - this enables early colonisation of rumen by microbes. You can also
introduce calf pellets in small amounts but increasing - until the calf can
consume ½ -1 kg per day (forage also).

Early feeding of solid feeds help in:

● promoting early rumen development

● also to reduce on the milk fed on the calf.

Table: Milk requirements, in litres, for different growth rates

(after Roy, 1980)

Livema Maximum Maintena Maintenance +

ss voluntary nce only gain (kg/day)
(kg) intake (l/day)

DM Liquid 0,25 0,50 1,0

20 0.65 5.1 1.5 2.7 3.8 -

30 0.90 7.1 2.1 3.2 4.4 6.9

40 1.10 8.7 2.5 3.7 4.8 7.6

50 1.30 10.2 3.0 4.2 5.3 8.3

60 1.50 11.8 3.4 4.6 5.7 9.0

70 1.65 13.0 3.9 5.0 6.2 9.6

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 80 1.80 14.2 4.3 5.5 6.6 10.2

90 1.90 15.0 4.7 5.9 7.0 10.9

100 2.00 15.8 5.5 6.3 7.4 11.5

C. Milk + Solid Feed Period (5th week – 9/10th week)

The calf is able to consume some forages and pellets besides the milk.
This is the solid/liquid feeding phase. The rumen will be developing fairly
fast and therefore feed the calf on good quality hay and roughage, pellets
(early weaner pellets – should have 16% CP), minerals, supplements,
clean water (adequate)

Feeding Schedule

Week desired wt (kg) amount of milk (lts)

1 colostrums feeding

2 30 3.0 (1 1/2+ 1 1/2)

3 35 3.5 (2 halves)

4 40 4.0

5 45 4.5

6 50 5.0

7 55 5.5-6

8 60 4

9 65 3

10 70 2

11 75 1.5

12 80 1.0

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Liquid feeding levels for five week weaning

Breed Quantity
(l/day)

Holstein-Friesland 2.8 to 3.0

Ayrshire or Guernsey 2.3 to 2.5

Jersey 1.7 to 2.0

Liquid feeding levels for eight week weaning

Breed Quantity (l/day)

Holstein-Friesland 4.0 to 4.5

Ayrshire or Guernsey 3.0 to 3.5

Jersey 2.0 to 2.5

D. Weaning

Different farms may have different feeding regimes.

Weaning is normally done at 11 weeks.

However, early weaning is possible even from 8 weeks or late weaning

=16th months.

Weaning should not occur before the calf has consumed 0.5 kg calf starter
meal per day for three consecutive days. Abrupt weaning is not advocated
for calves receiving large volumes of milk daily.

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Do not place undue stress on the calves at weaning, for example by
moving pens, castrating and dehorning. Move calves to new pens 7 to 10
days after weaning. Dehorning and the removal of extra teats should have
been done by one month of age (before weaning).

Whatever time of weaning, you should undertake gradual weaning i.e.

reduce milk consumption gradually while increasing solid consumption
gradually.

Criteria for Weaning

1) Based on age – 3-4 months.

2) Body size- the calve should have more than twice its birth weight.

3) Based on roughage intake-e.g. if the calf is able to consume

more than 2 kg roughage.

4) Body condition of the calf- effective through experience.

By the time of weaning, the calf should be 70% ruminating. On weaning,

the calf relies on the roughage given e.g. grass, hay, the roughage is
acted upon in the reticulo-rumen by the microbes with production of VFA
which provides energy. Methane and carbon dioxide is also produced and
belched out.

From weaning up to breeding, aim at the calf adding ½ kg per day. Thus
puts the animal in good quality pastures and supplement with
concentrates or give hay or silage. Ensure the weaning stress is minimal -
expressed by drop in weight or constant weight at weaning.

Weaning to 6 Months

Do not disturb calves for a week after weaning. Move to new housing after
this period. Calves can be housed in groups of 5 to 10 animals of similar
size and age. Allow access to shelter at all times. Supply good quality
grazing or good quality hay plus concentrates, or a complete calf ration, at
all times. Rotate pastures to avoid a parasite build-up. Use a deworming
programme. Silage may be introduced into the diet at this stage, but only
in small quantities because of its bulk. Note that silage will require
supplementation with protein and minerals to avoid deficiencies. Do not
feed urea or chicken litter on pastures at this stage, because they contain
insufficient undegradable protein to meet the calf's requirements.

