South African animals

at risk of extinction

Mamadi Theresa Sethusa, Desiré Lee Dalton and Chantelle Pretorius

Pretoria
2022
Contributing authors: Albert Chakona, Desiré Lee Dalton, Charl Deacon, Dave Edge, Sean Hensman, Raymond Jansen, Martine Jordaan,
Kim Labuschagne, Katta Ludynia, Monica Mwale, Chantelle Pretorius, Stefan Prost, Isa-Rita Russo, Michael J. Samways, Mamadi Theresa
Sethusa, Jeremy Shelton, Jeanne Tarrant, Precious Tshililo and Dewidine van der Colff.

Technical editor: Alicia Grobler

Proofreader: Nicole Meyer
Design & layout: Chantelle Pretorius & Elizma Fouché
Cover design: Elizma Fouché
Cover photograph: Francois Meyer

Recommended citations:

Reference to book:
Sethusa, M.T., Dalton, D.L. & Pretorius, C. (eds). 2022. South African animals at risk of extinction. South African National Biodi-
versity Institute, Pretoria.

Reference to chapter:
Hensman, S. & Dalton, D. 2022. Elephant. In: M.T. Sethusa, D.L. Dalton & C. Pretorius (eds), South African animals at risk of
extinction. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

ISBN: 978-1-928224-59-4

Obtainable from: SANBI Bookshop, Private Bag X101, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
Tel.: +27 12 843 5000
Email: [email protected] .za
Website: www.sanbi.org

Printed by: Rand Data Forms (Pty) Ltd, P.O. Box 24194, Gezina, 0031 (Pretoria Office), tel. no.: +27 12 567 1564.

Copyright © 2022 by South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI).

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. The views
and opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of SANBI or the editors. The authors and publisher have made their best efforts to
prepare this book and make no representation or warranties of any kind regarding the completeness or accuracy of the contents herein.
All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned and no responsibility is
accepted by the publisher, printer or editors for any infringement of copyright or otherwise arising from the contents of this publication.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the credits accurately comply with the information supplied by the authors.
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Mathias Appel iii

South African animals at risk of extinction

iv Photograph: Bernd M. Schell

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Contents
Editorial conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Acknowledgement of contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Glossary of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
List of acronyms used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Elephant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Mammals

African wild dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Black rhinoceros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Temminck’s pangolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

African Penguin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Birds

Bank Cormorant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Cape Cormorant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Smallscale redfin and Clanwilliam sandfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Fish

Hammerhead sharks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Amphibians

Pickersgill’s reed frog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Brenton Blue butterfly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Insects

Dragonflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Grasshoppers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

How can I help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Editorial conventions
Species
Both scientific and common names are provided when referring to species. The English common name is used, unless a non-English
common name is predominantly used in South Africa. It is recognised that more than one English common name may exist and that
common names in other official South African languages also exist.

Acronyms
A full list of acronyms and their definitions is provided. The use of acronyms has been restricted to those that are in common usage or used
frequently throughout the document.

Terminology
A glossary of terms is provided. Readers are also encouraged to refer to the Lexicon of Biodiversity Planning in South Africa (SANBI 2016),
which provides standard definitions of key concepts and frequently used terms.

References
All references for the text are provided at the end of each contribution.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Foreword
Since the middle of the 19th century, the world has been in
the midst of a sixth mass extinction, with the number of several
wildlife species continually declining, mainly as a result of habi-
tat loss, but also due to other factors, such as overharvesting in
the form of fishing and hunting, illegal trade, pollution, disease,
human-wildlife conflict, climate change and/or due to the pres-
ence of invasive species. It is estimated that between 20 and
39% of plant species are at risk of extinction globally, due to
anthropogenic threats like land-use change, direct exploitation,
pollution, invasive species and climate change, and require ur-
gent conservation actions. In 2020, the World Wildlife Fund
(WWF) reported an average decrease of 68% in the population
size of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish between
1970 and 2016. During this period, marine life suffered an as-
tonishing 36% loss in population size. Human-induced impacts
are causing the current Anthropocene extinction.

In order to reduce the loss of species on our planet, we all need to play an active role, which starts with making small changes to be-
haviours in our everyday life. South Africa is particularly blessed with a variety of amazing wildlife species, from giant beasts to delicate
winged creatures. However, sadly, many of them are becoming threatened. The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) is
mandated to play a leading role in the country’s commitment to biodiversity management. This is achieved by employing SANBI’s value
chain, from studying the foundations of biodiversity (taxonomy and classification), to building biodiversity knowledge (assessments
and monitoring), to building a bridge from science to policy, thus informing conservation decision-making. The institute’s mission is to
champion the exploration, conservation, sustainable use, appreciation, and enjoyment of South Africa’s exceptionally rich biodiversity
for all South Africans.

In collaboration with several researchers in the fields of ecology, genetics and population dynamics, SANBI is proud to present this book
with the aim to shed light on a handful of animals of conservation concern, some of which you may not even know are threatened. The
various sections highlight current knowledge on each species and identify the threats that these animals face. This book further describes
conservation actions and their potential impact on the threat status for the species. It is hoped that, with this user-friendly, highly informa-
tive and inspirational book, current and future generations will be spurred to action and become conservation warriors, fighting to protect
species and reduce biodiversity loss.

Ramagwai Joseph Sebola

Chief Director: Foundational Biodiversity Science, SANBI

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Acknowledgement of contributors
Special thanks go to SANBI for creating an environment and funding for the development of this product. Additionally, we want to thank
the SANBI Graphics and Editing team for their assistance with editing, proofreading, design and layout. The production of this publication
was made possible by SANBI Zoological Research and a network of expert partners as detailed below.

Dr Albert Chakona Prof. Desiré Lee Dalton

South African Institute for South African National Biodiversity
Aquatic Biodiversity Institute; Teesside University

Dr Charl Deacon Dr Dave Edge

Stellenbosch University Brenton Blue Trust

Prof. Raymond Jansen

Sean Hensman
Tshwane University of Technology;
Elephants for Africa Forever;
African Pangolin Working Group
Adventures with Elephants
IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group

Dr Martine Jordaan
Kim Labuschagne
CapeNature Biodiversity Capabilities
South African National
Unit; NRF-SAIAB; CapeNature Centre
Biodiversity Institute
of Excellence for Invasion Biology

Dr Katta Ludynia Dr Monica Mwale

The Southern African Foundation for South African National
the Conservation of Coastal Birds Biodiversity Institute

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Dr Stefan Prost
Chantelle Pretorius South African National Biodiversity
South African National Institute; University of Vienna; University
Biodiversity Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Austria;
Natural History Museum, Austria

Dr Mamadi Theresa Sethusa

Dr Isa-Rita Russo
South African National
Cardiff University
Biodiversity Institute

Prof. Michael J. Samways Dr Jeremy Shelton

Stellenbosch University Freshwater Research Centre

Dr Jeanne Tarrant Precious Tshililo

Endangered Wildlife Trust The National Museum

Dewidine van der Colff

South African National
Biodiversity Institute

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Glossary of terms
Also see the Lexicon of Biodiversity Planning in South Africa Genera: A principal taxonomic category that ranks above spe-
(SANBI 2016), which provides standard definitions of key con- cies and below family.
cepts and frequently used terms.
Herbivore: Refers to an animal that feeds on plants.
Anthropogenic: Changes in the environment caused by hu- Husbandry: The breeding of plants and animals.
mans or human activity. Hybrid: The offspring of two plants or animals of different spe-
Biodiversity: The variety and variability of all living organisms cies or varieties.
on Earth. Hybrid zone: Regions where genetically distinct populations
Cephalopods: An active predatory mollusc of the large class meet, mate and produce at least some offspring of mixed
Cephalopoda, such as an octopus or squid. ancestry.
Cholera: An infectious and often fatal bacterial disease of the Inbred: The mating of individuals or organisms that are closely
small intestine, typically contracted from infected water related.
supplies and causing severe vomiting and diarrhoea. Indigenous: Meaning native, occurring naturally in a particular
Cranium: The skull, especially the part enclosing the brain. area.
Discordance: lack of agreement or consistency. In situ: Conservation where the plant or animal is in its original
or indigenous habitat.
Diurnal: Behaviour of plants and animals which are active dur-
ing the day. Mitochondrial DNA: The mitochondrion is involved in the
production of cellular energy via oxidative phosphoryla-
Diverged (biology): When two or more populations that have
tion. Inside the mitochondrion, its own genome is found,
arisen from a single ancestral species accumulate inde-
hence mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The mtDNA is com-
pendent genetic changes (mutations) through time.
posed of a double-stranded, circular DNA molecule,
Endemism: The state of a species being indigenous to a single which is arranged into a single chromosome.
defined geographic location. Examples include an is-
Morphological: Relating to the form or structure of things.
land, state, nation, country or other defined zone.
Mya: A million years ago.
Entomologist: A person who studies insects.
Niche: An environment that has all the things that a particular
Ex situ: Conservation where the plant or animal has been
plant or animal needs in order to live.
moved from its indigenous habitat.
Nuclear DNA: The DNA which makes up the cell’s genome
Extinct: Species, family, or another group of animals or plants
is known as nuclear DNA (nDNA). The nDNA is located
having no living members and are no longer in existence.
in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The nDNA or the ge-
Gene: A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent nome of a eukaryotic cell is organised into several linear
to offspring and determines some characteristics of the chromosomes, which are found tightly packed inside the
offspring . nucleus.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Pathogen: A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can

cause disease.
Phenotype: A set of observable traits, or characters of an orga-
nism.
Pelagic: Birds or fish that can be found in the open sea.
Pneumatised: presence of air spaces within bones.
Polygyny: A pattern of mating in which a male animal has more
than one female mate.
Proboscideans: A mammal of the order Proboscidea, which
comprises the elephants and their extinct relative.
Prehensile: Chiefly of an animal’s limb or tail, capable of
grasping.
Taxa: A taxonomic group of any rank, e.g., family, genus, or
species.
Urbanisation: The process of making an area more urban, how
cities grow and how more and more people are living in
that area.

Photograph: Kyle Petzer

xi
South African animals at risk of extinction

xii Photograph: David Brossard

 South African animals at risk of extinction

List of acronyms used

AOO . . . . . . . . . . Area of occupancy
APWG . . . . . . . . . African Pangolin Working Group
BBBR. . . . . . . . . . Brenton Blue Butterfly Reserve
BBT . . . . . . . . . . . Brenton Blue Trust
BMP. . . . . . . . . . . Biodiversity Management Plan
BMP-S . . . . . . . . . Biodiversity Management Plan for Species
CFE . . . . . . . . . . . Cape Fold Ecoregion
CITES . . . . . . . . . Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
DAERL. . . . . . . . . Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs, Rural Development and Land Reform
EOO. . . . . . . . . . . Extent of occurrence
EWT. . . . . . . . . . . Endangered Wildlife Trust
IUCN . . . . . . . . . International Union for Conservation of Nature
JCPR-ARP. . . . . . . Amphibian Research Project for the Johannesburg Zoological Garden
KM . . . . . . . . . . . Knysna Municipality
KZN. . . . . . . . . . . KwaZulu-Natal
MYA. . . . . . . . . . . Million years ago
NGO . . . . . . . . . . Non-governmental organisation
NIMPA . . . . . . . . Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area
NPO. . . . . . . . . . . Non-profit organisation
NRF. . . . . . . . . . . National Research Foundation
SAIAB. . . . . . . . . South African Institute for Aquatic Biology
SANBI . . . . . . . . . South African National Biodiversity Institute
SANCCOB. . . . . . Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds
WESSA . . . . . . . . Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa

xiii
South African animals at risk of extinction

xiv Photograph: Leonardo Lamas

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Introduction
South Africa is one of 17 megadiverse countries on Earth and resources. Some of the key contributors to habitat loss include
has three of the 36 global biodiversity hotspots (biologically rich, unsustainable agriculture, both commercial and residential de-
i.e., areas of high biodiversity and endemism although threat- velopments, mining, and fragmentation of rivers and streams.
ened) within its borders, namely the Maputaland-Pondoland- Human actions have severely affected natural habitat with 75%
Albany, Cape Floristic Region and Succulent Karoo hotspots. of terrestrial and 67% of marine environment being altered,
The country boasts an estimated animal diversity of between with a loss of 85% of wetlands reported.
250 000 and 1 000 000, and ca. 23 000 plant species. Many
plant species are endemic (i.e., species that occur nowhere Invasive species are predominantly alien to the invaded area
else in the world) to the country. For animals, nearly half of all and bring along several environmental complications when
known reptile, amphibian, freshwater fish and butterfly species they are introduced to new habitats. These species can com-
are endemic, but for other less known invertebrates, too little is pete with indigenous species for resources, including shelter
known to determine their level of endemism. In marine habi- and food, or in some cases the invasive species could be-
tats, especially along the coastal area of South Africa, high levels come predators of indigenous species in the area. Addition-
of endemism have been reported for the Agulhas ecoregion, ally, with invasive species comes the risk of introducing new
around the southern-most tip of Africa, and entirely within the diseases which could potentially have detrimental effects on
borders of South Africa. There is, therefore, a large number
of species only present in South Africa, giving the country a
huge responsibility to protect these species. The first step to-
wards decision-making for species protection/conservation is to
determine whether they are threatened and, if so, what the
drivers of the threats are. Species threat status is determined
based on a series of International Union of Conservation of Na-
ture (IUCN) assessment criteria, placing species into different
categories informed by how close to extinction the species is
becoming. Based on these assessments, the major threats to
South African species are identified as habitat loss (including
modifications), biological invasion, overutilisation and climate
change. These are similar to global trends where habitat loss is
the main driver of threat, but in South Africa, there are many
processes in place to reduce these pressures, some being more
effective than others.

Habitat loss refers to the thinning, fragmenting, or outright de-

struction of an ecosystem’s plant, soil, hydrologic and nutrient

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

EX A taxon is EXTINCT when the last individual has died.

EW
A taxon is EXTINCT in the wild when it is known to only survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalised
population outside of its past range.

CR
A taxon is listed as CRITICALLY ENDANGERED when evaluated criteria indicates that the species is facing and
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

EN
A taxon is listed as ENDANGERED when evaluated criteria indicates that the species is facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.

VU
A taxon is listed as VULNERABLE when evaluated criteria indicates that the species is facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild.

NT
A taxon is listed as NEAR THREATENED when evaluated criteria indicates that it is close to or is likely to qualify for
a threatened category in the near future.

LC A taxon is listed as LEAST CONCERN if it is widespread and abundant.

DD A taxon is listed as DATA DEFICIENT if more data is required to make an informed assessment.

The eight IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM categories.

Photograph: David Brossard

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

the indigenous population, similar to humans spreading disease and shelter. Additionally, it can also have a negative impact on
from one country to another through their travels. a species’ ability to reproduce, leading to a decrease in popula-
tion size.
There are two types of overexploitations: direct and indirect.
Direct exploitation refers to the direct impacts humans have on Climate change is one of the biggest drivers of natural changes.
plants and animals, including poaching, unsustainable hunting Species are under pressure to adapt to environmental changes
practices and overharvesting for both subsistence and/or trade. due to climate change and often have to migrate from their
Indirect exploitation refers to the unintentional impact that hu- natural habitat to climatically suitable environments.
mans have on the natural environment, including the killing of
bycatch. Additionally, the extraction of natural resources, par- To enable conservation actions, there needs to be a good un-
ticularly construction materials, is increasing in demand globally, derstanding of the species taxonomy (What is it? What is its
which in turn puts pressure on the natural environments and name? How does it look?), their distribution (Where does it
habitats of countless plants and animals. These unsustainable ex- occur? Does it have a specific habitat requirement?) and the
tractions have threatened the existence of many plant and ani- threats they are faced with. This information is collated through
mal species as their natural habitat decreases at an alarming rate. joined and coordinated efforts by taxonomists working in aca-
demia and other research institutions, conservation officers and
As with overexploitation, pollution can have both direct and South Africans volunteering as citizen scientists who monitor
indirect impacts on the survival of a species. The direct impact species in their natural habitat. In some cases, citizen scientists
will be the effect that pollution has on the natural habitat of a are members of NGOs or NPOs (e.g. LepSoc, BotSoc, BirdLife
species, while also indirectly affecting the availability of food South Africa, etc.) who enjoy spending time in nature, taking

Photograph: Christopher Willis

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

photographs of species they observe and sharing their images services to people. The framework comprises of 21 targets and
through online applications such as iNaturalist. All of these 10 milestones proposed for 2030. Some of the key targets are
contributors provide information that is key in understanding indicated in the figure above.
species and enabling conservation actions.
The South African animals at risk of extinction book illustrates
Although we are facing a global crisis due to climate change 14 taxonomic accounts, including small, large and possibly
and loss of biodiversity, we may still be able to turn the situation underappreciated species. It provides information about their
around if we all work together. The Secretariat of the UN Con- current state and how interventions have or could change their
vention on Biological Diversity (CBD) released the first draft trajectory. Information is also provided on how easy it is to get
of a new global biodiversity framework in 2020, to guide ac- involved with the conservation and protection of species and
tions worldwide to preserve and protect nature and its essential natural resources in general for South Africa.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Belinda Cave

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Hoveka, L.N., Van der Bank, M., Bezeng, B.S. & Davies, T.J. 2020. SANBI 2016. Lexicon of Biodiversity Planning in South Africa. Beta
Identifying biodiversity knowledge gaps for conserving South Afri- Version, June 2016. South African National Biodiversity Insti-
ca’s endemic flora. Biodiversity and Conservation 29: 2803–2819. tute, Pretoria. [Available from: http://biodiversityadvisor.sanbi.
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/2016_06_02-Lexicon.pdf].
Ecosystem Services (IPBES). 2019. Global assessment report on WWF. 2016. Living Planet Report 2016. Risk and resilience in a
biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental new era. WWW International, Gland, Switzerland.
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: WWF. 2020. Living Planet Report 2020. Bending the curve of bio-
E.S. Brondizio, J. Settele, S. Díaz & H.T. Ngo (eds). IPBES Sec- diversity loss. In: R.E.A. Almond, M. Grooten & T. Peterson (eds).
retariat, Bonn. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Barry Peter 7

South African animals at risk of extinction

8 Photograph: Richard Jacobs

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Elephant
In 2021, the two African species of elephants were assessed separately for the first time. The African forest elephant (Loxodonta
cyclotis) was listed as Critically Endangered and the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) was listed as Endangered
on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Population declines have been occurring over several decades due to loss of
habitat and poaching for their ivory.

Out of Africa: a story of the forest and savanna elephant

Sean Hensman1 and Desire Lee Dalton2,3

There are 165 species and subspecies of proboscideans (animals

having a proboscis or trunk used to grab food or water), classi-
fied in 42 genera and eight families. Most genera and species in
these families are extinct. Only two genera currently exist today
namely, Loxodonta and Elephas. Elephants are separated into
the two genera. The Asian elephant and the extinct mammoths
are placed in Elephas, whereas the African elephants are placed
in Loxodonta. Thus, the Asian elephant is the closest living rela-
tive of the extinct woolly mammoth (Figure 1).

All elephants look very similar: they all have a long trunk, called
the proboscis, which is used for breathing, grasping objects and
to obtain water. Their tusks are used to debark trees, move
and manipulate objects, for digging and are used for sparring
and protection. Elephants have thick, short legs to carry their
weight. However, elephants from different geographic regions
differ morphologically and for this reason the number of species
has been disputed for several years. In 1955, Frade described
several morphological differences between the African savanna Figure 1: Extinct wooly mammoth. Photograph: Thomas Quine.

1
Elephants for Africa Forever and Adventures with Elephants, P.O. Box 1500, Limpopo, 0480 South Africa
2
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
3
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

and forest elephants and suggested that they were two differ-
ent species. However, in 1953, researchers described elephants
in the north-eastern Congo that had similarities to both species
and thus Frade’s analysis was disputed. In 2000, researchers
provided detailed descriptions of the African savanna and forest
elephants. They indicated that savanna elephants had large, tri-
angular ears that overlapped across the top of the neck, whereas
the forest species had smaller, rounded ears. The two species
also have different tusk shapes: savanna elephant tusks are stur-
dy and curve outward, forward, as well as down, whereas forest
elephant tusks are thinner, longer compared to the size of the
animal and mainly protrude downward. The body of the forest
elephant is also more compact, with forequarters that are lower
than hindquarters. Lastly, there are differences in the craniums
of these elephants. Savanna elephants have pneumatised crani-
ums that results in the cranium flaring out below the temporal
ridges. In forest elephants, the cranium drops vertically behind
the eyes and the forehead slopes back more sharply.

In more recent years, scientists have used DNA to determine if

these elephants are two different species. In all species, there
are two types of DNA: mitochondrial and nuclear. Mitochon-
drial DNA is circular and inherited only from the mother. Nu-
clear DNA, on the other hand, is linear and inherited from both
parents. Mitochondrial DNA only codes for approximately 37
genes whereas nuclear DNA codes for approximately 20 000
genes. The mutation rate in mitochondrial DNA is higher com-
pared to nuclear DNA. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA in el-
ephants has identified two lineages namely the S clade and the
F clade. These two clades diverged approximately 5.5 million
years ago. The S mitochondrial clade has only been found in
savanna elephant whereas the F mitochondrial clade has been
found in forest and savanna elephant. This data suggests that
savanna and forest elephants have mixed with each other and
indicate that they are a single species. However, nuclear ge-
netic studies have found that they are distinct, deeply diverged
and are two separate species with only a few hybrid individu-
als found in the intervening region between tropical forest and
savanna habitats. Thus, evidence based on nuclear analysis
supports the designation of two species, despite the existence
Photograph: Matthew Spiteri
of a hybrid zone. Even with intensive genetic analysis different

10
 South African animals at risk of extinction

taxonomic designations were given to African elephants and

interpretation of results depended on what type of marker was
used. Due to inconsistencies in the genetic data, in 2007, the
African Elephant Specialist Group and Species Survival Com-
mission of the International Union for the Conservation of Na-
ture (IUCN) decided to ‘continue to treat African elephants as
a single species. However, the reason for the discordance be-
tween nuclear and mitochondrial results could be attributed to
the behaviour of elephants. Male elephants will leave the herd
while females will remain with their natal groups. Mitochondri-
al DNA will not be inherited within the core social groups and
not between herds of different geographic ranges. Therefore,
the observation of mixed mitochondrial lineages that we find
today is an ancient signal of past habitat and climate. Whereas,
due to male-mediated gene flow between different geographic
ranges, the nuclear genetic signatures of past climate and habi-
tat changes have been erased and nuclear difference are reflec-
tive of the overall current population structure. Based on this
interpretation of the genetic results, it was confirmed that there
are two species of African elephant. Between the forest and sa-
vanna habitats a relatively narrow transition zone exists where
approximately 81.3% of the animals are hybrids and 18.7%
are pure savanna elephants. The hybrids are reported to be
fertile, as animals that were second generation or more, were

What is the difference between a

species and a subspecies?
A species is a population or groups of populations that are
able to interbreed. If different species breed, the offspring are
likely to be sterile. Subspecies are subgroups within a species
and subgroups may differ morphologically, behaviourally
and occupy different geographic niches. Most importantly,
subgroups differ genetically. Mayr & Ashlock (1991) defined
a subspecies as an ‘aggregate of phenotypically similar popu-
lations of a species inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the
range of that species and differing taxonomically from other
populations of that species.’
Photograph: Will Shirley

11
 South African animals at risk of extinction

detected. Within these two species, regional differences have investigations, and comparing it to the reference database, you
been reported among both forest and savanna elephants, with can identify where the animal used to live.
more than 20 subspecies suggested based on morphological
differences. For example, in Namibia elephants are reported African savanna elephants previously occurred across all of Af-
to have longer legs, larger feet and they are taller and leaner. rica, however, the species is now found in 23 countries: An-
Although regional morphological differences among elephants gola, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad,
have been identified, genetic analysis of these populations has Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
reported that genetic differences between them are very low, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda,
and it is likely that environmental factors such as nutrition or Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zam-
pathogens influence elephant growth rates or patterns resulting bia, Zimbabwe. Elephant have been completely wiped out in
Burundi, Eswatini and Mauritania. However, reintroductions of
in morphological differences.
elephants have begun in the 1980s in Eswatini. The African for-
The African pygmy elephant (Loxodonta pumilio) has been de- est elephants were previously distributed in the forests of west-
scribed from tropical forests of Africa. Some studies have de- ern and central Africa. Currently, these elephants are found in
scribed modest genetic differences supporting management of 20 countries: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central
these populations as a separate entity, while other studies have African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivo-
provided support for genetic similarity of forest elephants in
ry Coast, Liberia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South
Central and Western Africa. Thus, the taxonomic status of forest
Sudan and Togo. They are considered extinct in the Gambia.
elephants in West Africa is currently under debate and remains
The majority of African forest elephant populations are found
something of an enigma.
in six central African countries and in these regions, they only
Although genetic differences between populations of elephants occupy approximately 25% of their former range.
in Africa are minor, these differences can still be used in foren-
Elephants are unique in comparison to other social mammals
sic cases to provide information on the geographic origins of
that live in stable groups. Elephants live in fission–fusion socie-
elephants and elephant parts, such as tusks that are confiscated
ties, which include core family groups of two to twenty mat-
in seizures. For example, a genetic method has been developed
rilocal adult females and their immature offspring, but group
that can assign forest and savanna elephants to four major re- members may change at any time and core groups can divide
gions of Africa (west, central, south and east). In some cases, into separate units. In addition, they will occasionally form
finer distinctions to populations could be made and improve- bonds with other groups either due to ecological (changing re-
ments to the resolution of assignment depend on an accurate sources or threats), or social factors. On the other hand, male
reference database of elephants of known origin throughout elephants disperse from their natal core group when they reach
their distribution range. An alternative method to DNA that can maturity. They never join a new core group permanently and
geographically assign African elephant ivory to countries and/or rarely spend a significant amount of time with other males. In
regions of origin is stable isotope analysis. Most elements (car- addition, male elephants breed with females from across the
bon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur) exist in two or entire population, thus, in some cases, males breed in their
more forms, known as isotopes. Different environments have natal social group which may lead to inbreeding in that popula-
specific isotopic signatures and are incorporated into an ani- tion. Elephants are highly intelligent and are able to distinguish
mal’s tissue via its diet (in other words you are what you eat). between the vocal signatures of familiar and unfamiliar conspe-
A reference database has been developed that includes more cifics. In the presence of threats from predators, elephants are
than 700 ivory samples from African and Asian elephant. Thus, known to produce a variety of vocalisations, including rumbles,
by analysing the isotopes in confiscated ivory as part of forensic roars and trumpets. In the wild, elephants have relatively few

12
 South African animals at risk of extinction

predators that threaten their survival, however, they are threat- wildlife, in turn, eat crops on which human populations de-
ened by predation by lions with calves being the most vulner- pend) and disease such as tuberculosis. The consequences of
able. Threats due to humans include poaching for ivory, habi- these activities are devastating for the species, which reinforces
tat fragmentation and encroachment, conflict over resources the need to improve and promote mitigation strategies and in-
(humans now occupy spaces previously used by wildlife and crease the size of wild areas.

Photograph: Sergi Ferrete

13
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Barnes, R.F. 1999. Is there a future for elephants in West Africa? Hoelzer, G.A. 1997. Inferring phylogenies from mtDNA variation:
Mammal Review 29: 175–200. mitochondrial-gene trees versus nuclear-gene trees revisited.
Blanc, J.J., Thouless, C.R., Hart, J.A., Dublin, H.T., Douglas-Ham- Evolution 51: 622–626.
ilton, I., Craig, C.G. & Barnes, R.F.W. 2007. African elephant Ishida, Y., Oleksyk, T.K., Georgiadis, N.J., David, V.A., Zhao, K., Ste-
status report 2002. IUCN, Gland. phens, R.M., Kolokotronis, S.O. & Roca, A.L. 2011. Reconciling
Bonnald, J., Utge, J., Kuhner, M.K., Wasser, S.K., Asalu, E., Okimat, apparent conflicts between mitochondrial and nuclear phylog-
J.P. & Krief, S. 2021. Who are the elephants living in the hybridiza- enies in African elephants. PloS One 6: e20642.
tion zone? How genetics may guide conservation to better protect Ishida, Y., Van Coeverden de Groot, P.J., Leggett, K.E., Putnam, A.S.,
endangered elephants. Global Ecology and Conservation e01917. Fox, V.E., Lai, J., Boag, P.T., Georgiadis, N.J. & Roca, A.L. 2016.
Brandt, A.L., Ishida, Y., Georgiadis, N.J. & Roca, A.L. 2012. Forest Genetic connectivity across marginal habitats: the elephants of
elephant mitochondrial genomes reveal that elephantid diversi- the Namib Desert. Ecology and evolution 6: 6189–6201.
fication in Africa tracked climate transitions. Molecular Ecology Ishida, Y., Gugala, N.A., Georgiadis, N.J. & Roca, A.L. 2018. Evo-
21: 1175–1189. lutionary and demographic processes shaping geographic pat-
Comstock, K.E., Georgiadis, N., Pecon-Slattery, J., Roca, A.L., Os- terns of genetic diversity in a keystone species, the African
trander, E.A., O’Brien, S.J. & Wasser, S.K. 2002. Patterns of mo- forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). Ecology and evolution 8:
lecular genetic variation among African elephant populations. 4919–4931.
Molecular Ecology 11: 2489–2498. Maisels, F., Strindberg, S., Blake, S., Wittemyer, G., Hart, J., Wil-
Debruyne, R., Barriel, V. & Tassy, P. 2003. Mitochondrial cytochrome liamson, E.A., Aba’a, R., Abitsi, G., Ambahe, R.D., Amsini, F. &
b of the Lyakhov mammoth (Proboscidea, Mammalia): new data Bakabana, P.C. 2013. Devastating decline of forest elephants in
and phylogenetic analyses of Elephantidae. Molecular Phyloge­ Central Africa. PloS One 8: e59469.
netics and Evolution 26: 421–434. Mayr, E. & Ashlock, P.D. 1991, Principles of Systematic Zoology.
Ellerman, J.R., Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. & Hayman, R.W. 1953. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Southern African Mammals. British Museum (Natural History), McComb, K., Reby, D., Baker, L., Moss, C. & Sayialel, S. 2003.
London. Long-distance communication of acoustic cues to social identity
Frade, F. 1955. Ordre des proboscidiens (Proboscidea Illiger, 1811). in African elephants. Animal Behaviour 65: 317–329.
In: P.-P. Grassé (ed.), Traité de Zoologie 17: 715–875. Masson et Moss, C.J. 2001. The demography of an African elephant (Loxo­
Cie Éditeurs, Paris. donta africana) population in Amboseli, Kenya. Journal of Zool­
Groves, C.P. & Grubb, P. 2000. Do Loxodonta cyclotis and L. afri­ ogy 255: 145–156.
cana interbreed? Elephant 2: 4. Palkopoulou, E., Lipson, M., Mallick, S., Nielsen, S., Rohland, N.,
Grubb, P., Groves, C.P., Dudley, J.P. & Shoshani, J. 2000. Living Baleka, S., Karpinski, E., Ivancevic, A.M., To, T.H., Kortschak,
African elephants belong to two species: Loxodonta africana R.D. & Raison, J.M. 2018. A comprehensive genomic history of
(Blumenbach, 1797) and Loxodonta cyclotis (Matschie, 1900). extinct and living elephants. Proceedings of the National Acad­
Elephant 2: 1–4. emy of Sciences 115: E2566–E2574.
Hale, C., Ogden, R., Ciavaglia, S.A., Cook, G.T., Clarke, G., Ogle, Rasmussen, G.S.A., Gusset, M., Courchamp, F. & Macdonald, D.W.
S. & Webster, L.M. 2021. Investigating the origins of ivory re- 2008. Achilles heel of sociality revealed by energetic poverty
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cognition: where do elephants fit in? Neuroscience & Biobehav­ Genetic evidence for two species of elephant in Africa. Science
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Roca, A.L., Ishida, Y., Brandt, A.L., Benjamin, N.R., Zhao, K. & elephant status report 2016. Occasional paper series of the
Georgiadis, N.J. 2015. Elephant natural history: a genomic per- IUCN Species Survival Commission 60.
spective. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 3: 139–167. Wasser, S.K., Shedlock, A.M., Comstock, K., Ostrander, E.A., Mu-
Rohland, N., Reich, D., Mallick, S., Meyer, M., Green, R.E., Geor- tayoba, B. & Stephens, M. 2004. Assigning African elephant
giadis, N.J., Roca, A.L. & Hofreiter, M. 2010. Genomic DNA se- DNA to geographic region of origin: applications to the ivory
quences from mastodon and woolly mammoth reveal deep speci- trade. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:
ation of forest and savanna elephants. PLoS Biology 8: e1000564. 14847–14852.
Shoshani, J., Sanders, W.J. & Tassy, P. 2001, October. Elephants and Wasser, S.K., Torkelson, A., Winters, M., Horeaux, Y., Tucker, S.,
other Proboscideans: a summary of recent findings and new tax- Otiende, M.Y., Sitam, F.A., Buckleton, J. & Weir, B.S. 2018.
onomic suggestions. In: La terra degli Elefanti–The world of Ele­ Combating transnational organized crime by linking multiple
phants, Proceedings of the 1st International Congress: 676–679. large ivory seizures to the same dealer. Science Advances 4:
Sikes, S.K. 1971. Natural history of the African elephant. Weiden- eaat0625.
feld & Nicolson, London. Wittemyer, G., Douglas-Hamilton, I. & Getz, W.M. 2005. The so-
Thouless, C., Dublin, H.T., Blanc, J., Skinner, D.P., Daniel, T.E., cioecology of elephants: analysis of the processes creating multi-
Taylor, R., Maisels, F., Frederick, H. & Bouché, P. 2016. African tiered social structures. Animal Behaviour 69: 1357–1371.

Photograph: Geran de Klerk

15
South African animals at risk of extinction

16 Photograph: Alex Arabagiu

 South African animals at risk of extinction

African wild dog

African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Wild dogs have disap-
peared from much of their historic range and threats to the species include direct persecution, disease, road mortalities and
habitat fragmentation.

Painting a bleak picture for the African wild dog

Desire Lee Dalton1,2

Wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) belong to Canidae (order Carnivora), National parks in Senegal and Benin. It is estimated that there
which includes other species, such as domestic dog and wolf. are only 70 individuals remaining. Somali wild dog (Lycaon pic­
They are the only species in the genus Lycaon, indicating that tus somalicus) is native to the Horn of Africa region, where it is
they are distinct from wolves and jackals. A total of five sub- reported to occur in Ethiopia, possibly still in northern Somalia
species have been described and are categorised according to and most likely extinct in Eritrea. This subspecies is smaller with
their geographical locations. The Cape wild dog (Lycaon pictus shorter and coarser fur. Chadian wild dog (Lycaon pictus shari­
pictus) is reported to occur in the Cape area of southern Africa, cus) is most likely extinct in the Democratic Republic of the
Angola and Mozambique. However, variation in coat colour Congo and currently occurs in a protected area in the Central
between the two countries (South Africa and Mozambique) has African Republic. The last three subspecies have extremely low
been described. In South Africa, animals have a large amount numbers of animals left in the wild and are facing extinction.
of orange-yellow fur overlapping the black. Yellow fur is found
at the back of the ears and on their underparts with white hair Wild dogs from East (East African wild dog) and southern Af-
being described to occur on the throat. In Mozambique this rica (Cape wild dog) were considered distinct subspecies in
subspecies is characterised by an equal amount of yellow and the past, however, analysis of genetic data suggests that this
black fur and a reduced amount of white fur on their manes. is unlikely. Although populations of wild dogs from South Af-
East African wild dog (Lycaon pictus lupines) occurs in East Af- rica and the north of East Africa are genetically different, in-
rica and is described as having a very dark coat with very little termediate populations in Botswana and Zimbabwe contain a
yellow fur, and smaller in size than the Cape wild dog. West mixture of ‘eastern’ and ‘southern’ DNA. Mixing of the popula-
African wild dog (Lycaon pictus manguensis) was previously re- tions was found to occur due to males dispersing over longer
ported to occur from western to central Africa and from Senegal distances, whereas females generally did not disperse far from
to Nigeria. However, currently only two populations remain in close relatives. The authors further reported that, despite recent

1
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
2
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom

17
 South African animals at risk of extinction

stationary to raise pups. Offspring are reared at fixed sites and

Where did wild dogs get their selection of dens is based on sites that are generally avoided
by their main predators, such as lion, and include rocky terrain
name? or mopane woodland. Their social structure is complex and
subordinate animals generally do not breed but assist in rearing
Lycaon is derived from the Greek word lukos and means
pups. Wild dogs use sneezes as a means to alert the group to
‘wolf’, whereas pictus is the Latin word for ‘painted’. In
transition from a sedentary resting state to an active moving
1820, Coenraad Temminck first identified a wild dog in Mo-
state. Research indicated that if a dominant individual sneezed
zambique and initially thought it was a species of hyena,
at least three times, the entire group immediately moved,
naming it Hyaena picta. Joshua Brookes, in 1827, recognised
whereas a lower ranking individual would need to sneeze more
it as a canid and renamed the species Lycaon tricolor.
than ten times to achieve the same response.

Wild dogs were once widely distributed across sub-Saharan

population declines, genetic diversity of several of the popula- Africa in a variety of ecosystems from very arid areas to moun-
tions remains high. tain summits. The species was only absent from tropical forests
and the driest desert. Populations of wild dogs can be found in
African wild dogs live in groups and are nomadic for most of southern Africa (northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, east-
the year. For a period of approximately 12 weeks they are ern Namibia and western Zambia) and the southern part of East
Africa (Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Populations have
disappeared from North and West Africa and are reduced in
Central Africa and northeastern Africa. It is currently estimated
that there are only 6 600 individuals remaining in 39 subpopu-
lations, of which viable populations that consist of more than
eight packs are represented in only seven countries, of which
South Africa is one.

Threats to the species include having to directly compete with

other predators, such as lions and spotted hyenas, for prey spe-
cies, and diseases such as rabies and bovine tuberculosis (bTB),
caused by infection with Mycobacterium bovis. The species
also face several anthropogenic threats, including loss and frag-
mentation of habitat, persecution either due to human-animal
conflict or due to snare or road kills. Animals are also poached
for body parts that are used for traditional medicine. Another
threat caused by humans is due to tourism. Close interaction
by humans, such as taking photos or too many vehicles at a
den site, may have short- and long-term consequences on the
behaviour of wild dogs. It is recommended that there should be
a buffer zone between animals and humans with limited num-
bers of tourists. Furthermore, parks should consider temporarily
closing den site areas from tourists during breeding times to
Photograph: Ivko @ Pixabay respect the health and safety of this endangered species.

18
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Derek Keats

19
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Alting, B.F., Bennitt, E., Golabek, K.A., Pitcher, B.J., McNutt, J.W., Matschie, P. 1915. Einige Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Pseu­
Wilson, A.M., Bates, H. & Jordan, N.R. 2021. The characteristics dochirops Ogilby. Sitzb. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berlin 4: 83–95.
and consequences of African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) den site Meiring, C., Higgitt, R., Dippenaar, A., Roos, E., Buss, P., Hewlett, J.,
selection. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 75: 1–14. Cooper, D., Rogers, P., De Klerk-Lorist, L.M., Van Schalkwyk, L. &
Bryden, H.A. 1936. WildLife in South Africa: 19–20. George G. Hausler, G. 2021. Characterizing epidemiological and genotypic
Harrap and Company. features of Mycobacterium bovis infection in wild dogs (Lycaon
Canning, G., Camphor, H. & Schroder, B. 2019. Rabies outbreak in pictus). Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 68: 3433–3442.
African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Tuli region, Botswana: Mills, M.G.L., Ellis, S., Woodroffe, R., Maddock, A., Stander, P.,
Interventions and management mitigation recommendations. Pole, A., Rasmussen, G., Fletcher, P., Bruford, M., Wildt, D.,
Journal for Nature Conservation 48: 71–76. Macdonald, D. & Seal, U. 1998. Population and habitat viabil-
Creel, S. & Creel, N.M. 2002. The African Wild Dog: Behaviour, ity assessment African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) in southern Af-
Ecology and Conservation. Princeton University Press, Princeton. rica. Unpublished IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist
Estes, R. 1992. The behaviour guide to African mammals: including Group Final Workshop Report.
hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates: 410–419. University of RWCP & IUCN/SSC. 2015. Regional Conservation Strategy for the
California Press. Cheetah and African Wild Dog in Southern Africa; Revised and
Everatt, K.T., Moore, J.F. & Kerley, G.I. 2019. Africa’s apex predator, Updated.
the lion, is limited by interference and exploitative competition Schaller, G.B. 1972. The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator–Prey
with humans. Global Ecology and Conservation 20: e00758. Relations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Fanshawe, J.H., Ginsberg, J.H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Woodroffe, R. Thesiger, W. 1970. Wild dog at 5894 m (19,340 ft). East African
1997. The status and distribution of remaining wild dog popula- Wildlife Journal 8: 202.
tions. In: R. Woodroffe, J.R. Ginsberg & D.W. Macdonald (eds), Thomas, O. & Wroughton, R.C. 1907. The Rudd exploration of
The African wild dog: status survey and conservation action plan. South Africa VII. List of mammals obtained by Mr. Grant at
IUCN Species Survival Plans, Gland. Coguno, Inhambane. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
Frame, L.H. & Frame, G.W. 1976. Female African wild dogs emi- London 77: 285–306.
grate. Nature 263: 227–229. Van Den Berghe, F., Paris, D.B.B.P., Van Soom, A., Rijsselaere, T.,
Girman, D.J., Vila, C., Geffen, E., Creel, S., Mills, M.G.L., McNutt, Van der Weyde, L., Bertschinger, H.J. & Paris, M.C.J. 2012. Re-
J.W., Ginsberg, J.K.P.W., Kat, P.W., Mamiya, K.H. & Wayne, R.K. production in the endangered African wild dog: basic physiol-
2001. Patterns of population subdivision, gene flow and genet- ogy, reproductive suppression and possible benefits of artificial
ic variability in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Molecular insemination. Animal Reproduction Science 133: 1–9.
Ecology 10: 1703–1723. Walker, R.H., King, A.J., McNutt, J.W. & Jordan, N.R. 2017. Sneeze
Kingdon, J. 1997. The Kingdon field guide to African mammals. Ac- to leave: African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) use variable quorum
ademic Press, San Diego. thresholds facilitated by sneezes in collective decisions. Proceed­
Kingdon, J. & Hoffman, M. 2013. Genus Lycaon: African Wild Dog: ings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284: 20170347.
50–59. Mammals of Africa. Bloomsbury Publishing, London. Woodroffe, R. & Sillero-Zubiri, C. 2012. African wild dog (Lycaon
Lalubie, C. 1985. Qui mange qui: La lutte pour la vie dans le monde pictus). The IUCN Red List of threatened species.
animal. Balland. Wozencraft, W.C. 2005. Order Carnivora. In: D.E. Wilson & D.M.
Lhotse, H. 1946. Observations sur la repartition actuelle et les Reeder (eds), Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and
moueurs de quelque grand mammifères du pays Touareg. Mam­ Geographic Reference: 532–628. Smithsonian Institution Press,
malia 10: 25–56. Washington DC.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: https://pxhere.com 21
South African animals at risk of extinction

22 Photograph: David Clode

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Black rhinoceros
Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) are listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The
species has experienced a 96% reduction in numbers between 1970 and 1992. The greatest threats to the species include
poaching and habitat loss.

Not all glitter and rainbows for black rhinoceros

Isa-Rita Russo1, Stefan Prost2,3,4,5, Desire Lee Dalton2,6 and Kim Labuschagne2

Rhinoceroses are large, herbivorous mammals. The word rhi-

Evolutionary history
noceros comes from the Greek rhino (nose) and ceros (horn).
Prehistorically, nearly 100 known rhinoceros species existed In 2021, researchers started to piece together the puzzle of the
and were once abundant throughout Europe, Asia and Africa. evolutionary history of rhinoceros by analysing the genomes of
Today, five species of rhinoceros survive as small populations the five living species of rhinoceros (black, white, Sumatran,
in Asia and Africa and are all threatened with extinction. The Indian or greater one-horned and Javan rhinoceros) and three
family Rhinocerotidae consists of white rhinoceros (Cerato­ extinct rhinoceros species (woolly rhinoceros [Coelodonta
therium simum), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), Sumatran antiqui­tatis], Siberian unicorn [Elasmotherium sibiricum] and
rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the Indian and Javan rhi- Merck’s rhinoceros [Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis]). The his-
noceros (Rhinoceros unicornis and R. sondaicus, respectively). torical distribution range of the five extant species and three
These species vary with regards to their number of horns. The extinct species is shown in Figure 2. The genome is the entire
black, white and Sumatran rhinoceros have two horns, while DNA of an organism and can provide researchers with informa-
the Javan and Indian rhinoceros have one horn. Their current tion about their evolutionary history. The authors found that
distributional range is significantly smaller than it was in the past rhinoceros from the same geographic regions were more closely
and is highly fragmented. related than species that share characteristics, like the number

1
Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff University, School of Biosciences, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX,
United Kingdom
2
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
3
Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090 Austria
4
University of Veterinary Medicine, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Vienna, A-1160 Austria
5
Natural History Museum Vienna, Central Research Laboratories, 1010 Austria
6
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom

23
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 2: Distribution map of rhinos.

Merck’s rhinoceros
(Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis)

Woolly rhinoceros
(Coelodonta antiquitatis)

Sumatran rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
Eurasia Greater one-horned rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros unicornis)

Javan rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Black rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis)
Africa
White rhinoceros Figure 3: The evolutionary history of
(Ceratotherium simum) rhinos.

24
 South African animals at risk of extinction

of horns. Approximately 16 million years ago, rhinoceros were

divided into two groups (African and Asian) and the ancestors of
living black and white rhinoceros moved down into the African
continent. The Asian group located in Eurasia (the continent
comprising Europe and Asia) was further split into two groups
approximately 14.8 million years ago. One group consisted of
the greater one-horned and Javan rhinoceros, which are found
in Sumatra, and the second group includes the Sumatran,
Merck’s and woolly rhinoceroses (Figure 3).