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Calf growth meal, or dairy meal (16% C.P.), may be fed to a maximum of 2
kg per animal per day.

Feeding Mastitic Milk or Milk from Antibiotic-Treated Cows

 Mastitic milk, and milk from antibiotic-treated cows, can be

successfully fed to calves, replacing whole milk or extending surplus
colostrum supplies. Heifers fed mastitic milk must be fed and
housed individually in pens, or hutches, to prevent contact between
these calves.
 Bacteria can survive in the mouth for more than 24 hours. If calves
fed this milk suckle each other, it can cause infection of mammary
tissue, causing heifers to calve down with mastitis.
 Mastitic milk should not be fed to calves younger than 4 days of
age. The milk from antibiotic-treated cows should not be
incorporated with the colostrum for fermentation because the
antibiotic residues will inhibit the fermentation process.

CALF HOUSING

1) Indoor Housing

2) Outdoor Housing

Whatever method, the objective is to protect the calf from extreme

weather conditions, easy management and to control diseases (external
and internal parasites).

1) Indoor housing

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Good features of the house:

- Must give food/adequate protection to the calf i.e. from weather,

predators.

- should be easy o clean

- Should be well drained e.g. slanting floor.

2) Outdoor (hatches).

The hatches should be:

- Made of cheap material.

- There should be a large area for changing the hatches.

- The area should be well drained i.e. not waterlogged or swampy.

If you choose to have individual pens especially in indoors for better calf
attendance and control of diseases and also to avoid ********* condition
i.e. page 57 calf eats other calves, hairs

For disease control, calves are generally susceptible to many diseases. If a

calf is infected, this delays the onset of maturity or deaths of the calf.
Thus, undertake good hygiene and management to control most of the
diseases that infect the calves. The commom calf diseases include:

A. SCOURS

It is basically diarrhoea. It is the major disease in calves. Nutritional scours

usually results from an excessive level of carbohydrate in the diet, or from
overfeeding. There are 2 types :

a. Common scours_ caused by the complications associated.

b. Infectious scours_ with improper feeding e.g. overfeeding,

use of dirty buckets, poor milk replacers,feeding of cold
milk(feed warm milk).

Symptoms:

- Diarrhoea.

- Dullness.

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 - Anorexia (lack of appetite).

Control

Scours can be prevented in the following ways:

 Calves must get adequate amounts of colostrum as soon as

possible.

 avoid overfeeding

 Feed the milk at body temperature (37° C) temperature if possible,

otherwise feed at a constant temperature.

 Use clean buckets/ materials. The utensils should be scrubbed and

sterilized after each feed.

 Use good quality milk replacers /substitutes.

 Avoid attempt change in feeding.

i. Infectious Scours.

Leading causes of mortality in the first 2 weeks of calf’s existence. It is

caused by virus or bacteria and mainly infects the abdomen or intestines.

Aetiology: E. coli and salmonalla spp.

The disease is prevalent in unhygienic conditions:

Symptoms:

- Severe diarrhoea and very smelly.

- Dullness.

- Anorexia

- dehydration

Control

- Give antibiotics.

- Sulphidimine drugs.

Prevention

- ensure adequate colostrumin the first week is given

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 - Proper housing (for indoor).

- Good hygiene.

General Management for Scours

Should scours occur, it should be treated as follows:

 Do not feed for 24 hours, but allow free access to water.

 Re-introduce the milk ration at maintenance level (Table

above) after 24 hours, and, as soon as the dung is normal,
feed as usual.

 Scours caused by disease organisms will require a prescribed

antibiotic treatment.

 An electrolyte solution should be administered to combat

dehydration. If a commercial product is not available, the
following solution, fed three times daily, can be used:

-1 teaspoon salt

-1 teaspoon bicarbonate of soda

-1 teaspoon potassium chloride

-2 tablespoons glucose

-1 litre boiled water.