Dwindling numbers
The black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) was once distributed in
large numbers across most of sub-Saharan Africa, however, in
the 20th century, populations were reduced both in number
of animals and range due to human pressure and poaching.
In the mid-1990s, populations were down to approximately
2 400 animals, however, there are now about 5 000 animals
due to a slow recovery. Currently, there are only five African
countries that still maintain indigenous black rhinoceros’ pop-
ulations. The number of black rhinoceros subspecies has been
debated for decades. In 1987 it was suggested that black rhi-
noceros can be divided into four subspecies namely, western
(D. b. longipes), eastern (D. b. michaeli), south-central (D. b.
minor) and south-western (D. b. bicornis). This classification
was adopted by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature’s (IUCN) African Rhino Specialist Group and is the pre-
vailing basis for conservation management of this species. Re-
searchers use DNA to infer whether populations carry enough
genetic diversity or suffer from inbreeding (which occurs if
individuals in a population are closely related). The genetic
diversity can also be used to estimate the chance of a popu-
lation to survive future environmental change or infectious
disease outbreaks. In 2017, researchers used DNA extracted
from tissue and faecal samples from wild black rhinoceros
and compared the results to those obtained from skin samples
from museum specimens. The results showed that the black
rhinoceros lost 69% of the species’ mitochondrial genetic vari-
ation over the last decades, which means that the species may
not be able to adapt in the future as the climate changes and
Photograph: Ray in Manila
landscapes are altered due to humans. However, low genetic

25
 South African animals at risk of extinction

What is the difference between a black and a white rhinoceros?

Although they may be black and white in name, African rhinoceros are the same colour (grey), however, there are several differ-
ences between the species. White rhinoceros are bigger than black rhinoceros and white rhino calves tend to run in front of their
mothers, while black rhino calves tend to run behind their mothers, especially during flight. The black rhinoceros has rounded ears,
a round head, less of a pronounced hump on the back of their necks and a pointed lip, which helps them feed on leaves from
bushes and trees. White rhinoceros have pointed ears, an elongated head and are known for their square lip used for grazing.

A B

Figure 4: A, a white rhinoceros and B, a black rhinoceros. Photographs, A, David Clode; B, Public Domain Pictures.

26
 South African animals at risk of extinction

diversity appears to be a long-term feature of rhinoceroses,

Killed for their horns
thus, the likelihood of focused conservation efforts may be
more fruitful than previously envisioned. Rhinoceros face several threats, including habitat loss and frag-
mentation and the targeted illegal killing of rhinoceros (poach-
ing) for their horns. Rhinoceros horn is a sought-after commod-
Ecology and biology ity, have been valued for centuries as a carving material and
for medicinal purposes and can fetch high prices. The horn is
A black rhinoceros generally weighs between 700 and
mainly made up of a single protein known as keratin that is also
1 300 kg, with males and females being the same size. The
species is found in a variety of habitats, including open plains,
sparse thorn scrub, savannas, thickets and dry forests, as well as
mountain forests and moorlands at high altitudes. It is a selec-
tive browser where grass plays a minor role in its diet. They
feed on a variety of plant species and preferences vary between
habitats and seasons. However, they avoid plants that contain
volatile chemical compounds, such as phenols and alkaloids.
Rhinoceros play an important role in the ecosystem by shaping
the land around them over time. For example, they wallow in
mud puddles that lead to the creation of natural waterholes
and can keep existing water holes open for other animals. They
also spread nutrients throughout their home range that fertilises
the soil and provides livelihoods for many other species as they
consume more than 50 kg of vegetation per day and deposit
more than 20 kg of dung. Black rhinoceros require drinking wa-
ter every 24–48 hours and will select home ranges that include
one or more permanent water sources. Home range sizes for
black rhinoceros are reported to be highly variable (3–218 km2)
and varies between seasons. Most black rhinoceros are solitary
but have social dynamics and interactions that are complex.
They exhibit a polygynous mating system and males are ter-
ritorial at approximately eight to ten years of age when they
will compete for social standing and females for breeding. Ter-
ritories of males overlap with adult females and females share
a portion of their home ranges with adult female offspring.
Female black rhinoceros often have longer and thinner horns
while males tend to have thicker horns. Black rhinoceros are
pregnant for 15 months and breed from about seven years of
age. Mothers will care for the calves for two years, protecting
them from hyenas and lions. A rhinoceros’ lifespan is typically
Photograph: Hans Veth
40 to 45 years in captivity and may be less in the wild.

27
 South African animals at risk of extinction

found in hair (including human hair), fingernails and animal monitoring to protect rhinoceros from poaching and improv-
hooves, thus when carved and polished the object made from ing law enforcement to curb illegal wildlife trade from Africa.
horn takes on a translucent appearance. As ornamental objects, In South Africa, translocation of black rhinoceros has resulted
rhinoceros’ horns have been used to make handles for daggers, in populations increasing on private land and in protected ar-
walking sticks and door handles to pistol grips and limousine eas. However, these populations may be small and isolated
interiors. Horns are also used as a traditional medicine in Asian and thus require human intervention as part of a metapopu-
countries such as Malaysia, Korea, Vietnam, India and China. lation management programme (managing several discrete
It is thought to treat fever, rheumatism, gout and cancer and is populations collectively as one herd) to ensure that the spe-
seen as a status symbol among the wealthy. Other uses in tradi- cies has sufficient diversity to cope with future environmental
tional medicine included treating snakebite, boils and food poi- change. In addition, China no longer approves of the use of
soning, as well as curing headaches, hallucinations, high blood rhino horn for traditional medicines and countries in the Mid-
pressure and typhoid fever. dle East promote dagger handles made of synthetic materi-
als. To help this species, you can support organisations that
Black rhinoceros use their horns as weapons during confronta- assist wildlife rangers who dedicate their lives to protecting
tions and for protection. They may also be used during en- the world’s endangered rhinoceros. You can also donate to
counters with other rhinoceros to demonstrate dominance or reputable organisations that work with rhinoceros sanctuar-
make a threat display. Several conservation groups and local ies across Africa, don’t buy rhinoceros products, report illegal
governments are working to protect this endangered species. wildlife trade anonymously using the Wildlife Witness app,
African countries have started efforts to protect their rhinoc- and you can adopt a rhino through the World Wildlife Fund
eros such as expanding existing protected areas, security or the International Rhino Foundation.

28
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: William Phipps

29
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Anderson, T.M., Ngoti, P.M., Nzunda, M.L., Griffith, D.M., Speed, Hitchins, P.M. 1971. Preliminary findings in a radio telemetric study
J.D.M., Fossøy, F., Røskaft, E. & Graae, B.J. 2018. The burning on the black rhinoceros in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Zululand. In:
question: does fire affect habitat selection and forage preference Proceedings of a symposium on Biotelemetry. Pretoria: 79–100.
of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in East African savan- Hübschle A.M. 2017. The social economy of rhino poaching: Of
nahs? Oryx 54(2): 234–243. economic freedom fighters, professional hunters and marginal-
Ashley, M.V., Melnick, D.J. & Western, D. 1990. Conservation ized local people. Current Sociology 65: 427–447.
genetics of the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), I: evidence Leader-Williams, N. 2002. Regulation and protection: successes
from the mitochondrial DNA of three populations. Conservation and failures in rhinoceros’ conservation. In: Oldfield, S. (ed.),
Biology 4: 71–77. The Trade in Wildlife: Regulation for Conservation: 89–99. Earth-
Atkinson, S.J. 1995. Maintenance of captive black rhinoceros (Dic­ scan, London.
eros bicornis) on indigenous browse in Zimbabwe: energetics, Linklater, W.L. & Hutcheson, I.R. 2010. Black rhinoceros are slow
nutrition and implications for conservation. MSc thesis, Univer- to colonize a harvested neighbour’s range. South African Journal
sity of Zimbabwe, Harare. of Wildlife Research 40(1): 58–63.
Du Toit, R. 1987. African rhino systematics - the existing basis for Liu, S., Westbury, M.V., Dussex, N., Mitchell, K.J., Sinding, M.H.S.,
subspecies classification of black and white rhinos. Pachyderm Heintzman, P.D., Duchêne, D.A., Kapp, J.D., Von Seth, J., Heini-
9: 3–7. ger, H. & Sánchez-Barreiro, F. 2021. Ancient and modern ge-
Emslie, R. 2013. African Rhinoceroses–Latest trends in rhino num- nomes unravel the evolutionary history of the rhinoceros family.
bers and poaching. An update to Doc 54-2-Annexe 2 from the Cell 184: 4874–4885.
IUCN Species Survival Commission. Moneron, S., Okes, N. & Rademeyer, J. 2017. Pendants, powder and
Emslie, R.H. & Adcock, K. 2013. Diceros bicornis, black rhinoceros. pathways. Pretoria, South Africa: TRAFFIC, East/Southern Africa.
In: J. Kingdon & M. Hoffmann (eds), Mammals of Africa, Volume Moodley, Y., Russo, I.R.M., Dalton, D.L., Kotzé, A., Muya, S.,
V: Carnivores, Pangolins, Equids and Rhinoceroses: 455–466. Haubensak, P., Bálint, B., Munimanda, G.K., Deimel, C., Setzer,
Bloomsbury Publishing, London. A. & Dicks, K. 2017. Extinctions, genetic erosion and conserva-
Emslie, R. & Brooks, M. (eds). 1999. African rhino: status survey tion options for the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Scientific
and conservation action plan. IUCN. Reports 7: 1–16.
Garnier, J.N., Bruford, M.W. & Goossens, B. 2001. Mating system Tissier, J., Becker, D., Codrea, V., Costeur, L., Farcaş, C., Solomon,
and reproductive skew in the black rhinoceros. Molecular Ecol­ A., Venczel, M. & Maridet, O. 2018. New data on Amynodonti-
ogy 10(8): 2031–2041. dae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Eastern Europe: Phyloge-
Goddard, J. 1966. Mating and courtship of the black rhinoceros: netic and palaeobiogeographic implications around the Eocene-
(Diceros bicornis l.). African Journal of Ecology 4(1): 69–75. Oligocene transition. Plos One 13: p.e0193774.

30
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Photograph: https://pxhere.com 31
South African animals at risk of extinction

32 Photograph: Francois Meyer

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Temminck’s pangolin
Temminck’s pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), also known as steppe pangolin, scaly anteater, South African pangolin and Cape
pangolin, is widespread across the African continent. However, it is listed globally as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. The species is likely to decrease by 30–40% over the next three generations and is threatened by poach-
ing, electric fences and habitat destruction.

The scales of justice:

the fight to prevent extinction of pangolin
Raymond Jansen1,2,3 and Desire Lee Dalton4,5

There are eight species of pangolin with four occurring in Asia has the largest distribution range of all four African species, rang-
and four in Africa. In 2019, the Chinese, Sunda and Philip- ing from southern Africa all the way to northeast Chad. This is
pine pangolins were listed as Critically Endangered, the Indian, the only pangolin species to occur in South Africa and typically
white-bellied and giant pangolins were listed as Endangered, located in the savanna habitat regions, as well as the more arid
while the Temminck’s and black-bellied pangolin were listed as northwestern Kalahari. Pangolins are mammals belonging to the
Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. There- family Pholidota. Although one would assume that pangolins
fore, all eight pangolin species are threatened with extinction would be more closely related to species that eat ants or ter-
and are at risk of becoming extinct in the wild if threats such mites, such as the order Xenarthra (which includes anteaters)
as habitat loss and overexploitation for local and international or the group Afrotheria (which includes aardvark), researchers
use continue. Currently, pangolins are globally regarded as the have determined that pangolins are more closely related to the
most illegally traded mammals by the IUCN Species Survival order Carnivora (Figure 5), which includes species such as chee-
Commission Pangolin Specialist Group. tah, leopard and hyena. This is an example of convergent evolu-
tion, a process where different species develop similar features
The four African species are divided into two arboreal (tree- (such as an ant-eating diet) despite not sharing a recent common
climbing) and two ground-dwelling species. Temminck’s pangolin ancestor. Thus anteaters, aardvark and pangolins have evolved

1
African Pangolin Working Group, P.O. Box 815, Rayton, Pretoria, 1001 South Africa
2
Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
3
IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group, c/o Zoological Society of London, Regents 10 Park, London, NW1 4RY, United Kingdom
4
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
5
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom

33
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Ground pangolin

Black-bellied pangolin Pholidota

Chinese pangolin

Cheetah

Leopard Carnivora

Figure 5: The family tree

Striped Hyena of the panglolin.

separately but look similar and have comparable diets as a result

of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

Pangolins are the only mammal species that have their entire
bodies covered in hard overlapping scales. When threatened,
they will roll into a ball to protect the inner, softer parts of their
bodies that are more vulnerable and not covered in hard scales.
Temminck’s pangolin is the only bipedal species of pangolin,
walking on its hind legs, head forward and tail stretched out
off the ground to act as a counterbalance and forelimbs tucked
in under its chest. The average weight for this pangolin species
is around 10 kg, where males tend to be larger than females.
Males and females look similar and are not sexually dimorphic.
Temminck’s pangolin’s only food source is ants and termites.
As with other pangolin species, they have no teeth and gener-
ally use their powerful, specially adapted, forelimbs with sharp
claws to break open termite and ant nests, lapping up prey
with their long mucous-coated tongue, often longer than the
head and body combined. These pangolins do have a specific
preference for particular species of ants and termites and of-
ten, ants such as the favoured pugnacious species (Anoplolepis
sp.), are chosen above termites. Some preferred ant species
are arboreal and Temminck’s pangolins do have the ability to
climb trees in pursuit of this prey. For climbing trees, all four
limbs are used and the powerful tail is often used as a fifth
Photograph: Francois Meyer
prehensile limb wrapping around the tree trunk or branches.

34
 South African animals at risk of extinction

The length of nocturnal foraging often depends on the avail-

ability of prey, which in turn varies with seasons and rainfall,
but normally extends to a few hours every night. In the warmer
summer months, activity is much later in the evening and in the
colder winter months pangolin come out a great deal earlier,
often also basking in the early morning sun. Nicci Wright made
an interesting observation whilst walking on a foraging expedi-
tion with pangolins under rehabilitation at an off-site location
of the Johannesburg Wildlife Veterinary Hospital. Two young
individuals, on multiple occasions, broke open the top of a spe-
cies of Aloe plant and lapped up the aqueous secretions. In the
hotter, more arid regions of South Africa, Temminck’s pangolins
often lie on their backs and urinate on themselves to keep cool,
as they have no sebaceous glands to produce sweat. Males
regularly mark their territories with both urine and faeces, and
they all enjoy rolling in mud and the faeces of species such
as buffalo and zebra. Resting pangolins often clean or ‘preen’
between their scales with their long tongues, opening up the
scales with the claws of their forelimbs.

Like all pangolin species, Temminck’s pangolin is solitary, pre-

dominantly nocturnal and males fiercely defend territories
which can range from 4 to 10 hectares, depending on the habi-
tat that they occupy. They have particularly poor eyesight, but
an acute sense of hearing and an excellent sense of smell. They
are known to cover long distances of up to 12 km in an evening,
particularly by young males seeking out their own territories.
They take refuge in earthy burrows made by other species such
as aardvark, porcupine, or warthog, and often have favoured
burrows which they use repeatedly. They are also known to
take refuge in hollowed-out termitaria following a foraging bout
and in rocky crevices and caves.

Females tend to only have one pup a year, however, twins have
been recorded although they are rare. Newly born pups are
pink and their scales are soft and become hardened over a
number of weeks following birth. Like other mammals, Tem-
minck’s pangolins suckle on a pair of mammary glands located
in the chest. Newborn pangolins spend the first few weeks at
the den and are often alone when females are out feeding,
where they often venture small distances from the den to ex-
Photograph: Francois Meyer
plore their surroundings. The male has been observed visiting

35
 South African animals at risk of extinction

the infant but does not contribute towards parental care. Un- annually in South Africa. Pangolins approach an electric fence’s
related wild males have also been seen visiting females and lower strand to cross through the fence and the strand strikes
pups in their dens, but not causing any harm. Pups are often the pangolin on its soft underbelly. Following a jolt, the pangolin
moved to new dens if threats are perceived and travel on their rolls into a ball around the strand and is shocked consecutively
mother’s tail or back, clasping onto her scales with the front until it succumbs. In recent years, an up-and-coming significant
claws. Pups are weaned at approximately five to six months at threat to the species is the illegal wildlife trade, mostly stem-
a weight of around 5 to 6 kg. These sub-adult pups are taught ming from the demand for pangolin scales and meat from Asia,
to forage by the female and pups reared in captivity are taught in particular from China. This is the most significant threat to
this behaviour by their caregiver. the species throughout its distribution in Africa, but still less
of threat to the species than electrocutions in South Africa. In
Temminck’s pangolins do not have significant natural predators, 2019, the South African Government announced that the Tem-
but have previously been preyed upon by spotted hyena, lion, minck’s pangolin is the species of mammal with the most sig-
honey badger and Nile crocodile. Most animals preyed upon nificant increase in illegal wildlife trade than any other species
were recorded as younger, more vulnerable individuals. When of mammal. The large majority of pangolins are traded alive by
threatened, a pangolin curls up into an almost impenetrable ball, foreign nationals, often migrant workers, from Zimbabwe and
its forelimbs grasping its hind limbs, effectively locking it into this Mozambique and more recently Namibia. Other, less signifi-
position with its powerful tail curled around its body, its armour cant, threats stem from habitat loss, such as a move to large-
effectively protecting its vulnerable stomach, head and limbs. scale monoculture, as well as road casualties.

Currently, Temminck’s pangolin is listed as Vulnerable on the In almost each instance, these pangolins are offered for sale
IUCN’s list of threatened species and on the South African Red to a member of public via social media or a personal mobile
List of species. All threats facing this species are human-in- phone message. The African Pangolin Working Group (APWG)
duced. Their body parts, particularly scales, fat and blood, are is a registered non-profit organisation that has been working
sought after in cultural traditional remedies to alleviate multiple closely with law enforcement authorities of the South African
medical ailments, as well as spiritual beliefs such as warding off government since 2011 and has successfully retrieved many
evil spirits. Culturally, the animal is revered, and some beliefs pangolins from this trade. They are also involved in their reha-
include that hurting a pangolin may result in bad luck and a bilitation and release process back into the wild. If a member
ten-year long drought. The number and volume of pangolins of the public becomes aware of a pangolin in the wildlife trade,
used for cultural purposes seem to be minimal and the harvest they should contact the APWG via their web page (http://afri-
from the wild population for this seems negligible. Mortality as canpangolin.org) or alternatively, their local South African Po-
a result of electrocution on the low strand wire of game ranch lice Service stock theft and endangered species unit. The public
fences is the most significant threat currently to the species in are also encouraged to report a sighting on the APWG web
South Africa. Researchers have estimated that between 377 page that is treated with the strictest of confidence, but it assists
and 1 028 Temminck’s pangolin are killed by electrocution in monitoring the population distribution.

36
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Francois Meyer

37
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Baiyewu, A.O., Boakye, M.K., Kotzé, A., Dalton, D.L. & Jansen, Kingdon, J. 1971. East African mammals. An Atlas of evolution in
R. 2018. Ethnozoological survey of the traditional uses of Tem- Africa, Primates, Hyraxes, Pangolins, Protoungulates, Sirenians,
minck’s Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in South Africa. vol. I. Academic Press, London.
Society & Animals 26: 306–325. Pietersen, D., Jansen, R., Swart, J. & Kotze, A. 2016. A conservation
Cunningham, A.B. & Zondi, A.S. 1991. Use of Animal Parts for the assessment of Smutsia temminckii. In: M.F. Child, L. Roxburgh,
Commercial Trade in Traditional Medicines. Working paper 76. E. Do Linh San, D. Raimondo & H.T. Davies-Mostert (eds), The
Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal. Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho.
Du Toit, Z., Grobler, J.P., Kotzé, A., Jansen, R., Brettschneider, H. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered
& Dalton, D.L. 2014. The complete mitochondrial genome of Wildlife Trust, South Africa.
Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii; Smuts, 1832) Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E. 2019. Smutsia temminckii. The
and phylogenetic position of the Pholidota (Weber, 1904). Gene IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2: e.T12765A123585768
551: 49–54. [available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.
Harle, R. 2011. Biodesign #3: The Pangolin’s guide to bio-digital RLTS.T12765A123585768.en].
Movement in architecture. Leonardo 44(1): 74–75. Temminck, C.J. 1820. Annales Generales des Sciences Physiques 3:
Heath, M.E. 1992. Manis temminckii. Mammalian Species 415: 35.
1–6. Weber, M. 1904. Die Säugetiere. Einführung in die Anatomie und
Herklots, G.A.C. 1937. The pangolin or scaly anteater. The Hong Systematik der recenten und fossilen Mammalia. Gustav Fischer,
Kong Naturalist 8: 78–83. Jena.

38
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Francois Meyer 39

South African animals at risk of extinction

40 Photograph: Jean van der Meulen

 South African animals at risk of extinction

African Penguin
The African Penguin, Spheniscus demersus, is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The spe-
cies only breeds in Namibia and South Africa, however, it has been recorded as far north as Gabon and Mozambique. This
species of penguin is undergoing a very rapid population decline and populations face several threats including historic egg
and guano collection, oil spills, competition with industrial fisheries for food, limited food availability due to environmental
changes, climate change effects, diseases and predation by various species including fur seals, sharks, mongoose, kelp gulls
and domestic animals.

Diving into conservation efforts

to save the African Penguin
Katta Ludynia1

The African Penguin, Spheniscus demersus, is the only penguin highly social, live in large colonies for protection from predators
species breeding on the African continent and it has been sug- and use various forms of communication within their group,
gested that it was one of the first penguin species to be dis- making a variety of donkey-like sounds. For example, they bray
covered by humans. African Penguins are one of the smallest when trying to attract a mate, yell in order to defend their ter-
penguin species and is closely related to the other Spheniscus ritory and will haw when trying to find mates in the sea or
species found in South America (Humboldt, Magellanic and on land. African Penguins will also use body language such as
Galapagos Penguins). All these species rely on cold upwelling pecking and pointing their bill when they are being aggressive.
systems making the areas rich in small pelagic fish species, like African Penguins will usually breed for the first time between
sardines and anchovies. The African Penguin has distinctive three and six years of age. Adult birds may form lifelong bonds
black and white waterproof feathers that keep them dry and and show strong fidelity to colonies and nest-sites. Originally,
warm in the cold waters off the African coast. They also have nests were mainly burrows in guano, however, due to historical
a sharp, pointed black beak with black feet and their chest is large-scale collection of guano deposits, much of this breed-
flecked with dot-like markings that is unique to each individual ing habitat has been destroyed. Thus, African Penguins now
penguin, similar to human fingerprints. Male and female birds breed in a number of suboptimal habitats, such as in the open,
look similar, although males are slightly larger. Above the eyes burrows in sand, in dips between rocks, under vegetation, in
of African Penguins are pink glands which help to regulate their unused buildings or in artificial nests. A female African Penguin
body temperature. These penguins do not migrate. They are will generally lay two eggs. Eggs are incubated for 38–41 days

1
Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds, P.O. Box 11116, Cape Town, 7443, South Africa

41
 South African animals at risk of extinction

of important breeding habitat, as they used to burrow into the

Catastrophic moult guano to build their nests, protected from aerial predators and
from sun and rain. Egg and guano collection ceased in South
African Penguins change all their feathers once a year. Dur- Africa in the 1960s, although guano scraping continued in Na-
ing this time, they can’t access the water as they are not wa- mibia to a smaller extend. The next dramatic impact on the
terproof, thus they spend about three weeks on land with- African Penguin population came with the onset of large-scale
out being able to forage. Before they start to moult, African industrial fishing in the 1950s and 1960s. The Namibian sar-
Penguins fatten up, as they lose approximately 40% of their dine biomass was completely overfished within a few decades
body mass during moult. Once new feathers have grown, and the sardine stock crashed and has not recovered since.
birds return to sea and need to find food to regain body Even with complete fishing closures for sardine in Namibia,
mass before the next breeding season. Lack of sufficient food it is doubtful if this valuable resource will ever recover, since
to fatten up and to recover from moult can have dramatic ecosystem changes have led to irreversible changes in species
negative impacts on the birds’ survival. composition. The northern Benguela Current along the coast of
Namibia currently sustains a small but relatively stable popula-
tion of about 5 500 breeding pairs of African Penguins. Due
to the lack of sardine, these birds almost exclusively rely on
by both sexes and both eggs may fail, or one or both succeed. bearded goby, an abundant but energy-poor fish species. In
African Penguins are able to relay their eggs if their first clutch South Africa, fishing for small pelagic species was better man-
is being lost, either during the egg or during the chick stage. aged and the decline of the African Penguin population was
For the first few weeks after the eggs have hatched, parents will
constantly watch their chicks, alternating their trips to forage
for themselves and for the chicks. After about a month, both
parents will start to forage at the same time and chicks will form
crèches with several other chicks. After about 75–115 days, the
chicks fledge and leave the colonies, staying at sea and travel-
ling long distances for about a year before returning to land to
moult into their adult plumage. Generally, the life expectancy is
between ten and 15 years but penguins of over 20 years of age
are known from the wild.

Historically, millions of penguins inhabited the islands along

the western coast of southern Africa, with one of the largest
colonies on Dassen Island, about 100 km north of Cape Town.
Penguins were most likely used by early sailors for food and
as a source of oil. This led to the extinction of the penguin
colony on Robben Island in Table Bay, which was only recolo-
nised by penguins in the 1980s. Egg and guano harvesting in
the 1800s and 1900s led to the initial dramatic decline of the
species. Millions of eggs were taken off the breeding colonies
and sold for human consumption, whereas guano, the birds’
faeces, was scraped and used as fertilisers. Several metres of
Photograph: Kym Ellis
guano were removed from breeding sites, depriving the birds

42
 South African animals at risk of extinction

During the Treasure oil spill, over 20 000 African Penguins were
oiled and another 19 500 translocated to safe areas to prevent
their oiling. Despite the fact that it is still considered one of
the largest wildlife rescues in history and over 19 000 penguins
were successfully cleaned and released back into the wild, long-
term effects of oiling can be seen in reduced breeding success
of de-oiled birds. A number of smaller oil spills in recent years,
especially due to ship-to-ship bunkering in Algoa Bay, home
of the world’s largest African Penguin and Cape Gannet colo-
nies, and increased activities at sea and harbour developments,
highlight the continuous threat by oil pollution to a declining
population of African Penguins. Climate change is another
emerging threat to African Penguins, observed changes in fish
abundance and distribution may already be an effect of climate
change. An increase in extreme heat days, especially during the
early months of the year when penguins in South Africa com-
mence egg laying, has led to increased egg abandonment. Ex-
treme winter storms, often with high swells and partial flooding
of colonies, have also led to chick abandonment, thus further
reducing breeding success. Other threats include disease with
Photograph: Taryn Elliot
several recent avian influenza outbreaks also affecting African
Penguins, and predation by natural predators at sea (fur seals,
sharks), on land (mongoose, caracal, leopard) and by domestic
less steep in the early days of industrial fishing. Nevertheless,
animals such as cats and dogs. In the two mainland colonies
continuous fishing pressure, especially along the West Coast of and colonies with human activities (like Robben Island), road
South Africa, in combination with environmental changes and kills and disturbance can also have a negative effect on sur-
changes in the distribution of fish stocks has resulted in lack vival and breeding success. Seeing the low number of breeding
of fish around important breeding colonies. The South African pairs, these threats are all cumulatively adding to the negative
penguin population continues to decline, in some regions at up trend in population dynamics and negatively affect long-term
to 10% per year. The global population is nowadays at less than survival.
2% of the estimated historic population. After a short period
of population recovery, linked to high fish biomass in the early
2000s, the population numbers declined at a rate that led to Conservation interventions
the classification of the species as Endangered by the IUCN in
2010. If the current rate of decline continues, the species could To save the African Penguin from extinction, a large number
be listed as Critically Endangered soon and some modelling of organisations, from government and managing authorities
exercises predict the species to become functionally extinct in of breeding colonies to non-government organisations (NGOs)
certain regions within a decade or two. and academia, are carrying out many different conservation
interventions. Fishing restrictions around important breed-
Unfortunately, lack of fish is not the only threat this species is ing colonies and marine protected areas have been placed
facing. Major oil spills, like the Apollo Sea in 1994 and the Treas- around some of the main breeding colonies. There is a call
ure in 2000, have affected large numbers of African Penguins. for improved spatial and temporal fisheries management, also

43
 South African animals at risk of extinction

for areas of importance for African Penguins during the non-

breeding season. To improve breeding success, artificial nest
boxes and habitat restoration are protecting birds from preda-
tors and from extreme weather events. Abandoned eggs and
chicks are being rescued by dedicated penguin rangers, suc-
cessfully hand-reared and released back into the wild at re-
habilitation centres. Several research projects are identifying
important at-sea areas for penguins of all different ages and
life stages. Work on acoustic communication in penguins is
assessing impacts of anthropogenic noise, long-term marking
and automated re-encounter systems help with understanding
long-term survival, recruitment and movement of penguins and
there are even efforts to establish new colonies in areas with
higher food abundance.

Photograph: Taryn Elliot

44
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Taryn Elliot

45
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

BirdLife International. 2016. Species factsheet: Spheniscus demer­ Ludynia, K., Roux, J.P., Jones, R., Kemper, J. & Underhill, L.G. 2010.
sus [available from: http://www.birdlife.org]. Surviving off junk: low-energy prey dominates the diet of Afri-
Crawford, R.J.M. 1999. Seabird responses to long-term changes can penguins Spheniscus demersus at Mercury Island, Namibia,
of prey resources off southern Africa. In: N.J. Adams & R.H. between 1996 and 2009. African Journal of Marine Science 32:
Slotow (eds), Proceedings of 22nd International Ornithologi­ 563–572.
cal Congress, Durban, 1998: 688–705. BirdLife South Africa, Makhado, A.B., Crawford, R.J.M., Waller, L.J. & Underhill, L.G.
Johannesburg. 2013. An assessment of the impact of predation by Cape fur
Crawford, R.J.M. 2007. Food, fishing and seabirds in the Ben- seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus on seabirds at Dyer Island,
guela upwelling system. Journal of Ornithology 148 (Suppl. 2): South Africa. Ostrich 84: 191–198.
S253–S260. Randall, R.M. 1983. Biology of the jackass penguin Spheniscus de-
Crawford, R.J.M., Shannon, L.J. & Whittington, P.A. 1999. Popula- mersus (L.) at St. Croix Island, South Africa. Ph.D. dissertation,
tion dynamics of the African Penguin at Robben Island. Marine University of Port Elizabeth.
Ornithology 27: 135–143. Roux, J.P., Van der Lingen, C.D., Gibbons, M.J., Moroff, N.E., Shan-
Crawford, R.J.M., Altwegg, R., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Durant, non, L.J., Smith, A.D.M. & Cury, P.M. 2013. Jellyfication of
J.M., Dyer, B.M., Geldenhuys, D., Makhado, A.B., Pichegru, L., marine ecosystems as a likely consequence of overfishing small
Ryan, P.G., Underhill, L.G., Upfold, L., Visagie, J., Waller, L.J. pelagic fish: lesssons from the Benguela. Bulletin of Marine Sci­
& Whittington, P.A. 2011. Collapse of South Africa’s penguins ence 89: 249–284.
in the early 21st century: a consideration of food availability. Shelton, P.A., Crawford, R.J.M., Cooper, J. & Brooke, R.K. 1984.
African Journal of Marine Science 33: 139–156. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Jackass
Crawford, R.J.M., Kemper, J. & Underhill, L.G. 2013. African Pen- Penguin Spheniscus demersus. South African Journal of Marine
guin (Spheniscus demersus). In: P. Garcia Borboroglu & P.D. Science 2: 217–257.
Boersma (eds), Penguins Natural History and Conservation: Sherley, R.B., Waller, L.J., Strauss, V., Geldenhuys, D., Underhill,
211–231. University of Washington Press, Seattle and London. L.G. & Parsons, N.J. 2014. Hand-rearing, release and survival
Crawford, R.J.M., Makhado, A.B., Waller, L.J. & Whittington, P.A. of African penguin chicks abandoned before independence by
2014. Winners and losers – responses to recent environmental moulting parents. PLoS One 9: e110794.
change by South African seabirds that compete with purse-seine Sherley, R.B., Winker, H., Altwegg, R., Van der Lingen, C.D., Votier,
fisheries for food. Ostrich 85: 111–117. S.C. & Crawford, R.J.M. 2015. Bottom-up effects of a no-take
Crawford, R.J.M., Makhado, A.B., Whittington, P.A., Randall, zone on endangered penguin demographics. Biology Letters 11:
R.M., Oosthuizen, W.H. & Waller, L.J. 2015. A changing dis- 20150237: 1–4.
tribution of seabirds in South Africa – the possible impact of Sherley, R.B., Crawford, R.J.M., De Blocq, A.D., Dyer, B.M.,
climate and its consequences. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolu­ Geldenhuys, D., Hagen, C., Kemper, J., Makado, A.B., Pichegru,
tion 3: 1–10. L., Tom, D., Upfold, L., Visagie, J., Waller, L.J. & Winker, H.
Kemper, J. & Simmons, R.E. 2015. African penguin Spheniscus de­ 2020. The conservation status and population decline of the
mersus. In: R.E. Simmons, C.J. Brown & J. Kemper (eds), Birds African penguin deconstructed in space and time. Ecology and
to Watch in Namibia: Red, Rare and Endemic Species: 183–185. Evolution 10: 8506–8516.
Ministry of Environment and Tourism and Namibia Nature Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M., Wolfaardt, A.C., Whittington,
Foundation, Windhoek. P.A., Dyer, B.M., Leshoro, T.M., Ruthenberg, M., Upfold, L. &
Lewis, S.E.F., Turpie, J.K. & Ryan, P.G. 2012. Are African penguins Visagie, J. 2006. Regionally coherent trends in colonies of African
worth saving? The ecotourism value of the Boulders Beach colo- Penguins Spheniscus demersus in the Western Cape, South Af-
ny. African Journal of Marine Science 34: 497–504. rica, 1987–2005. African Journal of Marine Science 28: 697–704.

46
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Waller, L.J. & Underhill, L.G. 2007. Management of avian cholera Whittington, P.A., Klages, N.T.W., Crawford, R.J.M., Wolfaardt, A.C.
Pasturella multocida outbreaks on Dyer Island, South Africa, & Kemper, J. 2005. Age at first breeding of the African Penguin.
2002–2005. African Journal of Marine Science 29: 105–111. Ostrich 76: 14–20.

Photograph: Jean van der Meulen

47
South African animals at risk of extinction

48 Photograph: Nilfanion
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Bank Cormorant
Bank Cormorants (Phalacrocorax neglectus) are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to their
rapid population declines. It is estimated that over the past three generations, populations have decreased by as much as 63%.
Over 70% of the worlds’ population is currently breeding on Mercury Island in Namibia and only about 450 breeding pairs
remain in South Africa with almost 90% of the breeding population being found in Namibia.

On the banks of danger

Chantelle Pretorius1 and Katta Ludynia2

Bank Cormorants is a species of seabirds of the family Phala- Island, nowadays the home of over 70% of the world’s popu-
crocoracidae, related to the Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax lation. Bank Cormorants very rarely move very far away from
carbo) and Cape Cormorant (P. capensis). These large birds their home but have been observed moving between colonies
have dark brown to blackish plumage. During the breeding and breeding sites. It has been reported that some individuals
season, birds have a white patch on their lower back. Males are attempt breeding from as young as two years old, but the aver-
characteristically larger than females and both sexes are unique age Bank Cormorant individual will only start breeding at three
in the sense that they have bicoloured eyes: the top part is a years of age. Breeding activity occurs year-round but varies with
pale orange-brown colour, the bottom part is blue-green. Even geographic range. Most individuals based in the southern parts of
though their build is similar to that of diving birds, their feathers their distribution will breed during the austral winter (March to
are less water resistant, therefore, you will always see them with September), whereas colonies in Namibia will breed during the
their wings open, busy drying them. They differ from their close austral summer months (October to April). However, breeding is
relative, the Cape Cormorant, by having a stouter bill, a lack becoming less synchronised and birds can be seen breeding at
of the orange gular patch, which the Cape Cormorant has and most times of the year, especially in South Africa. Their nests are
they also have a thicker, less ‘snake-like’ neck. very large (up to 6 kg in weight) and are built in close proxim-
ity to the ocean, using a variety of nesting materials including
They are endemic to the Benguela upwelling system in coastal, rocks, seaweeds and feathers. Females will lay up to three eggs
near-shore habitats from Namibia to all along the western coast at a time. Unfortunately, due to the nests being built so close to
of the Western Cape. They can occur in large colonies of several the sea, they are often lost to rough waves and sea conditions.
hundred breeding pairs or breed in small groups. The only breed- Bank Cormorants feed on crustaceans and fish. Their diet consists
ing colony with over 200 breeding pairs is found on Mercury mainly of rock lobster in South Africa and of bearded goby in

1
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
2
Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds, P.O. Box 11116, Cape Town, 7443 South Africa

49
 South African animals at risk of extinction

far, no other genetic studies have been conducted. Genetic

Did you know? data can be used to determine if any populations of Bank Cor-
morants are unique, which may justify their management as
In China and Japan fishermen use tame cormorants to catch separate species, subspecies or populations. Genetics can also
fish in rivers (Figure 6). They tie a snare around the throat identify if the species has sufficient diversity to cope with future
of the bird so that it can eat small fish but not the bigger environmental change, as well as determine the genetic effects
fish. The larger fish are then split up and taken by the fisher- of population declines. These studies should be conducted in
men. The methods of training per region vary considerably order to ensure that appropriate conservation strategies are de-
and are based on the cormorant’s natural ability to swim veloped, especially seeing that over 70% of the world’s popu-
under water in the pursuit of fishes. This practice took place lation is found on a single island at the northern end of the
in Japan and China from around 960 AD and has also been species’ distribution.
recorded from other places throughout the world such as
England, France and Greece. The main threat to Bank Cormorants is food shortage, especial-
ly in South Africa where its main prey, rock lobster, is estimated
to be at less than 3% of the pristine biomass. In Namibia, birds
seem to have successfully switched their prey to bearded goby,
Namibia. These food sources are found between kelp beds and
which seems to be abundant around Mercury Island and also
close to the sea floor, which has resulted in these birds adapting
constitutes the main prey of another endangered species, the
to a diving lifestyle in order to catch their food, often reaching
African Penguin, in Namibian waters. Low population numbers
the sea floor.
of Bank Cormorants in South Africa and changes in distribution
Genetic work on Bank Cormorants has thus far only focused from the west coast to the southern coast can be explained
on taxonomy, which is to determine relationships among ap- by the low abundance of rock lobster and no-take zones, for
proximately 40 species of cormorants. In the study, research- example around Robben Island, and shifts in lobster distribu-
ers grouped the 40 species into seven clusters (genera). Thus tion. Climate change is yet another threat to the species. Nests
are often washed away during heavy storms, but birds also suf-
fer from heat waves. Both an increase in the number of hot
days and the intensity of storms are predicted to increase with
continuing climate change. Other threats include predation by
Cape fur seals, exposure to oil and plastic pollution, and dis-
eases like avian influenza. Regrettably, humans are also playing
a role in the deterioration of the species’ population. Bank Cor-
morants will abandon their nests when they feel threatened, for
example when humans approach them. This leaves eggs open
to predation by gulls and other predators.

In South Africa, several breading colonies are in protected areas

managed by CapeNature, Robben Island Nature Reserve and
South African National Parks, where human activities that could
threaten the species are prohibited, thus providing protection
Figure 6: Keisai Eisen’s print of cormorant fishing on the Nagara River for the species. Colonies occurring outside these protected ar-
during the Edo period. eas however, are subjected to pressures. These include some

50
 South African animals at risk of extinction

of the strongholds of the species along the West Coast, such as

Columbine and Paternoster rocks.

In Namibia, the species declined by 68% between 1993 and

1998. Numbers at Ichaboe Island, previously the world’s largest
breeding colony, have not recovered and the Namibian popu-
lation continues to decrease due to food shortages, as well as
predation and displacement by seals. Since 1999, Mercury
Island has hosted the world’s largest breeding colony with ap-
proximately 1 840 breeding pairs and the population appears
to be stable. The area was proclaimed in 2009 as Namibia’s
first marine protected area, namely the Namibian Islands’ Ma-
rine Protected Area (NIMPA). A number of threatened species,
as well as key breeding and foraging habitats along Namibia’s
southern coast, are protected in NIMPA.

Further conservation strategies should include better fishery

management strategies to prevent overfishing and the deple-
tion of food sources, especially of rock lobster, protecting the
breeding sites from harsh environmental conditions to mini-
mise the loss of nests and eggs, which could include the con-
struction of artificial breeding platforms. Public awareness will
help to reduce human threats and more regulations and legisla-
tion should be implemented to prevent oil spills. Continuous
disease surveillance for wild seabirds needs to be conducted to
identify outbreaks as early as possible and implement measures
Photograph: Bernard Dupont
to limit the spread.

See p. 56 for references.

51
South African animals at risk of extinction

52 Photograph: Grant Durr

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Cape Cormorant
Cape Cormorants (Phalacrocorax capensis) are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to their
rapid population declines over the past three generations. Declines are driven by climate change, collapsing fish stock and
disease outbreaks.

View from the Cape: a species on the brink of extinction

Chantelle Pretorius1 and Katta Ludynia2

Like Bank Cormorants, the Cape Cormorant is part of the 10 km from the coastline on cliffs, ledges and offshore islands.
Phalacrocoracidae family, along with other cormorant species Occasionally, they have been spotted around brackish waters
such as the White-breasted Cormorant and Reed Cormorant. including estuaries and lagoons. Their nests are built from sea-
Cape Cormorants are very similar in colour and shape to Bank weeds, sticks and stems in caves, estuaries and even artificial
Cormorants but are a bit smaller in overall length and weight of structures. Females lay up to three eggs at a time and will in-
the bird. Instead of having a bi-coloured eye, Cape Cormorants cubate the eggs between 22 and 28 days. Breeding season is
have distinctive blue eyes, with blue beads around the eyes in year-round, but concentrated between September and Octo-
adults, and a characteristic orange gular patch at the gape of ber, fluctuating based on the availability of food sources. Similar
the base of the bill, which distinguishes them from Bank Cor- to Bank Cormorants, Cape Cormorants will aggregate in large
morants. Like for the Bank Cormorants, little is known about colonies and work together to forage on shoaling fish, where
the genetics of the Cape Cormorants, with the majority of re- they will dive up to a maximum depth of 40 m. Their diet pri-
search historically focused on behaviour, diet and distribution. marily consists of shoaling pelagic fish including sardines and
Cape anchovies, but they will also feed on crustaceans and
Being endemic to the southern African coastline, they have a invertebrates on the seafloor. There exists a relative fragmenta-
widespread distribution ranging from Angola to Mozambique. tion of colonies along the southern African coast, which could
While they have such a broad geographic range, breeding only be attributed to population numbers decreasing in the early
takes place on the western coast of Africa, from Angola to the 2000s and the displacement of their prey items.
Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. In the early 1970s and
1980s they almost exclusively bred on the coast of Namibia, Some of the threats faced by these species include food short-
but by the late 1990s their breeding range had expanded to ages as a result of overfishing, oil pollution, predation by peli-
include Angola and South Africa. They can be found within cans, black-backed jackals and Cape fur seals, and also a variety

1
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
2
Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds, P.O. Box 11116, Cape Town, 7443 South Africa

53
 South African animals at risk of extinction

of avian diseases. Cape Cormorant populations have decreased

over the past three generations primarily due to their prey such
as anchovies and sardines being depleted in South Africa and
Namibia, partly due to high fishing pressure. A major threat
faced by all seabird species is oil spills and pollution. Due to
the behaviour of the birds of preening their feathers after being
in the water to dry their wings, they ingest the oil stuck on their
feathers, which causes toxicity and reproductive issues. The
eggs and chicks of these birds are predated by pelicans, ibis and
kelp gulls and often results in total abandonment of the nests by
the breeding colonies. Recently, the Southern African Founda-
tion for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) rescued
over 2000 chicks from Robben and Jutten islands where they
were left abandoned by the adults. Even though various foun-
dations and conservation units like SANCCOB try to rescue the Photograph: Peter Holmes
birds and care for all of them, the sad truth is that some of the
chicks will die due to starvation or injuries obtained. It was
suspected that the chicks from Robben Island were abandoned owners would like to make use of their vessels, resulting in the
due to food shortage, as declines of anchovies were reported. illegal destruction of nests and killing of chicks.
Although industrial fishing is the primary culprit for food short-
age, climate change also induces shifts in the distribution of To date, conservation efforts have focused on providing suitable
prey, resulting in mismatched distributions between the birds breeding grounds for breeding adults. In terms of combatting
and their prey. Avian diseases are also an important threat. In avian disease outbreaks, disease monitoring is being conducted
the early 1990s Avian cholera was responsible for the death of and contingency plans called into action during outbreaks, un-
up to 15 000 Cape Cormorants, with a mortality rate of 8% in fortunately, in most cases the only intervention is to reduce the
South African populations. In 2021, an outbreak of Avian influ- spread of the disease by removing carcasses. Due to predation
enza killed over 25 000 Cape Cormorants which represented from Cape fur seals, selective culling of culprit individuals was
over 20% of the adult breeding population in South Africa at introduced to keep their population numbers under control and
the time. to minimise the threat level to Cape Cormorants. Additionally, it
has been suggested by many conservationists that there should be
Like Bank Cormorants, Cape Cormorant populations are also better control measures in place to reduce the risk of overfishing
threatened by direct human disturbance. Cape Cormorants of- of pelagic fish stocks, which serves as the primary food source for
ten start breeding on unused vessels and are disturbed when these birds.