 Isolate sick calves.

If no improvement, then seek vet assistance.

B. BLOAT

Bloat occurs as a result of excessive gas production in the reticulo-rumen

of calves. Excessive consumption of highly-fermentable feeds is likely to
cause bloat. The consumption of large volumes of fluid also can cause
bloat. Therefore it is recommended that water and calf starters be
removed prior to feeding milk and only returned half an hour after feeding

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milk. The inclusion of 10% hay in the diet is very effective in reducing the
incidence of bloat

C. PNEUMONIA

Common in high altitude areas. It is caused by cold droughts, damp

conditions, poor housing against wind, rain etc.

Symptoms

- Coughing

- High fever.

- Mucus from the nose.

- Watery eyes.

The risk is increased if the calf is exposed to draughts.

Control

- Feed enough colostrums- gives calf resistance.

- A fresh draught free calf pen will prevent most calf pneumonia.

D. INTERNAL PARASITES – CONTROL

- regular deworming.- deworm from12 weeks or few weeks after

weaning and then after every 3 months

E. EXTERNAL PARASITES- ticks, lice control- spray with acaricides

solution- from 2 weeks onwards.

After weaning, they can be dipped . Outdoor calf rearing, pay attention to
external parasites.

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Undertake Vaccination Against:

i. FMD- from 4 months onwards and repeated every 6 months.

ii. Blanthax (black quarter and anthrax) from 6 months.

iii. Brucellosis - 8 months.

iv. Bloat- (castle oil is used) or use traca and canula.

Routine Operations in Calf Management

i. Performance monitoring- measure calves daily of weekly to know

the daily gains and the feed conversion ratio of the calf.

ii. Identification.

iii. Removal of extra teats.

iv. Disbudding.

v. Castration of unwanted bulls.

vi. Dipping.

vii. Training – makes the calf easier to handle.

CALF'S ENVIRONMENT

When calves are artificially reared from soon after birth, some form of
housing is required. Research data indicate that it is best to keep calves
individually penned until they are at least one month old or, if maximum
weight gains are required, until three months of age. The main advantage
of individual housing is that the incidence of cross-infection is reduced.

 Calves should be housed in well-ventilated but draught-free

housing. Individual housing in crates (0.9m wide x 1.4m long) or
hutches (1.2m wide x 2.4m long x 1.2m high) is considered the
method of choice. It is important that calves should be able to see
each other. Never place a wet calf in a hutch.

 Group housing of approximately 5 calves of the same age

and size is another possibility. Allocate 1.4 to 1.8 m 2 per calf,
with 350 mm trough space per calf younger than 3 months. To
avoid calves suckling each other, tie them up for 20 to 30 minutes
after feeding milk.

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Cleansing and disinfection

Milk-feeding utensils should be cleaned thoroughly after use by rinsing in

cold, or luke warm water and then by washing them in warm water
containing both a detergent and a disinfectant. After washing, they should
be rinsed in cold water and set out to dry (do not use a drying cloth which
may be "dirty", rather drain and allow to air dry).

Cleanliness is essential in calf houses. Calf pens must be cleaned and then
disinfected between the removal of older calves and the entry of younger
calves. The process consists of two distinct operations:

 the removal of all dirt such as dust, dung, cobwebs (cleansing).

 the application of a disinfectant to the cleaned surface to kill

micro-organisms.

Cleaning should be done on a daily basis. Beware of leaving the calf house
damp and humid. This may result in respiratory disease in the calves.
Cleaning can be done using power hoses (not when calves are present) or
scrubbing brushes. A washing soda solution (4%) can be used.

Sunshine is a good disinfectant, therefore allow equipment to dry in the

sun.

PERMANENT IDENTIFICATION

The ability to identify animals is essential for good record keeping and for
efficient management. At birth, some form of permanent identification
such as ear notches or tattoos, is essential. Later, for convenience and to
facilitate identification, ear tags (which however, may fall out) are useful.
For dairy cows, freeze brands on the rump are useful for identification in
the parlour. Freeze branding can be done successfully when heifers are
first mated, or after they have been confirmed as being pregnant.