54
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Alistair McInnes

55
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References
Bank and Cape Cormorant

BirdLife International. 2018. Phalacrocorax neglectus. The IUCN Ludynia, K., Roux, J.P., Jones, R., Kemper, J. & Underhill, L.G. 2010.
Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22696766A132592007 Surviving off junk: Low-energy prey dominates the diet of Afri-
[available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2. can penguins Spheniscus demersus at Mercury Island, Namibia,
RLTS.T22696766A132592007.en]. between 1996 and 2009. African Journal of Marine Science 32:
Blamey, L.K., Shannon, L.J., Bolton, J.J., Crawford, R.J., Dufois, F., 563–572.
Evers-King, H., Griffiths, C.L., Hutchings, L., Jarre, A., Rouault, Ludynia, K., Kemper, J. & Roux, J.P. 2012. The Namibian Islands’
M. & Watermeyer, K.E. 2015. Ecosystem change in the southern Marine Protected Area: using seabird tracking data to define
Benguela and the underlying processes. Journal of Marine Sys­ boundaries and assess their adequacy. Biological Conservation
tems 144: 9–29. 156: 136–145.
Crawford, R.J.M., Cockcroft, A.C., Dyer, B.M. & Upfold, L. 2008. Marks, M.M., Brooke, R.K. & Gildenhuys, A.M. 1997. Cape Fur
Divergent trends in bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus Seal Arctocephalus pusillus predation on Cape Cormorants
breeding in South Africa’s Western Cape consistent with a dis- Phalacrocorax capensis and other birds at Dyer Island, South
tributional shift of rock lobsters Jasus lalandii. African Journal of Africa. Marine Ornithology 25: 9–12.
Marine Science 30: 161–166. Nelson, J.B. 2006. Pelicans, cormorants, and their relatives: Peleca­
Crawford, R.J.M, Dyer, B.M., Upfold, L. & Ward, V.L. 2009. Age at nidae, Sulidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Fregatidae, Pha­
first breeding of Bank Cormorants, Phalacrocorax neglectus, and ethontidae. OUP Oxford.
Cape Cormorants, P. capensis. Ostrich 72: 145–148. Oceanwide Expeditions. [no date]. Cormorants. [Available from:
Crawford, R.J.M., Makhado, A.B., Whittington, P.A., Randall, R.M., https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/to-do/wildlife/cormorant-1].
Oosthuizen, W.H. & Waller, L.J. 2015. A changing distribution of Sherley, R., Ludynia, K., Underhill, L.G., Jones, R. & Kemper,
seabirds in South Africa – the possible impact of climate and its J. 2012. Storms and heat limit the nest success of Bank Cor-
consequences. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 3: 10. morants: implications of future climate change for a surface-
Daniels, R. 2021. Cape cormorant chick rescue operation. [Avail- nesting seabird in southern Africa. Journal of Ornithology 153:
able from: https://sanccob.co.za/cape-cormorant-chick-rescue- 441–455.
operation/]. Sherley, R.B., Botha, P., Underhill, L.G., Ryan, P.G., Van Zyl, D.,
Du Toit, M. 2021. Cape cormorant. [Available from: http://www. Cockcroft, C., Crawford, R.J.M., Dyer, B.M. & Cook, T.R. 2017.
adu.uct.ac.za/adu/projects/seabirds/cape-cormorant]. Defining ecologically relevant scales for spatial protection with
Kennedy, M. & Spencer, H.G. 2014. Classification of the cormorants long-term data on an endangered seabird and local prey avail-
of the world. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 79: 249–257. ability. Conservation Biology 31: 1312–1321.
Ludynia, K., Jones, R., Kemper, J., Garthe, S. & Underhill, L.G. 2010. Troisi, G., Barton, S. & Bexton, S. 2016. Impacts of oil spills on
Foraging behaviour of bank cormorants in Namibia: implications seabirds: Unsustainable impacts of non-renewable energy. Inter­
for conservation. Endangered Species Research 12(1): 31–40. national Journal of Hydrogen Energy 41: 16549–16555.

56
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Alistair McInnes 57

South African animals at risk of extinction

58 Photograph: Jeremy Shelton

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Smallscale redfin and

Clanwilliam sandfish
Freshwater biodiversity is declining at twice the rate of that in the oceans or forests. Approximately a third of the world’s fresh-
water fish species are threatened with extinction with 80 freshwater fish species being declared extinct. Thousands of species
are threatened by habitat destruction, hydropower dams on free-flowing rivers, over-abstraction of water, pollution, mining,
invasion of its rivers by invasive fish and overfishing. The smallscale redfin and Clanwilliam sandfish are threatened freshwater
fish, endemic to the Cape Fold Ecoregion in South Africa. Both depict the challenges faced by freshwater fishes that depend
on mainstream habitat for their survival.

Under water and out of sight: the hidden world of the

threatened freshwater fishes of the Cape Fold Ecoregion
Martine Jordaan1,2, Jeremy Shelton3, Albert Chakona2,4 and Dewidine van der Colff5,6

South Africa encompasses eight freshwater ecoregions that presence of a number of genetically unique lineages in many
are defined based on the broad distribution ranges of indig- described species.
enous freshwater fishes. The Cape Fold Ecoregion (CFE) is lo-
cated mainly in the Western Cape Province and is less diverse The indigenous fish fauna of the region belongs to four families,
in terms of total fish species richness than the subtropical namely the Anabantidae, Galaxiidae, Cyprinidae and Austrog-
ecoregions in the northern part of the country. The freshwa- lanididae. The Anabantidae and Austroglanididae are each rep-
ter fish fauna of the region is characterised by high levels of resented by two species in the CFE, with both Austroglanid spe-
endemism and ongoing research is providing evidence for the cies endemic to the Olifants-Doring River System to the west of

1
CapeNature Biodiversity Capabilities Unit, Private Bag X5014, Stellenbosch, 7599 South Africa
2
NRF-South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (NRF-SAIAB), Private Bag 1015, Makhanda [Grahamstown], 6140 South Africa
3
Freshwater Research Centre, Kommetjie, Cape Town, 7975 South Africa
4
Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes University, PO Box 94 Makhanda, 6140 South Africa
5
South African National Biodiversity Institute, Threatened Species Programme, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town, 7700
6
Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Private Bag X1, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, 7602 South Africa

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

the region. The Galaxiidae are currently represented by a single of water, residential and industrial development, and intensive
species with a wide distribution range within the ecoregion, but agricultural activities.
contain high levels of undescribed diversity. The remainder of
the fish fauna belong to the species-rich family, the Cyprinidae, The CFE has an extensive protected area network, but because
which includes the large and charismatic yellowfishes, labeos, the focus was historically on the protection of terrestrial biodi-
the sawfin and whitefish, as well as the distinctively pigmented versity, this network largely encompasses mountainous areas.
redfin minnows. The smaller cyprinids have been a focal area Although this affords protection to freshwater fishes associated
for taxonomic revisions and a number of new species have with headwater type habitat, it leaves lowland and migratory
been described from the region. species vulnerable to a multitude of anthropogenic threats. The
vulnerability of freshwater fishes and their associated habitat
In addition to being a hotspot for endemic fish diversity, the is exacerbated by the linear nature of riverine ecosystems, as
CFE is also a hotspot for invasive alien fish introductions. To these systems are affected by impacts emanating from outside
date, 17 alien fishes have been introduced into the rivers of the the protected area. In terms of formal protection of the fresh-
region where many of these species have successfully estab- water fishes of the region, a recent analysis has indicated that
lished. Of these invasive species, black bass (Micropterus spp.) more than 50% of freshwater fish taxa are either absent from
have had the biggest impact on the indigenous fish communi- formally protected areas or present in three or less protected
ties of the region and along with trout, have caused localised areas. Furthermore, only 11% of taxa occurred in more than 12
extirpation of many indigenous fish species. Other key threats protected areas and almost a quarter of taxa were completely
include habitat loss and deterioration of habitat quality due to absent for the current protected area network. As expected,
bulldozing of river channels, excessive or complete abstraction the most vulnerable species are those that occupy habitat in

Figure 7: Bulldozing of riverbeds and banks destabilise rivers, leading Figure 8: In the absence of environmental flow releases, instream wa-
to further bank erosion and contributing to siltation in down- ter diversion weirs can lead to the complete loss of habitat in
stream areas. Photograph: Martine Jordaan. aquatic ecosystems. Photograph: Martine Jordaan.

60
 South African animals at risk of extinction

the mainstream or larger tributaries and cannot seek refuge in

headwater streams in formally protected areas.

Focal freshwater fish species

of the Cape Fold Ecoregion
Many species could serve as focal species for showcasing the
striking diversity of the freshwater fish of the CFE. However, the
smallscale redfin and the Clanwilliam sandfish were selected as
focal species, as they are endemic to the region, have relatively
limited distribution ranges and have suffered significant range
reduction when considering their historical distribution. Both
are examples of the challenges faced by freshwater fishes that Figure 9: A smallscale redfin (Pseudobarbus asper) specimen from the
depend on mainstream habitat for their survival. Moeras River near Oudtshoorn. Photograph: Roger Bills.

Smallscale redfin (Pseudobarbus asper): the smallscale redfin is generally reached in their second year
an endemic Karoo fish under threat of life with males maturing at 41–42 mm and females at 43
mm standard length. Mature males develop prominent conical
Description: The smallscale redfin has a golden-brownish col- tubercles on the head during the breeding season. There is a
our on the lateral side and is silvery-white on the ventral side, highly significant relationship between body mass and fecundi-
with an irregular dark band running along the body. The scales ty for the smallscale redfins, along with the production of more,
are typically small with dark centres which give the redfin a smaller eggs for a longer reproductive season. The life history
‘speckled hen’ appearance. The mouth is terminal with a single strategy of the smallscale redfin represents the species’ adapta-
pair of barbels. Adults have distinctive red fins and grow up to tion to a less stable environment typical of the Karoo type rivers
96 mm in length. where this species evolved.

Distribution: The smallscale redfin is endemic to the Gouritz Population status and threats: The smallscale redfin prefers
and Gamtoos River systems where it is restricted to turbid, alka- mainstream and large tributary habitat, making it very vulner-
line Karoo-type rivers with high mineral content. able to the impacts of invasive alien fish, as well as anthropo-
genic threats such as loss of habitat, pollution and over-abstrac-
Biology and ecology: This species prefers standing and slow- tion of water. The species has experienced a major reduction
flowing waters with soft or rocky substrate and feeds mainly on in population size in the Gamtoos River system due to invasion
invertebrates, algae and detritus. In a study on the breeding by African sharptooth catfish and other anthropogenic im-
biology of the smallscale redfin in the greater Gamtoos River pacts. Within the Gouritz River system, the smallscale redfin
system, it was reported that the species exhibits a protracted was historically widely distributed in the mainstem sections of
spawning season, ranging from October to April. Spawning is the river and large tributaries, but currently it persists as highly
induced by increased river flow, either from rainfall or flow fragmented subpopulations within the system. Approximately
releases from large dams. Breeding was observed upstream 10 subpopulations persist in the Gouritz River system and most
of pools in rivers, with free embryos and larvae drifting into of these are in lower foothill river habitats. Historically small­
pools and feeding in the marginal zones. Sexual maturity in scale redfins were common in the mainstream habitats of the

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 10: The upper Gamka River downstream of Gamkaskloof Na- Figure 11: The Groot River in Meiringspoort in the Groot Swartberg Pro-
ture Reserve. The smallscale redfin was historically abundant vincial Nature Reserve. Despite being in a formally protected area,
in this and other large tributaries of the Gouritz River system. the smallscale redfin is not safe from threats, as the downstream
Results of recent surveys suggest that these habitats are now sections of the river are open to invasion by alien invasive fish and
dominated by invasive alien fish species. Photograph: Martine the headwaters are located on privately owned land where rais-
Jordaan. ing awareness and collaboration with local farmers would help to
safeguard the species. Photograph: Martine Jordaan.

Gouritz, but like the populations in the Gamtoos River system, number of protected areas, the protection value of these areas
these populations have likely been lost due to multiple impacts are limited, as the rivers that provide habitat for the smallscale
including habitat degradation and invasion of the mainstem redfin have their upstream reaches located outside the formally
sections of the rivers by non-native predatory fish species. protected area. Even in areas where its habitat is formally pro-
These threats are likely to be exacerbated in the future due to tected, it is vulnerable to the impacts of alien invasive fish and
the predicted increase in extreme weather conditions in the anthropogenic impacts, such as water over-abstraction and pol-
CFE as a result of climate change. Current water abstraction lution.
practices often involve the use of diversion weirs located high
up in tributary streams, which often result in the lower sections Conservation initiatives: Provincial legislation is in place to
of tributaries running dry for extended periods of time as no limit impacts on the smallscale redfin. It is listed as an Endan-
provision is made for environmental flow allocations. gered Wild Animal under Schedule 1 of the Provincial Na-
ture Conservation Ordinance for the Western Cape, thereby
The mainstem and lowland habitat requirement of this species preventing the collection and trade of the species without a
also means that it is not well represented in the formally pro- permit. The species is presently listed as Vulnerable, but the
tected area network of the region. While the species occurs in a up-listing to Endangered is expected should active conservation

62
 South African animals at risk of extinction

interventions not be implemented urgently. As the smallscale this strategy must be implemented with due consideration of
redfin is not a headwater specialist, it cannot seek refuge in genetic implications.
well-protected headwater streams upstream of anthropogenic
impacts and it is thus largely reliant on the actions of private Clanwilliam sandfish (Labeo seeberi):
landowners for its survival.
the most threatened migratory
Conservation actions should include creating awareness of the
freshwater fish of South Africa?
threatened nature of the species amongst landowners and dis- Description: The Clanwilliam sandfish has a slender body, sub-
seminating information around ecologically friendly farming terminal (down-turned) mouth and a single pair of barbels. It
practices. This is especially important with regard to sustain- is olive-grey with a golden tinge and a white belly. It can reach
able water-use practices and preventing further degradation up to 60 cm in length and its angling weight record is 0.269 kg.
and loss of instream habitat. Alien invasive fish is a further sig-
nificant threat to the long-term survival of this species and a Distribution: The Clanwilliam sandfish is endemic to the
far more complex threat to manage. Intentional fragmentation Olifants-Doring River System in the Western and Northern
is a conservation strategy whereby riverine habitat is secured Cape provinces of South Africa. The species is likely extirpated
from alien fish invasion through the creation of instream bar- in the Olifants River, as it has not been collected from there
riers. This strategy should be considered, where appropriate since the mid-1980s (CapeNature research observation). The
and feasible, to help safeguard the remaining smallscale redfin remaining population is restricted to the Doring River main-
populations. The establishment of refuge populations in dams stem and a number of isolated tributaries. Of these, the Oor-
and artificial waterbodies, preferably within protected areas, logskloof-Koebee tributary in the Oorlogskloof Nature Reserve
can also help safeguard the future survival of this species, but is home to the largest viable and recruiting subpopulation, as it

Figure 12: Intentional fragmentation: an instream weir

on the Wynands River, a tributary of the Gou­ritz
River, where the smallscale redfin still persists.
This weir will serve as an invasion barrier to alien
invasive fish that can originate from downstream
sources. Photograph: Marienne de Villiers.

63
 South African animals at risk of extinction

provides suitable spawning habitat in the absence of predatory that the spawning migration in the Biedouw River comprises
alien fish species. However, recent drought conditions have large schools (15–20) of adult fish travelling up to 15 km to
likely caused a decline in the Oorlogskloof sandfish popula- reach their spawning sites. Therefore, it is estimated that ap-
tion. Remnant subpopulations in other tributaries have low to proximately 200 fish migrate upstream to spawn. They appear
no recruitment due to very low numbers of adult fishes, water to spend 2–3 weeks in a spawning tributary and spawn over
over-abstraction and the presence of predatory alien invasive 4–5 consecutive evenings, before returning to the Doring River
fish species. mainstem. There are indications that sandfish are total spawn-
ers, in that they release one large batch of thousands of eggs
Biology and ecology: The habitat and ecological requirements per year when conditions are favourable. Sandfish feed on al-
of the species are not well understood, but a detailed study of gae, detritus and small invertebrates by grazing rocks, as well
this was initiated in 2020 and is currently underway. Available as grubbing in soft sediments and are thus benthic detritivores.
information indicates that sandfish are mainly found in pools
and deep runs of the river where they spend the hot and dry Population status and threats: Prior to the early 2000s, the
summer months. Sandfish appear to require fast-flowing waters mainstem Doring River was poorly sampled, but the river was
for spawning in spring. Natural hydrological variability, together surveyed regularly during the past 20 years. Sandfish catch data
with water regulation and abstraction, is therefore likely to between mainstem sites was variable and the species, where
play a major role in recruitment success. Sandfish are known present, was represented by low numbers of only adult fish.
to migrate long distances up from the mainstem up tributar- The Doring River mainstem population can thus be character-
ies en masse during spring to spawn. Recent research indicates ised as relatively rare and discontinuously distributed, with little

Figure 13: A Clanwilliam sandfish caught from the Doring River during Figure 14: The Doring River with its typically turbid water that is
a survey. Following the collection of biological measurements, largely a result of the underlying geology of the catchment area.
all sandfish are released back into the environment unharmed. Photograph: Jeremy Shelton.
Photograph: Jeremy Shelton.

64
 South African animals at risk of extinction

to no recruitment taking place. The reason for this is mainly the

presence of alien invasive fish species that exert pressure on the
sandfish through predation and competition.

In addition to the Doring River mainstem, Clanwilliam sand-

fish presence has been reported in a number of Doring River
tributaries, namely the Biedouw, Tra-Tra, Matjies, Kransgat,
Oorlogs­kloof-Koebee and Gif rivers. Some of these tributaries
support resident sandfish populations, but in others, sandfish
are only present for short (<1 month) periods of the year when
they undergo their spawning migrations. All tributary subpopu-
lations are confined to very limited stretches of river where they
are protected from alien invasive fish species by natural barriers
such as small waterfalls. With the exception of the Oorlogs­
kloof, all tributary subpopulations consist of very low numbers
of adult individuals and are not considered viable to persist into
the future, as there is limited successful recruitment. The Oor-
logskloof Nature Reserve is likely the primary source of adult Figure 15: A school of migrating Clanwilliam sandfish moving into
Clanwilliam sandfish for the Doring River mainstem, with only tributary habitat for spawning. Photograph: Jeremy Shelton.
a minimal contribution to subpopulation growth from spawn-
ing in other tributaries. The Oorlogskloof Nature Reserve sub-
population is, therefore, critical in terms of the survival of this Threatened or Protected Species under South Africa’s National
highly threatened species. Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act of 2004.

The primary threat to the persistence of Clanwilliam sandfish is In an effort to formalize conservation actions for this species, a
predation and competition from invasive alien fishes, notably Biodiversity Management Plan (BMP) was published for public
the centrarchid black bass (Micropterus spp.) and bluegill sun- comment in 2016, which identified a list of potential conser-
fish (Lepomis macrochirus) which were introduced in the 1930s vation actions, along with potential implementing agents and
as sport fish. The impacts of these alien species, in conjunction timelines. In 2013, a partnership project between the Fresh-
with water over-abstraction for agricultural use, human-linked water Research Centre, Endangered Wildlife Trust and provin-
impacts on water quality and invasions by alien plants (such cial nature conservation departments of CapeNature (Western
as mesquite [Prosopis glandulosa] and oleander [Nerium ole­ Cape) and the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Af-
ander]) have resulted in the extirpation of Clanwilliam sandfish fairs and Rural Development (DAERL, Northern Cape) was
from approximately 80% of its historical distribution, and in formed to work towards implementing the conservation actions
most instances these invasions are near impossible or prohibi- outlined in the Clanwilliam Sandfish BMP. Projects undertaken
tively expensive to reverse. through this partnership include (1) an eradication project to
remove common carp from farm dams to reduce invasion risk
Conservation initiatives: As with the smallscale redfin, the Clan- into the Oorlogskloof River, (2) ongoing extension work with
william sandfish is listed as an Endangered Wild Animal under farmers to improve on-farm irrigation efficiency to ensure more
Schedule 1 of the Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance for instream flow to sustain ecosystem function and important fish
the Western Cape, thereby preventing the collection and trade habitats, (3) the translocation of juvenile Clanwilliam sandfish
of the species without a permit. It is also listed nationally as a from bass-invaded areas in the Biedouw River to a short section

65
 South African animals at risk of extinction

The Saving Sandfish project: Saving Sandfish is a collaborative

freshwater conservation project led by the Freshwater Research
Centre working with partners CapeNature, DAERL, the Fynbos
Fish Trust, the Endangered Wildlife Trust and private landown-
ers in the Biedouw River Valley. The project is funded by a
combination of international funders such as the National Geo-
graphic Society, Mohammed Bin Zayed Species Conservation
Fund, Ford Wildlife Foundation and IUCN Save Our Species
(Co-funded by the European Union), as well as several local
funders and private donors. The project is centred around a
programme designed to increase sandfish awareness and sur-
vival by rescuing and relocating young-of-the-year sandfish
from vulnerable habitats (with invasive fish and excessive water
abstraction) in the lower Biedouw River to a short stretch of al-
ien-free river upstream and to refugia created by working with
landowners removing alien fish from farm dams. To date, over
8 000 juvenile sandfish have been rescued from vulnerable
habitats and translocated to either the upper Biedouw River
or to farm dams in the catchment. Most of these fish have now
grown large enough to evade predation by bass and a total of
1 274 of them have been released back into the wild to date,
most of them tagged using PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder)
Figure 16: Bluegill sunfish Lepomis macrochirus, an invasive species
from North America. This species has established widely in the tags to track their long-term movement and survival.
rivers of the Cape Fold Ecoregion and has, together with black
bass (Micropterus spp.), contributed to localised extirpations of Looking forward, the project will be building on these founda-
many indigenous freshwater fishes. Photograph: Jeremy Shelton. tions to (1) build new landowner relationships and create more
sandfish sanctuaries, (2) rescue and relocate a further 10 000
sandfish, (3) tag 3 000 more fish, release them back into the
of the upper Biedouw River where a waterfall prevents alien wild and monitor their movement and survival, (4) undertake
fish invasion, and (4) alien plant clearing in the headwaters of an updated sandfish population survey in the Olifants-Doring
the Biedouw River which is expected to increase river flows, River system, (5) further common carp removal projects to re-
particularly during the summer months. In addition, a collabo- duce invasion risk, and (6) work with CapeNature to increase
rative, multi-partner project led by the Freshwater Research flows into the Biedouw River through alien vegetation removal.
Centre called Saving Sandfish has been working to build on The project also has a strong communication component and
the foundations of previous conservation efforts to implement a the Saving Sandfish journey is being chronicled through a web
subset of the conservation actions outlined in the sandfish BMP. series called Saving Sandfish being produced in partnership
The focus has been on undertaking conservation interventions with local freshwater storytellers, Fishwater Films, and those
to increase sandfish survival and rehabilitate sandfish habitats wishing to support the project can do so via the Sponsor a
in the Biedouw River. Sandfish campaign.

66
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 17: Finding and translocating schools of young sandfish is no easy task. Field ecologists spend long hours finding and netting these tiny fish and
translocating them to safe refugia where they can grow to a larger and more robust size before being released back into the river. Photograph:
Jeremy Shelton.

67
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Abell, R., Thieme, M.L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bo- Ellender, B.R. & Weyl, O.L.F. 2014. A review of current knowledge,
gutskaya, N. Coad, B., Mandrak, N., Balderas, S.C., Bussing, risk and impacts associated with non-native freshwater fish in-
W., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Allen, G.R., Unmack, P., Nase- troductions in South Africa. Aquatic Invasions 9: 117–132.
ka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, Jordaan, M.S., Chakona, A. & Van der Colff, D. 2020. Protected ar-
J.V. Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., Lopez, H.L. eas and endemic freshwater fishes of the Cape Fold Ecoregion:
Reis, R.E., Lundberg, J.G., Sabaj Pérez, M.H. & Petry, P. 2008. missing the boat for fish conservation? Frontiers in Environmental
Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeo- Science: 246.
graphic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioSci­ Kambikambi, M.J., Kadye, W.T. & Chakona, A. 2021. Allopatric dif-
ence 58: 403–414. ferentiation in the Enteromius anoplus complex in South Africa,
Cambray, J.A. 1994. The comparative reproductive styles of two with the revalidation of E. cernuus and E. oraniensis, and de-
closely related African minnows (Pseudobarbus afer and P. asper) scription of a new species, E. mandelai (Teleostei: Cyprinidae).
inhabiting two different sections of the Gamtoos River system. Journal of Fish Biology 99(3): 931–954.
Environmental Biology of Fishes 41: 247–268. Martin, M.B. & Chakona, A. 2019. Designation of a neotype for
Chakona, A. & Skelton, P.H. 2017. A review of the Pseudobarbus Enteromius pallidus (Smith, 1841), an endemic cyprinid minnow
afer (Peters, 1864) species complex (Teleostei, Cyprinidae) in from the Cape Fold Ecoregion, South Africa. ZooKeys 848: 103.
the eastern Cape Fold Ecoregion of South Africa. Zookeys 657: Paxton B.R. & Brown C.A. 2002. An assessment of the effects of
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Chakona, A. & Swartz, E.R. 2013. A new redfin species, Pseudo­ tribution of three endemic cyprinids: Barbus capensis, Barbus
barbus skeltoni (Cyprinidae, Teleostei), from the Cape Floristic serra and Labeo seeberi in the Olifants and Doring Rivers, West-
Region, South Africa. Zootaxa 3686: 565–577. ern Cape. Report prepared for the Department of Water Affairs
Chakona, A., Swartz, E. & Gouws, G. 2013. Evolutionary drivers of and Forestry. DWAF Report No. PB E000-00-1302.
diversification and distribution of a southern temperate stream Paxton, B.R., Ramollo P., Schumann, M., Jordaan, M.S. & Impson,
fish assemblage: Testing the role of historical isolation and spatial N.D. 2014. Biodiversity Management Plan for Species (BMP-S)
range expansion. PloS One 8: e70953. for the Clanwilliam sandfish (Labeo seeberi). Government Ga­
Chakona, A., Swartz, E.R. & Skelton, P.H. 2014. A new species of zette no 38187.
redfin (Teleostei, Cyprinidae, Pseudobarbus) from the Verloren­ Rahel, F.J. 2013. Intentional fragmentation as a management strate-
vlei River system, South Africa. ZooKeys 453: 121–137. gy in aquatic systems. BioScience 63: 362–372.
Chakona, A., Gouws, G., Kadye, W.T., Jordaan, M.S. & Swartz, Shelton, J.M., Samways, M.J. & Day, J.A. 2014. Predatory impact
E.R. 2020. Reconstruction of the historical distribution ranges of non-native rainbow trout on endemic fish populations in
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30(1): 144–158. Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
Dallas, H. & Rivers-Moore, N. 2014. Ecological consequences of Skelton, P.H. & Swartz, E.R. 2011. Walking the tightrope: Trends in
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Van der Walt, J.A., Weyl, O.L.F., Woodford, D.J. & Radloff, F.G.T. spp.) invasion in a Cape Floristic Region river basin. Aquatic Con­
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Photograph: Martine Jordaan

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South African animals at risk of extinction

70 Photograph: Jonas Allert

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Hammerhead sharks
Three species of hammerhead sharks occur in South African tropical and temperate marine waters, including the great ham-
merhead (Critically Endangered), the scalloped hammerhead (Critically Endangered) and the smooth hammerhead (Vulner-
able). Population numbers are declining drastically due to anthropogenic activities, including stress-induced factors from being
accidentally caught as by-catch.

Hovering hammerheads: the sea’s gentle giants who

fight for survival
Chantelle Pretorius1 and Monica Mwale1

Hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) are one of the most to the sea floor. It has also been hypothesised that their unique
recognisable shark species in the world. They are plain grey head provides hydrodynamic lift at the anterior end (head) of
or brown on top and white underneath and distinguished by the animal, thereby increasing manoeuvrability in water. They
their unique head shape, the outward extensions of which are are obligate ram ventilators meaning that they need to swim
known as cephalofoils. This head shape differs greatly among to get oxygen from the water. In South Africa, three species of
species, from evenly rounded and 18% of the total body length
in the bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo) to very wide (50%
of total length) and narrow in the winghead shark (Eusphyra
blochii). This unique head shape with wide-set eyes provides
them with better sight (binocular vision) than other sharks. Like
Where did the hammerhead shark
most sharks, hammerheads have specialised sensory organs get its ‘hammer’?
called ampullae of Lorenzini, which are located across the
surface of the head (lateral line), whereas these occur on the Who would have thought that the hammerhead shark’s ‘ham-
snout tips of other sharks. The ampullae of Lorenzini help them mer’ appeared rather suddenly and did not evolve gradually
detect electrical fields of other organisms. Using these special- over time? Geneticist Andrew Martin proposed that the wing-
ised organs, hammerheads can easily locate prey items, like head shark (the species with the most extreme expansion of
stingrays which are often buried underneath a layer of sand, the head) first diverged from their common ancestor, with
and hammerheads will also use their heads to stun and pin prey the bonnethead shark the most recent to diverge from other
hammerheads. By using ancestral body size reconstructions
it has been suggested that the common ancestor to all ham-
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria,
1
merhead sharks was most likely a large bodied shark.
0001 South Africa

71
 South African animals at risk of extinction

with the highest distance recorded being over 384 km! Inter-
estingly, females will migrate into the pelagic zone earlier and
at smaller sizes than males do. Scientists have observed that
scalloped hammerheads will occasionally form large schools of
hundreds of adults, which is odd given that these sharks often
live solitary lives most of the time. These large schools make
them vulnerable to targeted fishing and they are all but gone
from many of the areas where they were once found.

Hammerhead sharks have long, serrated teeth and primarily

feed on the seafloor. Their diet mostly consists of stingrays,
cephalopods like octopus and squid, other crustaceans and
smaller fish.

Unfortunately, hammerheads aren’t immune to the anthro-

pogenic threats that global biodiversity is facing today. Several
Photograph: Ben Phillips hammerhead species have been assessed as threatened on the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, due to targeted over-
fishing, illegal poaching and by-catch of other fishery activi-
hammerheads can be found: the great hammerhead (Sphyrna ties. Overfishing and by-catch by commercial and recreational
mokarran), the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) and the anglers remain some of the biggest daily threats these sharks
smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena). face, as they are often caught accidentally in fishing nets. Al-
though they are released, hammerhead sharks are unfortunate-
Hammerhead sharks can be found worldwide in warm, tem- ly extremely vulnerable to stress when caught and it has been
perate, coastal waters and tropical seas, from sea grass flats suggested that approximately 90% of hammerheads that are
to open ocean continental shelf habitats. In South Africa, the caught, whether they are caught accidentally or targeted, often
smooth and great hammerheads have distribution ranges from do not survive after release. Like other shark species, they are
the coast of KwaZulu-Natal to the Transkei region of the Eastern also sometimes targeted for their meat. Above all else, these
Cape, while the scalloped hammerhead’s range extends to St sharks face one of the deadliest threats of all: shark finning.
Helena Bay in the Western Cape. Males reach sexual maturity Shark finning is the practice of removing the fins of the sharks
at 162 cm and females at 183 cm, or at approximately 4 and 6 for Asian delicacies such as shark fin soup or traditional me-
years of age respectively. Hammerheads mate via internal fertil- dicinal cures. As the meat of sharks is not as high in value,
isation and the gestational period is between 9 and 12 months. fishermen removing the fins will often discard the bodies into
Females give birth to up to 30 live young, usually between from the ocean where these sharks die a slow death through drown-
October to March. Few studies have been undertaken to fully ing or bleeding to death. Because of the size of hammerhead
understand the movement of these sharks, but it is believed that sharks, they are often targeted species of trawling fishing boats
juveniles will spend a couple of years living in coastal nurseries or demersal longlines looking for shark fins to sell.
and close to the shores to avoid larger predators and will even-
tually move to the outer continental shelf further offshore to A question often asked is what are countries doing to protect
join adults as they get older. Adults have been found at depths these sharks against finning? Each country with a coastline
of up to 275 m and studies on their migratory behaviour have should have specific laws and regulations relating to fishing
shown that they travel, on average, within a range of 139 km, in their waters. Thus far, only 169 countries, including South

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Africa, have implemented laws against shark finning. The spots where shark finning is done to assist with enforcement
three South African hammerhead species are listed on Ap- and policing.
pendix II of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). An Appendix Large hammerhead sharks have been the topic of research
II listing means that, although utilisation or fishing of the spe- for many researchers who are studying their genetics in order
cies does not necessarily threaten it with extinction at pre- to assist with better conservation strategies. Because life his-
sent, there is a need for use and trade to be controlled or tories, exploitation susceptibility and population vulnerability
managed by countries in order to avoid overexploitation that between these three species differ, it has been suggested that,
will threaten survival of the species. Internationally, the IUCN rather than having a group-specific approach to conservation
Shark Specialist Group has suggested that the easiest way to strategies, it will be wiser to have a species-specific approach
ban shark finning is to require that shark carcasses be landed in order to address these differences and develop optimal
with their fins still attached, therefore making boats with only management approaches. For example, the scalloped and
shark fins on board illegal. This is important as it is difficult to smooth hammerheads have been recorded to congregate in
identify species from fins only, making illegal hammerhead certain areas, which makes them vulnerable to targeted fishing
shark fishing hard to control. Furthermore, records of global and capture in large numbers. The great hammerhead, on the
fisheries data indicate that hammerhead species are not re- other hand, lives a more solitary life, such that their risk of being
ported down to species level, making it hard to identify when caught in high numbers are very low. However, unlike the other
prohibited species are illegally captured. New DNA tech- two species who reproduce annually, the great hammerhead
niques have assisted with identifying species, which regional only reproduces biennially which limits population numbers
waters the shark fins were harvested from, and also whether and chances of survival when overexploited.
they are from countries’ territorial water or the open ocean.
Using this and data available from the biology of the most tar- In South Africa, the Marine Living Resources Act (Act 18 of
geted species, researchers are able to pinpoint the most likely 1998) has been established to protect marine organisms living

Photograph: Cloneofsnake Photograph: Audrey from Seattle

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

in South African waters against overexploitation. In 1991 South (Carcharias taurus), the spotted gully shark (Triakis megalop­
Africa became the first country in the world to fully protect terus) and two species of small catsharks, namely the leopard
the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and any white sharks catshark (Poroderma pantherinum) and the striped, or pyjama
that are caught or killed unintentionally must be handed over catshark (P. africanum). However, because of globally declin-
in a whole state to a fisheries officer. Some shark species are ing shark numbers, there is a need to continue monitoring the
allowed to be caught with approved permits for recreation- fisheries and determine if they are sustainable for the survival
al or commercial purposes, including the ragged-tooth shark of these species.

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Photograph: Patrick Perkins

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Abercrombie, D.L., Clarke, S.C. & Shivji, M.S. 2005. Global-scale National Geographic. 2022. Hammerhead sharks. [Available from:
genetic identification of hammerhead sharks: Application to https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/facts/
assessment of the international fin trade and law enforcement. hammerhead-sharks].
Conservation Genetics 6: 775–788. Oceana. 2022. Scalloped Hammerhead Shark. [Available from:
Cavalcanti, M.J. 2007. A phylogenetic supertree of the hammer- https://oceana.org/marine-life/scalloped-hammerhead-shark/].
head sharks (Carcharhiniformes: Sphyrnidae). Zoological Studies Oceana. 2022. Great Hammerhead Shark. [Available from: https://
46(1): 6–11. oceana.org/marine-life/great-hammerhead-shark/].
KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board. 2022. Shark conservation. [Available Oceans Africa. 2022. Hammerhead sharks. [Available from: https://
from: https://shark.co.za/Pages/SharkConservation]. www.oceansafrica.com/hammerhead-shark/].
Lim, D.D., Motta, P., Mara, K. & Martin, A.P. 2010. Phylogeny of Shiffman, D. 2020. Why cracking down on the shark fin trade
hammerhead sharks (Family Sphyrnidae) inferred from mito- may be easier than we thought. [Available from: https://www.
chondrial and nuclear genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evo­ nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/many-shark-fins-come-
lution 55: 572–579. from-coastal-waters].
Murray, T., Parkinson, M. & Cowley, P. 2018. Hovering hammer- White Shark Projects. 2022. Shark finning facts. [Available from:
heads. [Available from: https://saveourseas.com/update/hovering- https://www.whitesharkprojects.co.za/shark-facts/shark-finning-
hammerheads/]. facts/].

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Photograph: David Clode 77

South African animals at risk of extinction

78 Photograph: Richard Boycott

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Pickersgill’s reed frog

The Pickersgill’s reed frog (Hyperolius pickersgilli) is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. These
frogs have an extremely small area of occupancy (approximately 12 km2) and are threatened primarily by habitat loss. Only
three sites occur within protected areas and many of the remaining sites are experiencing an going decline in habitat quality
due to agriculture, forestry, mining, urban development and pollution.

Are Pickersgill’s reed frogs hopping to extinction?

Jeanne Tarrant1

Globally, amphibians are the most threatened vertebrates on endemic species, the tiny Pickersgill’s reed frog, Hyperolius
Earth with 41% currently listed as threatened by the IUCN Red pickersgilli. The species was discovered in 1978 in Avoca which
List. This is a hugely significant proportion of a group of over is now the middle of a busy and completely transformed area
8 000 species and is primarily the result of habitat loss and trans- of Durban city. The species was described by Raw in 1982. It is
formation, but also disease, pollution and trade, all as a result named after the herpetologist, Martin Pickersgill, who discov-
of human population growth and unsustainable consumption. ered the species at Mount Edgecombe. Both historical sites no
The decline of amphibian populations is inextricably linked to longer exist because of extensive urban development and wet-
degradation of freshwater systems globally, as well as terrestrial land drainage. In fact, many of the species’ historical sites have
systems, in particular rainforests. Amphibians are experiencing been destroyed. The species is associated with Indian Ocean
extinction rates up to four orders-of-magnitude higher than Coastal Belt Wetland, which in itself is a Critically Endangered
background rates, with as many as 200 species extinctions in the habitat type.
past four decades. This is an alarming fact that should be a major
warning to humanity that our life-support system, in the form of Pickersgill’s reed frog is a small (body length ≤29 mm) reed
complex biodiversity, is at major risk. In South Africa, approxi- frog with variable colouration. Males and juveniles are usu-
mately 30% of our 134 frog species are classified as threatened ally brown in colour and are characterised by having a dark-
or data deficient or have not yet been assessed. edged light dorso-lateral band running from the snout to the
hind quarters on each side. The throat of males is dark yel-
On the East Coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, the past low. Females are often bright green and lack the dorso-lateral
decade has seen a proactive and concerted effort by various stripe. The underside is smooth and pale and the concealed
conservation organisations to prevent the extinction of a locally body surfaces (inner thighs, toes and fingers) lack pigmentation.

1
Endangered Wildlife Trust, Plot 27 and 28 Austin Road, Glen Austin AH, Midrand, 1685 South Africa

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 18: Map showing the distribution

of Pickersgill’s reed frog on the
KwaZulu-Natal coast. The range
(orange polygons) is not contigu-
ous as a result of high levels of
habitat fragmentation.

Figure 19: Male Pickersgill’s reed frog. Photograph: Nick Evans. Figure 20: Female Pickersgill’s reed frog. Photograph: Nick Evans.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

The snout extends only just beyond the nostrils and is slightly
pointed. The call of the male is a soft insect-like chirp issued in- What is chytrid fungus?
termittently. The behaviour and call of this species are cryptic,
often making it difficult to detect even when present. Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease that affects am-
phibians worldwide. It is caused by chytrid fungus (Batra­
The species is endemic to a narrow strip along the coast of chochytrium dendrobatidis). Chytrid fungi typically live in
KwaZulu-Natal. Extensive surveys between 2008 and 2012 water or soil. Frogs are thought to contract the disease when
confirmed the species at 21 sites between St Lucia in the north their skin comes into contact with water containing the fun-
and Sezela in the south. Surveys since 2013 have confirmed gal spores. The fungus invades the surface layers of the frog’s
the species at a further 19 sites, and was recently confirmed skin, damages the outer keratin layer, causing frogs to die, as
at a third protected area (Umhlanga Estuary Nature Reserve their skin regulates respiration. The fungus is responsible for
in addition to iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage Site widespread morbidity and mortality in susceptible species,
and Umlalazi Nature Reserve). Sites occur within 15 km of the leading to population declines. Over 500 species of amphib-
coast and up to an altitude of 380 m. The area of occupancy ians globally are thought to be affected by chytrid.
(AOO) is estimated at only 12 km2 and the extent of occurrence
(EOO) is 7 768 km2. The spatial distribution of this species is
considered to be severely fragmented as more than half the
number of individuals are thought to occur in small, isolated by dune mining and large-scale industrial developments. The
patches and many of the subpopulations are considered non- increased spread of alien vegetation is responsible for the
viable in the long term. The species is threatened primarily by degradation of several breeding sites. The amphibian chytrid
habitat loss, caused by urbanisation, afforestation and drainage fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been detected in
for agricultural and urban development, including rampant il- some subpopulations. Many of the historically known sites have
legal development within wetland habitat and more recently been eliminated by either sugar cane or eucalyptus plantations,

10 µm

Figure 21: Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the fungi that causes

Photograph: Brian Gratwicke
chytridiomycosis in frogs. Photograph: CSIRO.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Jeanne Tarrant Photograph: Jeanne Tarrant

which directly impact on breeding habitat through wetland into spatial planning tools. Conservation efforts by the EWT in-
drainage and planting within wetland buffers and cause a dry- clude the removal of alien plants from over 500 hectares of sites
ing out of wetland areas. where the frogs occur; the initiation of formal habitat protection
for three sites, encompassing over 500 hectares; and extensive
Much has been learnt about the species’ ecology in the last 10 community, media and educational outreach about the species.
years as a result of both in situ and ex situ research. A good under- All of these activities are guided by the Biodiversity Manage-
standing of its habitat requirements now exists and is being used ment Plan for Species (BMP-S), which was gazetted by the Min-
to inform wetland rehabilitation and creation efforts. Research ister of Environmental Affairs in June 2017 – the first such plan
has also been done on the genetics of the species. A genetic for a threatened frog in South Africa. The aim of the BMP-S is
study conducted in 2019 determined that these frogs have high to ensure the survival of the species in the wild, to improve its
genetic diversity, which means they may be able to adapt to fu- protection and to improve its conservation status. The plan lists
ture environmental change. In addition, the authors found that several actions including:
there was an absence of genetic structure, which indicates that
individual frogs are not restricted, and neighbouring groups may 1. Protection and management of habitat from the impacts
interact with each other through continued migration. Much of of urban or industrial development, reducing habitat frag-
the species’ life history has also been learnt as a result of the mentation, and identifying sites for relocation and habitat
captive breeding programme through the Amphibian Research rehabilitation.
Project of the Johannesburg Zoological Garden (JCPZ-ARP) that 2. Identifying and conducting research.
started in 2006. This includes knowledge on breeding, devel- 3. Development of educational and awareness campaigns.
opment and husbandry. The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT)
and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife have monitored populations where There are many resources available to help you learn more
captive-bred frogs have been released, as well as acoustic moni- about the frogs in your area, from field guides to online lessons
toring at 17 sites since 2016. Data accumulated through this and videos of frog calls. In order to make a difference, you can
have formed the basis for four honours projects, one MSc and start local and report sightings of frogs on online platforms such
two PhDs over the past decade. Jointly, we modelled predicted as iNaturalist. In addition, where possible, lobby against de-
habitat and have mapped corridor habitat for Pickersgill’s reed struction of wetlands, clean up local freshwater resources and
frog and shared this with various municipalities for incorporation lower your consumption.

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Photograph: Jeanne Tarrant

83
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Bishop, P.J. 2004. Hyperolius pickersgilli species account. In: L.R. Minter, M. Burger, J.A. Harrison, H.H. Braack, P.J. Bishop & D. Kloepfer (eds),
Atlas and Red Data Book of the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: 143–145. SI/MAB Series #9, Smithsonian Institution, Washington
DC.
Kotze, A., Barrow, L.N., Tarrant, J., Du Preez, L., Madisha, M.T., Ralph, T.M. & Dalton, D.L. 2019. Lack of phylogeographic structure in the endan-
gered Pickersgill’s Reed Frog; Hyperolius pickersgilli (Raw, 1982). African Journal of Herpetology 68: 1–17.
Raw, L.R.G. 1982. A new species of reed frog (Amphibia: Hyperoliidae) from the coastal lowlands of Natal, South Africa. Durban Museum Novi­
tates 13: 117–126.
Tarrant, J. & Armstrong, A.J. 2017. Biodiversity Management Plan for Pickersgill’s Reed Frog (Hyperolius pickersgilli). Department of Environmental
Affairs, Pretoria. Government Gazette Notice No. 40883.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Jeanne Tarrant 85

South African animals at risk of extinction

86 Photograph: André Coetzer

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Brenton Blue butterfly

The Brenton Blue (Orachrysops niobe) is a species of butterfly in the family Lycaenidae, which is endemic to South Africa.
This species occurs only in one location in the Western Cape Province, South Africa and is declining due to a reduction in the
number of host plants, drought and, more recently, a devastating fire in 2017. The species is listed as Critically Endangered by
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, as there are less than 50 mature individuals remaining, with an estimated continuing
decline of >25% over the next three years.

Tiny icon for conservation

Dave Edge1

The Brenton Blue campaign

The Brenton Blue butterfly, Orachrysops niobe (Figure 22) was
discovered at Knysna in 1862 by Roland Trimen, and not seen
again until Jonathan Ball rediscovered it at Nature’s Valley in
1977. It subsequently became extinct at Nature’s Valley but was
found again at Brenton-on-Sea in 1991, on a site proclaimed
for property development. An intensive publicity campaign by
the Lepidopterists’ Society of Africa and local environmental
activists galvanised several NGOs, including the Endangered
Wildlife Trust (EWT) and the Wildlife and Environment Society
of South Africa (WESSA), to form the Brenton Blue Trust (BBT)
in 1996, whose principal aim was to conserve the butterfly. Ne-
gotiations with the developer and pressure on government at all
levels eventually encouraged the then Minister of Environmental
Affairs, Pallo Jordan, to invoke the Environment Act to prevent
destruction of the habitat, followed by expropriation. In July
2005 the Brenton Blue Butterfly Reserve (BBBR) (Figure 23) was Figure 22: The Brenton Blue butterfly Orachrysops niobe (female).
proclaimed as a Special Nature Reserve falling under the control Photograph: J. Bode.