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REARING OF REPLACEMENT STOCK
This can be the heifers or bull calves.
Objectives of rearing (any)
To have rapid and uninterrupted rate of growth rate of the calves - such
that they are able to attain the correct body size or age as earlier as
possible.

Important aspects of rearing reproductive stock

1) Feeding – include liquid feeding (giving colostrum or normal milk or
milk substitutes) and Solid feeding (feed pellets , hay, silage).
2) Disease control – control scouring, pneumonia, other infectious
diseases e.g. Salmonellosis, enterotoxaemia.
3) Housing – ensure there is good ventilation, bedding and general
cleanliness. In case of outdoor rearing, you must protect the calf
from chilling or draughts.
4) Other routine operations
- identification
- castration
- Dehorning.

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HEIFER MANAGEMENT
Heifer- female cattle between weaning and up to start of 1 st lactation.
Aims in heifer management
1. To lower losses through deaths.
2. Reduce the interval between weaning and that of 1 st calving
thus increasing productive lifespan of heifer.
To achieve a high growth rate of approximately 0.7-0.5 you should
have good feeding. This is to ensure that the heifer attains early
puberty.
3. To use a rearing system that reduces costs while ensuring
good growth performance. When feeding the heifers, you should
rely more on the size rather than the chronological age. To achieve
the right size, ensure the calf is well feeding post-deweaning. In
most cases, grazing is the cheapest way-thus provide good pastures
and you can supplement only if the quality and/or quantity of the
pastures are not adequate. This is to maintain all the body
requirements i.e. maintenance, productive and reproductive
requirements.
4. When feeding, avoid overfeeding or underfeeding. From
weaning 3-4 months up to 6 months, you can supplement 1 ½ kg of
concentrates i.e. reduced as you approach the 6 months. Over 6
months, good quality pasture is enough/adequate. Between 3th- 9 th
month of calf’s life, the mammary tissue grows fats than other body
tissues (3 times). If too much nutrients are provided at this time, the
calf will have fatty mammary tissue which will affect the endocrine
stimulation at a later stage. However, you can give good pastures.

 Underfeeding has a long delay to attaining puberty besides

having too thin and skeletal body with the pelvic region not
well developed and thus the heifer will have problems in
giving birth. Underfeeding also results in silent heat and thus
no service will occur.
 On the other hand, over feeding also resulting in fatty
mammary tissue and also results in some form of distocia

23
 which result in difficulties in birth. Fat can also cover the
reproductive tract which may lead to infertility.

DAIRY HEIFER PRODUCTION

Heifers are the foundation of any dairy enterprise. Farmers can improve
their herds by replacing culled cows with well-fed, healthy, genetically
superior two-year-old heifers. In most herds, dairy farmers replace 25 to
30 percent of the herd each year. These replacements represent a
significant financial investment.
The dairy farmer’s goal should be to raise healthy, well grown heifers that
calve and enter the milking herd by 22 to 24 months of age. Producers
should strive for an average calving age of 23 months. Research and field
data indicate that lifetime production and profitability increase with
calving slightly below 24 months of age.

Housing
As the dairy heifer grows, its housing requirements change. Heifers should
be kept in dry, well-ventilated, draft-free quarters that have sufficient
bedding. Humidity and odour control are necessary for the heifer’s health
and comfort. In addition, you must have a handling facility for routine
health examinations and breeding.
For the first month or two following weaning, house three to five calves in
a large shed with an outside yard. Calves 4 to 11 months of age need 6
inches of bunk space (feeding area); calves 12 to 17 months need 12
inches of bunk space; and heifers over 18 months need 18 inches of bunk
space to ensure adequate feed availability. When the calves are 4 months
old, they should be moved to a grow-out facility.

Nutrition
At weaning (4-6 weeks of age), the calf should be consuming, about 1 kg
of concentrate. Following weaning, increase the amount of concentrate (to

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about 2 kg), and provide free access to hay and other forages. However,
the amount of concentrate fed will depend partly on the calf’s age, but
primarily on the quality of the forage. After the calves are 9 months old,
they can be put on pasture supplemented with small amounts of
concentrate and forages. Fresh water must be continually available at all
stages of the dairy heifer’s life.