1
Brenton Blue Trust, P. O. Box 2586, Knysna, South Africa 6570

87
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 23: The Brenton Blue Butterfly Reserve,

showing vegetation types.

of CapeNature. A management committee, with representatives eliminate excess larvae (Figure 24 E). The surviving third instar
from CapeNature, WESSA, the Lepidopterists’ Society and the larvae (Figure 24 F) descend to the base of the host plant and
Knysna Municipality, guides the management of the BBBR in a feed underground on the woody rootstock of the plant (Figure
sustainable fashion to ensure the long-term survival of the but- 24 G), attended by ants, Camponotus baynei (Figure 24 H).
terfly. The BBBR remains the only known locality for the butterfly The final (fourth) instar larvae (Figure 24 I) continue feeding
and it has been Red Listed as Critically Endangered. on the rootstock until they are ready to pupate underground.
The rootstocks contain nutrients that promote more growth in
the later instars. After hatching, adult butterflies crawl to the
Life history of the Brenton Blue surface. First brood adults emerge from late October to ear-
ly December, with a second brood from late January to early
Research conducted over the last 15 years has given many in- March, and occasionally a third brood during April.
sights into the life history and ecology of the Brenton Blue. The
larval host plant is Indigofera erecta Thunb. (Figure 24 A) and The Brenton Blue belongs to the Lycaenid butterfly family.
female adults lay their eggs singly on the underside of the leaves Many species in this family have a variety of ant interactions
(Figure 24 B), close to the ground. Frequently one or more fe- during the larval stages (myrmecophily). The larvae of Orachry­
males oviposit many times on the same plant. The first and sops niobe have tough skin and spines (for defence), tentacle
second larval instars (Figures 24 C, D) feed on the leaflets of the organs (TOs, see Figures 24 D and 24 I) that emit ant phero-
host plant. Cannibalism takes place in the early larval stages to mones to attract Camponotus baynei ants, and a nectar organ

88
 South African animals at risk of extinction

A B C

D E F

G H I

Figure 24: A, the larval host plant of the Brenton Blue, Indigofera erecta; B, ovum of O. niobe, laid on the host plant leaves; C, first instar larva (length
1.5 mm); D, second instar larva, showing tentacle organs (TOs) (length 4 mm); E, cannibalism – the third instar larva on the right is consuming the
larva on the left, whose black head can be seen; F, head end of third instar larva, with thick integument (length 9 mm); G, rootstock of host plant
I. erecta, showing larval feeding marks; H, nest of host ants Camponotus baynei. O. niobe does not enter the ant nests; I, final (4th) instar larva, un-
derground on rootstock (length 14 mm). Photographs: A, Hanna du Toit; B–G, D.A. Edge; H, Tony Rebelo; I, L. du Preez.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

secondary seed dispersal, populations persist in favourable lo-

cations for long periods. Growth of new I. erecta plants from
seed is most favoured when open space becomes available,
and competition is reduced. Since fire produces these condi-
tions, approximately 20% of the BBBR was burnt in October
2000. Prolific recruitment occurred post-fire in patches where
the plant had been dormant as seed or underground root-
stocks. Within two years of the fire, most of these new plants
had died, as vigorous competitors, such as bracken fern (Pterid­
ium aquilinum), and pioneer asteraceous plants crowded out
the space. This management method, therefore, did not appear
to be sustainable.
Figure 25: Population of O. niobe from 2002 to 2017, as number of
adults per brood. No counting was done in February 2014.
In a parallel experiment, a network of paths was cut at the
BBBR to create open space. It was found that many new Indi­
that exudes a desirable substance to appease the ants. The ants gofera erecta plants grew along these paths, particularly close to
are essential to tend and protect the larvae from parasites and shading shrubs or in partial shade under trees with a high cano-
predators, and to assist them with excavating around the root- py. In the past, regular disturbances caused by browsing mega-
stock of the host plant. Methods have been devised to count herbivores (elephants, buffalo, rhinoceros and eland) would
the butterflies and to estimate the population (Figure 25). The have created a similar effect. The huge increase in the I. erecta
principal mortality factors in the larval stages (overcrowding on population that followed the path cutting led to an increase in
the host plant and larval cannibalism) are density dependent. the Orachrysops niobe population and subsequent regular path
The population, therefore, stabilises at a level determined by clearing has maintained this larger population (Figure 25). A de-
two critical resources: the population of the larval host plant, tailed study of the vegetation at the BBBR has showed it to be
Indigofera erecta, and an adequate population of C. baynei ants a mosaic of thicket and fynbos, with I. erecta occurring mostly
to tend the larvae. The decline in the butterfly population at in thicket patches dominated by candlewood trees (Pterocelas­
the BBBR during 2015 and 2016 was probably a result of a trus tricuspidatus). Indigofera erecta was much less common in
prolonged drought in the southern Cape, which reduced and fynbos-dominated vegetation types and recovered burnt areas.
dried out the host plant population.

Habitat requirements for the

Habitat requirements Camponotus baynei ants
for the host plant
Ant communities were sampled in the burnt and unburnt parts
Indigofera erecta is a rare plant that only occurs on cool, moist, of the BBBR and at two sites that had been burnt (one being
south-facing slopes close to the sea. It is a resprouting perennial Nature’s Valley), and which had stimulated temporarily good
with a woody rootstock. Mature plants (from two years old) host plant populations. Camponotus baynei was found to only
produce copious amounts of flowers annually. Flowers are pol- occur in the unburnt parts of the BBBR and not at all at the oth-
linated by a guild of small bees. The seeds develop in legume er two sites. This is probably because C. baynei nests in dead
pods and are dispersed by explosive dehiscence, casting the wood lying on the ground, which is destroyed during a fire, and
seeds up to 2 m from the parent plant. Since there is negligible it seems to prefer a cooler, shadier microclimate. The failure of

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an attempted reintroduction of the Brenton Blue to Nature’s Brenton Copper, Aloeides thyra orientis (Endangered). Research
Valley came after a misguided attempt to rejuvenate the fynbos on the Knysna Skollie has determined its habitat type, which is
by cutting down trees, including many candlewoods, and then in rocky or disturbed open areas in fynbos or coastal vegetation
burning the site. These experiments provided further confirma- with healthy populations of Anoplolepis (pugnacious) ants. The
tion that fire is not a suitable management tool. Brenton Opal butterfly has not been seen for over 25 years and
may very well be extinct. The Brenton Copper population has
improved after the fire and it seems to prefer sandy areas on
Management of the BBBR the top of secondary dunes where its host ant, Lepisiota, thrives.

A comprehensive management plan was put in place for the

BBBR in 2001 and was revised in 2008, following an intensive Brenton fire, June 2017
research programme. The public is only allowed access into
the BBBR by permission of CapeNature and accompanied by a The Knysna fire of 7 June 2017 also raged along the Brenton Pen-
guide. Disturbance of the reserve in any way or the collection insula, destroying over a hundred properties, many in Brenton-
of the butterflies is strictly prohibited and the neighbours of the on-Sea, home of the famous Brenton Blue butterfly. The 15 ha
BBBR play an active role in monitoring this. The paths at the butterfly reserve was severely burnt (Figure 26), leaving only
reserve are maintained open by pulling out bracken fern and very hardy trees, such as candlewoods, still standing, although
cutting of overshading plants, and any occasional alien plants badly scorched. After the fire there was no sign of the butter-
that appear are removed. Certain indigenous shrubs (camphor fly’s larval host plant, Indigofera erecta.
bush, bietou) are considered invasive and detrimental to the
habitat, and these are also controlled by cutting and removal. This fire was completely unprecedented in living memory, as
Exclusion of fire from the reserve is also seen as a priority and far back as when Brenton-on-Sea was founded in the mid-
fire breaks are maintained. The land to the north of the BBBR, 1960s. Several factors coincided to produce such a fire. Firstly,
Uitzicht 216/81, is owned by the Knysna Municipality (KM) and Brenton (and indeed the whole Garden Route) had over the
contains habitat suitable for expansion of the butterfly popula-
tion. Consequently, an agreement was reached between Cape-
Nature and the KM for this land to be managed as an extension
of the BBBR. Paths have been cut and the butterfly’s host plant
has sprouted in shady places along these paths. Female Ora­
chrysops niobe have been released in the extension area, but
so far, no egg laying has been observed.

Knysna is a butterfly
biodiversity hotspot
The recent publication of the South African Red Data Book:
butterflies has drawn attention to the fact that Knysna is a
butterfly biodiversity hotspot. In addition to the Brenton Blue
there are three other Red-Listed butterflies in the vicinity: the
Knysna Skolly, Thestor brachycerus (Critically Endangered); the Figure 26: The BBBR a few days after the fire (12 June 2017). Photo-
Brenton Opal, Chrysoritis thysbe mithras (Endangered) and the graph: Dave Edge.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

previous nine months experienced a very severe drought, with the rootstocks of the host plant. It is believed from studies on
rainfall less than 25% of the norm experienced since weather other butterflies with similar life cycles that the larvae and pu-
records have been kept for the Knysna area, which caused the pae have the capacity to remain in a diapausal state for several
vegetation to dry out. Secondly, a proliferation of alien vegeta- years until surface conditions are again favourable. The host
tion had increased the fuel load and many of these alien trees plant itself recovered quite quickly, being a resprouter, which
were actually dying because of the drought. Thirdly, the closure sends out new shoots from the rootstock. New host plants were
of the Brenton-on-Sea garden waste disposal site had meant also recruited from seeds buried in the soil, whose germination
that residents were deterred from cutting woody plants on their was stimulated by the heat and smoke. The host plants tend to
plots. Fourthly, peak daytime temperatures had been up in the be concentrated on the shady sides of candlewood trees and
mid-thirties for a few days before the fire, as a result of a strong the survival of these trees was critical. The survival of the host
berg wind (from the north). And finally, an incredibly strong ants is also critical, although those that are underground tend-
westerly gale gusting at up to 100 km/h rapidly brought a fire, ing the larvae may be able to survive on the nutritious fluid
which had ignited in the Karatara area, to the Brenton Peninsu- exuded by the dorsal nectar organ of the larvae. One flicker of
la, where firefighters became helpless to stop it as it was able to hope was that a few adults emerged in November 2017 and
jump even very large fire breaks and wide roads. one seen was a female laying eggs.

The effect on the Brenton Blue butterfly of such a severe fire is

not known, although butterfly experts believe that it has adap- Post fire research programme
tations, which should enable it to survive such a fire. The lar-
vae and pupae of the butterfly are underground during winter, A research project was initiated immediately after the fire, in-
tended by host ants Camponotus baynei, where they feed on volving ecologists, lepidopterists, botanists and myrmecologists
(ant experts). The overall aim is to monitor the post-fire recovery
of the ecosystem at the BBBR, mainly focusing on the status of
the critical ecological factors needed for Orachrysops niobe to
survive (host plants, host ants, candlewood trees, nectar plants,
vegetation communities, microclimate) and compare that with
the pre-fire ecosystem as recorded in 2005. The research ob-
jectives therefore are:

1. Record the recovery of the vegetation communities and

compare with pre-fire data.
2. Monitor regrowth of the larval host plant Indigofera erecta.
3. Record the fire damage to the candlewood trees and the
timing and manner of their recovery.
4. Record the abundance/activity of all ant species present
after the fire, particularly Camponotus baynei.
5. During O. niobe’s normal emergence periods record any
O. niobe that emerge, and estimate the size of the butterfly
population.
Figure 27: A female Brenton Blue that emerged 5 months after the 6. Search for O. niobe populations outside the BBBR and fur-
fire. Photograph: Hanna du Toit. ther afield.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Vegetation recovery process

Five months after the fire in November 2017, the vegetation

consisted mainly of Ficinia oligantha (a sedge) and several grass
species; bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) – dominant in some
areas; and geophytes such as Hypoxis villosa (African potato),
Bobartia (blombiesie), Kniphofia (red-hot poker), Watsonia and
Aristea species. Osteospermum moniliferum (bietou) seedlings
were prolific and resprouting shrubs and trees such as Halleria
lucida (tree fuchsia), Protea cynaroides (king protea), Tarcho­
nanthus (camphorwood), Leucadendron (geelbos), Asparagus
(haakdoring) species and several Searsia (taaibos) species were
recovering. Herbs included Geranium incanum (carpet gera-
nium), Indigofera erecta, Arctotheca calendula (botterblom),
Hebenstretia (cat-tail) and Nemesia (leeubekkie) species.

In April 2018, Senecio rigidus (upright, stiff, prickly, yellow-flow-

ered plants), Rhynchosia caribaea, R. chrysoscias sp. (climbing,
yellow-flowered plants) and Cullumia decurrens (very prickly,
yellow-flowered, low-growing plant) were becoming dominant
and were smothering the Indigofera plants. The herb layer was
supplemented by Selago burchellii, Lobelia neglecta, Felicia
Figure 28: White flags marking the I. erecta host plants.
echinata and Hibiscus sp. – all good nectar sources for adult
butterflies.
were numbered with white flags on sticks (Figure 28), with their
By May 2021, the reserve had become dominated by shrubs
growth regularly monitored.
such as Erica leucopelta and E. discolor (=E. speciosa) and
Struthiola hirsuta. The dominance of Ficinia oligantha at ground Every quarter a census is done to record the size of the plant,
level was considerably reduced and its congener, Ficinia ramo­ how many flowers it has and the degree of shade it experienc-
sissima was taking over. Woody species such as Osteospermum es. The latest census shows that from the 1 300 live Indigofera
moniliferum (bietou), Tarchonanthus littoralis (camphorwood), erecta plants recorded in December 2018, 185 new plants
Halleria lucida (tree fuchsia) and several Searsia species had emerged, 825 plants died and only 660 plants were alive in
grown much taller and were providing shade to the lower layers. September 2021. The main causes of mortality were too much
shade from the surrounding plants or too little shade leading to
Indigofera erecta plants desiccation. Table 1 summarises the results.

All Indigofera erecta plants that emerged after the fire were Monitoring recovery of the candlewood trees
given a number and their progress was monitored. From June
to November 2017 they recovered very quickly, both as re- In May 2020 (three years after the fire), from the 84 candle-
sprouters (from underground rootstocks) or as seedlings (about wood trees monitored before the fire, 38 were resprouting
20% so far), and prolific flowering took place. Over 600 plants from the canopy (45%) and 75 were resprouting from the base

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

(89%). Average shade under the candlewoods had grown to and the Indigofera erecta population have recovered from the
about 12%. fire, the ant community continues to be dominated by Pheidole
cf. capensis and this is preventing the Brenton Blue’s host ant,
Camponotus baynei, from re-establishing itself in the butterfly
Monitoring ant community recovery
reserve. There is some possibility that the larvae of the butterfly
Ant trapping has been done every six months at the BBBR and are in a state of aestivation underground, awaiting the return of
the surrounding land. Pheidole cf. capensis was mostly found C. baynei ants before they emerge, but with every passing year
(99% of samples) and seems to be the dominant ant species. this becomes less and less likely. Consequently, the main hope
Occasionally Camponotus ants were found, but only C. nive­ is now for another population of Brenton Blue’s to be found,
osetosus, C. berichti or C. maculatus – no C. baynei. Sampling but it has become apparent that the larval host plant, I. erecta,
continues. is also very rare, being restricted to the Brenton Peninsula.

Search for other populations

of Orachrysops niobe Table 1. Record of the population of Indigofera erecta plants before
and after the June 2017 fire. Shade is estimated from before
Searches have been conducted all along the Brenton Peninsula September 2020.
and from Kleinkrans (east of Wilderness) to the Otter Trail (east
Date New Died Alive Flowers Av. shade
of Nature’s Valley). Sites were preselected to comply with the
following parameters: Mar 2017 300
• Vegetation type Knysna Sand Fynbos or other similar sand
June 2017 300 0 0
fynbos.
• On south-facing slopes overlooking the sea. Nov 2017 600 600 <10
• Altitude from 150–200 m. Mar 2018 400 1000 15
• Ecotone between fynbos and thicket vegetation.
Dec 2018 300 1300 20
• Preferably with candlewood trees.
June 2019 30 250 1080 25
The only place where true Indigofera erecta was encountered
was on the Brenton Peninsula, but nowhere as abundant as it Mar 2020 20 350 750 30
is in the BBBR.
Sep 2020 85 175 660 2200 31.4

Jan 2021 35 25 670 31.4

Conclusions
Sep 2021 15 25 660 2900 33.9
The Brenton Blue was only seen for a few days in November
Totals 1485 825 660
2017 following the fire in June that year. Whilst the vegetation

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: André Coetzer

95
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Bazin, E.A. & Edge, D.A. 2015. The ecology and conservation of (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The Journal of Research on the Lepi­
Thestor brachycerus brachycerus (Trimen, 1883) – an aphy- doptera 42: 21–33.
tophagous miletine butterfly from South Africa. Journal of Insect Edge, D.A., Robertson, H.G. & Van Hamburg, H. 2008. Ant assem-
Conservation 19(2): 349–357. blages at potential breeding sites for the Brenton Blue butterfly
Edge, D.A. 2005. Ecological factors influencing the breeding success Orachrysops niobe (Trimen) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). African
of the Brenton Blue Orachrysops niobe (Trimen) (Lepidoptera: Entomology 16(2): 253–262.
Lycaenidae). PhD thesis, North-West University, Potchefstroom. Edge, D.A., Cilliers, S.S. & Terblanche, R.F. 2009. Vegetation associ-
Edge, D.A. 2008. Brenton Blue Butterfly Special Nature Reserve ated with the occurrence of the Brenton Blue butterfly. South
– Environmental management plan revision 2. CapeNature, African Journal of Science 104: 505–510.
George. Henning, G.A., Terblanche, R.F. & Ball, J.B. 2009. South African
Edge, D.A. & Pringle, E.L. 1996. Notes on the natural history of the Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series 13. South
Brenton Blue Orachrysops niobe (Trimen) (Lepidoptera: Lycae- African National Biodiversity Institute. Pretoria.
nidae). Metamorphosis 7(3): 109–120. Steenkamp, C. & Stein, R. 1999. The Brenton Blue saga – a case
Edge, D.A. & Van Hamburg, H. 2010. Larval feeding behaviour and study of South African biodiversity conservation. Endangered
myrmecophily of the Brenton Blue Orachrysops niobe (Trimen) Wildlife Trust, Parkview.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: André Coetzer 97

South African animals at risk of extinction

98 Photograph: M.J. Samways

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Dragonflies
Dragonfly conservation in South Africa has gained much momentum over the last few decades due to research attention and
focused management activities. In addition, dragonflies are also charismatic and iconic among insects, which have led to them
grabbing attention from the public. It is now one of few insect groups that are assessed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species and part of the South African national Red List.

South Africa’s rarest dragonflies and their conservation

Charl Deacon1, Michael J. Samways1 and Dewidine van der Colff2,3

Currently, there are over 6 300 known dragonfly species (Od- In a global context and proportionate to land area, relatively few
onata) worldwide. Technically, the word ‘dragonfly’ refers to dragonfly species occur in South Africa. Only 164 species have
three different subgroups: Anisoptera (true dragonflies), Zygop- been confirmed from within the political boundaries of South Af-
tera (damselflies) and Anisozygoptera (a small group of species rica. More than 120 dragonfly species are known from the East-
that has features intermediate between true dragonflies and ern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces,
damselflies). Only Anisoptera and Zygoptera occur in South Af- the subtropical region of South Africa that partly falls within the
rica and here we use ‘dragonfly’ to refer to all Odonata species. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot. By compar-
ison, only about 70 species are known from the Western Cape,
Dragonflies are among the oldest insect groups, with their but nearly a third of these are endemic to the Cape Floristic Re-
ancestors dating back to 400 million years ago (mya). Later, gion. Some of these Western Cape endemic species are relicts
during the Carboniferous Period, about 340 mya, when oxy- dating back to nearly 60 mya, showing that the Western Cape has
gen levels were much higher than today, adult dragonflies a rich dragonfly history, with the mountains and rainfall patterns
dominated airspace before pterosaurs and long before birds playing important roles in the survival of these species.
and bats. They were the top predators in those days and some
reached huge sizes, with wingspans of up to 0.75 m. Dragon- Most dragonflies have distinct preferences for certain land and
flies have undergone little basic change in shape since those water conditions. For example, the Western Cape endemic
ancient times, although the very large species are no longer species prefer high quality habitats, while a handful can toler-
with us today. ate low quality habitats. Needless to say, this makes dragonflies

1
Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602 S​ outh Africa
2
South African National Biodiversity Institute, Threatened Species Programme, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town, 7700 South Africa
3
Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Private Bag X1, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, 7602 South
Africa.

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Figure 29: The main differences between the two suborders of Odonata found in South Africa.

very interesting from a conservation perspective, because the means that some South African dragonflies experience various
presence or absence of species at certain waterbodies gives an human-induced threats, while at the same time, having to deal
indication of water quality. It is the assemblage of particular with climate change. The implications are especially important
species sets at any locality that indicates the state of the water for South African endemic dragonflies, which are highly sen-
body and the extent to which it is changing, either for the bet- sitive to these novel human-induced threats, yet they do not
ter or worse. have other suitable habitats available.

We are fortunate in South Africa to have many areas with riv-

ers or wetlands where the human footprint is often still only
small. Importantly, these wild areas include networks of pro- Exceptional dragonflies
tected areas where dragonfly diversity is high. Originally, these of the Western Cape
areas were not selected with dragonflies in mind, but dragon-
flies have benefitted from conservation schemes that involved Odonatology (the study of dragonflies) is well-developed in
plants and mammals. However, some endemic dragonflies oc- South Africa, with various published field guides to help field
cupy isolated habitats that are closely associated with human- explorers identify dragonflies, and citizen science initiatives
transformed landscapes, and so need particular attention. This that generate large datasets on dragonfly distribution across the

100
 South African animals at risk of extinction

120 mya, with species divergence roughly corresponding with

the break-up of Gondwana. Syncordulia legator is listed as Vul-
nerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. With its
strong affinity for natural riparian habitat conditions, it is almost
exclusively threatened by the shading effects of invasive alien
trees and riverbank transformation. Due to its exceptional evo-
lutionary history and strong isolation, it is also threatened by
climate change and its current habitat might become limited
because of changing climate. Conservation actions that include
planning for climatic change scenarios is critical to ensure pro-
tection of relict S. legator populations.

Syncordulia serendipator is another ancient and highly localised

dragonfly in South Africa. The epithet serendipator refers to the
fact that it was discovered serendipitously near Wellington in
the Western Cape, while surveying other dragonfly species. It
Figure 30: Dragonfly species richness is highest in the Maputaland- is a high mountain species that occurs in pools associated with
Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot, the subtropical area
along the East Coast of southern Africa (blue). Dragonfly species
endemism is highest in the Cape Floristic Region in the south-
west of South Africa (green).

country. Even with these resources in place, new species are

still being described and new information is frequently being
added on the ecology and biology of the local species.