Breeding
Heifers should be ready to breed at 13 to 15 months so they are able to
calve around 24 months. The keys to a successful breeding program are
proper nutrition, a preventive health program, routine heat detection, and
timely insemination. Keeping accurate heat date and breeding records is
an important aspect of a heifer-breeding program.

Health Program
The first few months of a calf’s life are critical for producing a healthy
animal. Digestive and respiratory diseases that occur in young calves
often result from overcrowding, poor ventilation, improper nutrition,
inadequate sanitation, and cold, wet weather. Therefore, the best kind of
health program is a preventive one and starts with a good housing and
feeding program.
A good management practice for farmers is to dehorn calves (and remove
extra teats if necessary) at a young age. This is less stressful on the
heifers if done at an early age. In addition, vaccinate heifers at 4 to 8
months of age and before breeding.
A routine deworming program for young calves should start at weaning
and continue until 8 months of age. Heifers should be dewormed 3 and 6
weeks after they are put on pasture and whenever they are put on
confinement. Coccidiosis can cause diarrhoea in calves beginning at 3
weeks of age. Incorporating a prevention product, such as coccidiostat or
ionophore, can help control coccidiosis. Calves also should be treated for
external parasites such as flies, mange mites, and lice.
Keep accurate vaccination and health records to help reduce death loss
and ensure healthy heifers. Ear tags, neck chains, or freeze brands are

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good identification methods that help maintain accurate records. Consult
with a veterinarian to plan an effective preventive health program.

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LACTATING ANIMAL:

To get high milk during any lactation, the milking animal should be
properly fed and necessary care and management practices should be
followed.

1) Provide green succulent forage together with leguminous

hay or straw to the extent of animal can consume, so that
all its maintenance requirements are met with through
forage only. Extra concentrate at the rate of 1 kg for every
2 to 2.5 liters of milk should be provided. Salt and mineral
supplements should be given to maintain the lactation.
2) Never frighten or excite the animals. Always treat them
gently and with kindness.
3) With proper feeding and care, a cow will come to heat
within 60 days of calving. Do not withhold service
unnecessarily after the signs of heat are noticed in a cow.
The shorter the interval between calvings, the more
efficient the animal is as a milk producer. By maintaining
proper records of breeding and calvings of the animals will
ensure a study flow of milk throughout the year.
4) Individual attention to feed each animal according to its
production is a must. For this purpose maintain individual
production records.
5) Keep up regularity of feeding. Concentrate mix is fed
before or during milking, when as roughages after
milking. This practice will avoid dust in the shed.
6) Water should be provided to drink at will or at frequent
intervals. It is more beneficial, if the animal is maintained
on paddy straw as sole roughage.
7) Regularity in milking is essential. Increase of milk in the
udder will reduce further secretion of milk. Milking thrice
is better than twice since 10 - 15 % more milk can be
produced.
8) Rapid, continuous, dry hand milking should be practiced
without undue jerking of teats. Milking should be done
with whole hand, but not with thumb and index finger.
9) Cows should be trained to let down milk without calf
suckling. This will help to wean the calves early.
10) Loose housing with shelter during hot part of
the day should be provided. The animals will get maximum
exercise in loose housing system.
11) Grooming of the cows and washing of the
cows before milking help in clean milk production. Daily

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 brushing will remove loose hair and dirt from the coat.
Grooming will also keep the animal skin pliable.
12) Common ailments should be properly
detected and treated.
13) Common vices should be properly detected
and care should be taken e.g. Kicking, licking, suckling
etc.
14) Provide at least 60 - 90 days dry period
between calvings. If the dry period is not sufficient, the
milk yield is subsequent lactation will be reduced.
15) Vaccinate the cows- against important
diseases and also guard against insects and pests.
16) Every animal should be numbered and
particulars pertaining to milk, fat %, feed taken, breeding,
drying and calving dates should be recorded.
17) Check for mastitis regularly.

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