Among the most ancient and highly endemic dragonflies in

South Africa are the four species in the genus Syncordulia. Two
of these, S. legator (the gilded presba) and S. serendipator, were
only discovered in 2003. The specific epithet, legator (from
Latin, roughly translating to ‘the gatherer’), has been so named
to honour early entomologists Elliot Pinhey and Neville Duke,
who gathered substantial information on the Syncordulia group
during the last half of the 1900s.

Syncordulia legator is an elusive dragonfly that occupies open,

fast-flowing streams in mountainous fynbos areas – conditions
that have been, and still are, typical to the Western Cape. A ge-
netic study has suggested that S. legator dates to almost 45 mya, Figure 31: A male Syncordulia legator hanging from riparian vegeta-
placing the species among the most ancient of dragonflies in the tion along a swiftly flowing Cape mountain stream. Photograph:
country, following divergence of the Syncordulia genus before Michael Samways.

101
 South African animals at risk of extinction

small streams. While invasive alien trees are less of a threat The sun-loving spesbona damselfly occupies sluggish streams or
to this species as they are to S. legator, it is at great risk from pools in mountainous areas, although it has disappeared com-
climate change, not just warming but also extended droughts. pletely from its type locality close to Ceres in the Western Cape.
Long and intense droughts are also a severe threat for other Its disappearance is presumably linked to large-scale agricul-
South African dragonflies. tural development in the area. For the first time since 1920, a
small population was rediscovered at a locality almost 200 km
Perhaps one of the most remarkable stories of Western Cape away from its type locality in 2003, following alien tree clearing
endemic dragonflies, is that of Spesbona angusta (the spesbona
and the opening up of habitat. This rediscovery has also led to
damselfly, formerly known as Metacnemis angusta). This dam-
the redescription of the species, changing its genus to Spesbo­
selfly is the only known insect to show rapid and reversible
na, paying homage to this incredible story of hope for the con-
colour change in both sexes in response to weather conditions.
servation of dragonflies and other insects. Since then, another
Under cool and overcast conditions, the adults are brown,
stable population has also been discovered near Wilderness in
while in hot and sunny conditions, they shift to a light or steel
2018 by the avid citizen scientist, Jean Hirons, following some
blue colour. They undergo this colour change in a matter of
seconds, sometimes even as a cloud passes over. Rapid and wildfires in the area. Given its local rarity and discontinuous
reversible colour change is a physiological strategy that can distribution, S. angusta is currently listed as Endangered on the
have several advantages, such as allowing them to stay warm or IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
cool during the day, while also enabling them to advertise their
Proischnura polychromatica (the mauve bluet) is another small
sexual fitness to potential mates.
dragonfly species endemic to the Western Cape, associated
with sluggish and open mountain streams and pools, similar
to Spesbona angusta. Only two small populations of P. poly­
chromatica are known from the Western Cape, one from the
Cederberg Wilderness Area and one from the Theewaterskloof
area (which it shares with S. angusta). Formerly also noted at
Sevenweekspoort, it has not been rediscovered there despite
intense searches. Since P. polychromatica and S. angusta have
similar habitat preferences, the two species face similar threats
– habitat transformation and spread of invasive alien trees.
Proischnura polychromatica is currently listed as Endangered
on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Conservation of South
African dragonflies
Although some widespread dragonflies occur in urban areas,
most species, especially those that are rare and threatened,
are seldom found in built-up areas. Some are so sensitive to
Figure 32: A male Syncordulia serendipator resting on natural vegeta- changes in their environments that they do not even occupy
tion. Photograph: Michael Samways. freshwater habitats with the slightest change in conditions. This

102
 South African animals at risk of extinction

A B

C D

Figure 33: Spesbona angusta, one of the most range-restricted dragonflies in the world, is the only insect known to science to rapidly change colour in
response to weather conditions. A, male under warm conditions; B, male under cold conditions; C, female under warm conditions; D, female
under cold conditions. Photographs: Charl Deacon.

means that dragonflies are best protected in their natural habi- provide fodder to domestic animals, while some were also
tats, some distance away from human settlements. the dominant tree species planted for timber production.
More than anything else, invasive alien trees shade dragonfly
Dragonflies in natural and/or protected areas are not exempt habitats, which hinders dragonfly hunting activities and ther-
from ecological impacts, with the greatest impact by far being moregulation – a major deterrent to the sun-loving dragonflies
the spread of invasive alien trees, such as Acacia, Eucalyptus of South Africa.
and Pinus species. During the early stages of infrastructural
and agricultural development in the Western Cape, these The long-term costs associated with the introduction, spread,
invasive alien trees were introduced to stabilise sand dunes, and removal of alien trees far outweighs their economic value.

103
 South African animals at risk of extinction

A B

Figure 34: Most dragonflies in southern Africa prefer open habitats with high quality water conditions. A, an open stream in a forested region of South
Africa; B, a highly modified stream with low water quality, and much shading from non-native trees; C, an open natural pond on a high elevation
floodplain. Photographs: Charl Deacon.

104
 South African animals at risk of extinction

A B

Figure 35: A male (A) and female (B) of Proischnura polychromatica, one of the most difficult species to spot in the Cape Floristic Region due to its small
body size. Photographs: Charl Deacon.

Alien trees also cause major environmental damage, through Working for Water Programme. Dragonflies, even endemic
increased pressure on freshwater resources, increased fire risk species, have proved themselves to be resilient against the
and simplification of plant and animal communities. The chal- spread of alien trees and their populations recover well once
lenge is that alien tree clearing is expensive and labour inten- the original water quality and riparian conditions are restored.
sive. Furthermore, follow-up clearing is essential to ensure that Increasing awareness of the importance of dragonflies as apex
any area remains free of further invasion. However, prevention predators in the insect realm, and their conservation relative to
of spread is economically more feasible compared to clearing habitat quality, is key to ensuring that dragonflies can survive
after establishment, and so pre-emptive clearing is the pre- alongside humans over the years to come. Through continued
ferred approach. This activity maintains indigenous vegetation scientific research, along with help from the public through citi-
along riverbanks and is therefore highly recommended. zen science and major regenerative programmes, we can en-
sure that dragonfly habitats, which are also important habitats
Along with maintenance of good water quality, dragonflies have for other plants and animals, can remain intact, so protecting
benefitted greatly from alien tree clearing, especially under the our spectacular dragonfly heritage.

105
 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Deacon, C. & Samways, M.J. 2016. Conservation of a phenom- Simaika, J.P. & Samways, M.J. 2009. Reserve selection using Red
enon: rapid, reversible colour change in both sexes of one of the Listed taxa in three global biodiversity hotspots: dragonflies in
world’s most threatened damselflies. Journal of Insect Conserva­ South Africa. Biological Conservation 142: 638–651.
tion 20: 497–504. Tarboton, W. & Tarboton, M. 2015. A Guide to the Dragonflies
Deacon, C., Samways, M.J. & Pryke, J.S. 2020. Determining drivers and Damselflies of South Africa. Penguin Random House, Mid-
of dragonfly diversity patterns and the implications for conserva- rand.
tion in South Africa. Biological Conservation 245: 108548. Underhill, L.G., Navarro, R.A., Manson, A.D., Labuschagne, J.P. &
Dijkstra, K.D., Samways, M.J. & Simaika, J.P. 2007. Two new relict Tarboton, W.R. 2016. OdonataMAP: progress report on the atlas
Syncordulia species found during museum and field studies of of the dragonflies and damselflies of Africa, 2010-2016. Biodi­
threatened dragonflies in the Cape Floristic Region (Odonata: versity Observations: 1–10.
Corduliidae). Zootaxa 1467: 19–34. Van Wilgen, B.W. 2012. Evidence, perceptions, and trade-offs as-
Samways, M.J. 2008. Dragonflies and damselflies of South Africa sociated with invasive alien plant control in the Table Mountain
(No. 70). Pensoft Publishers, Bulgaria. National Park, South Africa. Ecology and Society 17: 23.
Samways, M.J. & Simaika, J.P. 2016. Manual of Freshwater Assess- Ware, J.L., Simaika, J.P. & Samways, M.J. 2009. Biogeography and
ment for South Africa: Dragonfly biotic index. Suricata 2. South divergence time estimation of the relic Cape dragonfly genus
African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Syncordulia: global significance and implications for conserva-
Samways, M.J. & Tarboton, W. 2006. Rediscovery of Metacnemis tion. Zootaxa 2216: 22–36.
angusta (Selys) in the Western Cape, South Africa, with descrip- Wilson, J.R., Gaertner, M., Griffiths, C.L., Kotzé, I., Le Maitre, D.C.,
tion of male and redescription of female (Zygoptera: Platycne- Marr, S.M., Picker, M.D., Spear, D., Stafford, L., Richardson,
mididae). Odonatologica 35: 375–378. D.M. & Van Wilgen, B.W. 2014. Chapter 12: Biological invasions
Samways, M.J. & Taylor, S. 2004. Impacts of invasive alien plants in the Cape Floristic Region: history, current patterns, impacts,
on Red-Listed South African dragonflies (Odonata): working for and management challenges. In: Allsopp, N., Colville, F. & Ver-
water. South African Journal of Science 100: 78–80. boom, G.A. (eds). Fynbos: Ecology, evolution, and conservation
Samways, M.J., Taylor, S. & Tarboton, W. 2005. Extinction reprieve of a megadiverse region. pp. 273–298. Oxford University Press,
following alien removal. Conservation Biology 19: 1329–1330. Oxford.

106
 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: Charl Deacon 107

South African animals at risk of extinction

108 Photograph: Jan Huber

 South African animals at risk of extinction

Grasshoppers
Commonly known to be plant-eaters, grasshoppers are beneficial to the environment. Their droppings return nutrients to the
earth for the local vegetation. In addition, they are eaten by birds, rodents and other creatures, thus they help populations of
other organisms to survive. Several grasshopper species are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Vulnerable
or Endangered due to a variety of threats.

Hopping to extinction: Threatened grasshopper species

of the Euryphyminae subfamily (Acrididae)
Precious Tshililo1 and Mamadi Theresa Sethusa2

Grasshoppers are members of the order Orthoptera. The Or- are recorded in South Africa), and Gryllidae (crickets, with 110
thoptera is one of the most diverse orders among the Polyneop- described species, 11% of which are recorded in South Africa).
tera, one of the major lineages of the winged insects, with more Proportionally, this distribution of species among families mirrors
than 25 700 extant species. The order is divided into two subor- that of the global Orthoptera, in which Acrididae and Tettigonii-
ders: Ensifera (including crickets, katydids, wetas) and Caelifera dae are the two families with the greatest number of described
(true grasshoppers and grasshopper-like insects). Members of species, followed by the Gryllidae. The largest and relatively
Caelifera are diurnal and herbivorous, whereas the Ensifera are well-studied group, the Acrididae, include some rare, under-
predominantly nocturnal and may range from herbivorous to studied and potentially threatened species needing attention
predatory. Common characters between the Caelifera and Ensi­ and intentional efforts to conserve.
fera include their acoustic communication, which is achieved
by different mechanisms in the two suborders, and their en-
larged, muscular hind femora that are specialised for jumping. The ecology of grasshoppers
In South Africa, there are approximately 970 described spe- Species of the family Acrididae are most diverse and abundant
cies of Orthoptera. Of these, the most common families are the in grassland ecosystems, hence the common name grasshop-
Acrididae (grasshoppers/true grasshoppers, with 350 described pers. Because the family is large and diverse, several groups
species, 36% of which are recorded in South Africa), Tettigo- have become specialised over time and are adapted to new
niidae (katydids, with 160 described species, 17% of which habitats and conditions. Grasshoppers are usually brown or

1
The National Museum, P.O. Box 266, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
2
South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X101, Silverton, 0184 South Africa

109
 South African animals at risk of extinction

green and adults are characterised by having two sets of wings:

What is the taxonomic slender forewings and large hindwings. Furthermore, they have
large eyes in relation to their heads and short antennae. Acridi-
classification system? dae’s capacity for extreme population density-dependent poly-
phenism makes them quite interesting. They can transform
Taxonomy (which means ‘arrangement law’) is the disci-
from a cryptic solitarious phase, aimed at avoiding predators,
pline of classifying organisms. The current taxonomic sys-
to a swarming gregarious phase for collective migration, a strat-
tem includes the following levels (from highest to lowest):
egy best referred to as safety in numbers. The behavioural dif-
However, it can also include additional levels, for example,
ferences are spectacular in that during their solitarious phase
a family can include subfamily, tribe and subtribe. Under
individuals avoid each other except for mating, while in the
species you can have a subspecies and under order you can
gregarious phase they pack together into ‘hopper bands’ that
have suborders.
feed, mate, lay eggs and migrate in crowds.

Ecological significance
of grasshoppers
Although commonly known as economically important pests
of crops when they swarm; in the solitarious phase grasshop-
pers are an integral part of the grassland ecosystems. They are
important in nutrient cycling, stimulating plant growth, and

Photograph: Ernesto Rodriguez

110
 South African animals at risk of extinction

serving as a critical food source for predators like some birds,

lizards and rodents. Furthermore, several investigators suggests
that grasshoppers could be used as ecological indicators in eco-
system studies. For these reasons they are considered to be taxa
of conservation and/or biodiversity importance and their con-
servation status was recently assessed in South Africa (in 2018).
For conservation purposes, a national approach is relatively
easily implementable. This is because conservation actions are
commonly driven at national level, except for selected taxa, for
which historical extent of occurrence spans across international
boundaries, thus requiring collaboration across international
borders. Here, we focus on threatened species of the subfamily Figure 36: Lateral view of a male Aneuryphymus montanus (yellow-
Euryphyminae, endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. winged agile grasshopper). Photograph: Daniël Otte.

Threatened species of the range. Details of the pressures involved are mentioned in the
species accounts below.
southern African endemic
subfamily, Euryphyminae The yellow-winged agile grasshopper (Aneuryphymus monta­
nus) (Figure 36) is listed as Vulnerable under the B criterion,
Species of Euryphyminae are extremely agile and both difficult VU B2ab(iii,v). The B criterion considers pressures on the geo-
to catch and spot. Morphologically, they are adapted to arid re- graphic range of a species, as it pertains to the extent of oc-
gions, relatively robust and small to medium in size compared currence and/or area of occupancy. The species is endemic to
to other grasshoppers (body length: 15–28 mm). Both sexes ei- the Cape region of South Africa and is mostly found in fynbos
ther have wings that surpass the end of the abdomen in length, vegetation. It was first collected in 1960 amongst partly burnt
or short wings that just cover the tympanum. In most species, stands of evergreen sclerophyllous plants in rocky foothills.
internal hind femora of both sexes are coloured black when When Richard Kinvig collected the species in 2005, he noted
mature, but some species also have colourful hindwings and that it preferred cool, south-facing slopes. Due to habitat degra-
tibiae. When at rest, their spotted or darkly coloured bodies dation, the number of matured adults is inferred to be decreas-
are well camouflaged with their environment. It has been sug- ing. Furthermore, the transformed landscape is vulnerable to
gested that Euryphyminae use the flashy colours of their hind- alien species invasions, reported to result in reduced grasshop-
wings and internal hind femora to stand out against the dark- per population size. This led to the conclusion that the main
coloured habitat/background for intraspecific communication, threat to this species is conversion of its habitat into farmland
most likely to attract potential partners or as a sexual display, as and invasions of alien plant species.
the hindwings and internal hind femora are hidden while at rest
but can be displayed strategically when they move. The Maputo agile grasshopper (Amblyphymus adspersus) (Fig-
ure 37A) is listed as Near Threatened under the B criterion, NT
Following the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s B1ab(iii,v). The species was first recorded from the Maputo Prov-
(IUCN) categories and criteria, three species of the Euryphymi- ince of Mozambique in 1935, and later from KwaZulu-Natal,
nae, the yellow-winged agile grasshopper, Maputo agile grass- South Africa. There is also an unconfirmed record from Zimbab­
hopper and Durban agile grasshopper, are listed as threatened, we (Southern Rhodesia) recorded in 1951. The species is likely
mainly due to anthropogenic activities in their distribution to be associated with Miombo woodland or open, grass-rich

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A B

Figure 37: A, lateral view of a female Amblyphymus adspersus (Maputo agile grasshopper); B, lateral view of a male Phymeurus illepidus (Durban agile
grasshopper). Photographs: Daniël Otte.

habitats. A continuing decline in the number of mature adults is (KwaZulu-Natal) and Kenhardt (Northern Cape), South Africa,
inferred from an observed decline in the extent and quality of recorded in 1945 and then again in 2011 respectively. Females
habitat, as it is continually transformed for agricultural use and are probably not strong fliers, based on their wing morphol-
plantation of exotic trees, mainly Eucalyptus species. ogy, and are therefore probably sensitive to population frag-
mentation. A decline in the number of mature individuals is
The Durban agile grasshopper (Phymeurus illepidus) (Figure correlated with habitat loss in the Durban area, due to habitat
37B) is listed as Vulnerable, under the B criterion, VU B1ab(iii,v). transformation for farmland (mainly sugarcane), exotic trees
The species is rare, known only from the area close to Durban (mostly Eucalyptus species) and urbanisation.

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Photograph: Sue Thomas

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

References

Bazelet, C.S. & Samways, M.J. 2011. Identifying grasshopper bioin- Hansen, C.O. & Townshend, J.R.G. 2013. High-Resolution Global
dicators for habitat quality assessment of ecological networks. Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change. Science 342:
Ecological Indicators: 1259–1269. 850–853.
Bazelet, C.S. & Naskrecki, P. 2014. Taxonomic revision of the Hochkirch, A., Bazelet, C.S. & Danielczak, A. 2018. Aneuryphy­
southern African genus Pachyphymus Uvarov, 1922 (Orthop- mus montanus, Amblyphymus adspersus and Phymeurus illepi­
tera: Acridoidea: Euryphyminae). Zootaxa 3753(5): 401–420. dus. Red List of South African Species. [Available from: http://
Brinck, R. 1956. Orthoptera acridoidea. In: V.M. Dirsh (ed.), South speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/4428/, http://
African Animal Life; Results of the Lund University Expedition in speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/4408/, http://
1950–1951. pp. 121–272. Almovist & Wiksell, Stockholm. speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/4400/].
Brown, H.D. 1960. New Grasshoppers (Acridoidea) from the Great Huang, J., Zhang, A., Mao, S. & Huang, Y. 2013. DNA barcoding
Karroo and the South Eastern Cape Province. Journal of the En­ and species boundary delimitation of selected species of Chinese
tomological Society of South Africa 23: 126–143. Acridoidea (Orthoptera: Caelifera). PloS One 8(12): e82400.
Cullen, D.A., Cease, A.J., Latchininsky, A.V., Ayali, A., Berry, K., Kinvig, R.G. 2005. Biotic indicators of grassland condition in Kwa­
Buhl, J. & Rogers, S.M. 2017. From molecules to management: Zulu-Natal, with management recommendations. PhD. thesis,
mechanisms and consequences of locust phase polyphenism. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.
Advances in Insect Physiology 53: 167–285. Latchininsky AV. 2010. Locusts. In: M.D. Breed & J. Moore (eds)
Cigliano, M.M., Braun, H., Eades, D.C. & Otte, D. 2021. Orthop- Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, volume 2, pp. 288–297. Aca-
tera Species File. Version 5.0/5.0. [Available from: http://Or- demic Press, Oxford.
thoptera.SpeciesFile.org]. Latchininsky, A., Sword, G., Sergeev, M., Cigliano, M.M. & Lecoq, M.
Dong, L., Shi, J., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Li, X. & Yin, H. 2015. Molec- 2011. Locusts and grasshoppers: behavior, ecology, and biogeog-
ular phylogenetic analysis of Acridoidea (Orthoptera: Caelifera) raphy. Psyche: A Journal of Entomology 2011, Article ID 578327.
based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit sequences. Matenaar, D., Bazelet, C.S. & Hochkirch, A. 2015. Simple tools for
Zootaxa 4018: 411–425. the evaluation of protected areas for the conservation of grass-
Gebeyehu, S. & Samways, M.J. 2003. Responses of grasshop- hoppers. Biological Conservation 192: 192–199.
per assemblages to long-term grazing management in a semi- Song, H., Amédégnato, C., Cigliano, M.M., Desutter-Grandcolas,
arid African savanna. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment: L., Heads, S.W., Huang, Y. & Whiting, M.F. 2015. 300 million
613–622. years of diversification: elucidating the patterns of orthopteran
Gebeyehu, S. & Samways, M.J. 2006. Topographic heterogeneity evolution based on comprehensive taxon and gene sampling.
plays a crucial role for grasshopper diversity in a southern Af- Cladistics 31(6): 621–651.
rican megabiodiversity hotspot. Biodiversity and Conservation: Tshililo, P. 2020. Review of South African Euryphyminae. Zootaxa
231–244. 4820(1): 70–104.

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Photograph: Tom Morel 115

South African animals at risk of extinction

116 Photograph: Ron Lach

 South African animals at risk of extinction

How can I help?

Globally, many species are threatened, some to the brink of extinction. Animals play an important role in ecosystem func-
tioning and it is thus of vital importance that we do everything in our power to prevent losing them. Unfortunately, there are
several ongoing pressures that threaten the livelihood of animals. However, there are many eco-friendly habits you can easily
adopt to have a positive impact on our planet and ensure that animals are around for future generations.

Playing your part in protecting species from extinction

Jeanne Tarrant1, Desire Lee Dalton2,3 and Mamadi Theresa Sethusa4

Humans require heat, shelter and food in order to survive, most humanity to limit their ecological footprint to give the planet a
of which is extracted from natural resources, leaving an eco- chance to regenerate and recover. We can all individually make
logical footprint. Our ecological footprint can be defined as the changes in our daily lives to make this possible.
impact we as humans have on the environment. We use areas
of water and land for the production of energy and materi-
als, while at the same time, these areas need to absorb all the Changes in your day-to-day life
waste that we generate. This is affecting the survival of many
There are various simple changes you can make in your day-
other species that we share the planet with, and the current
to-day life that can make a huge difference. One such change
biodiversity crisis is the biggest existential threat facing human- is consumption behaviour. Reduce your overall meat intake
ity. It is important that natural resources are used in a sustain- by having vegetarian or vegan meal days. Currently the meat
able manner to ensure that future generations will be able to industry produces large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions,
enjoy the same benefits we do today. Since the early 1970s, causes land degradation and uses disproportionate amounts
however, the world is in ecological overshoot, where we are of water per kilogram of meat produced. Limiting your meat
using more ecological resources than the Earth can supply or intake is better for both you and the planet’s health. Reduce
generate. Currently, we are using 1.7 Earths per year to provide your overall dairy intake as large dairies have negative impacts
our resources, while the Earth needs about one year and eight on the environment. If you eat fish, make sure that it is sustain-
months to regenerate. Now, more than ever, it is important for ably caught and that it is not on the Red List of species not

1
Endangered Wildlife Trust, Plot 27 and 28 Austin Road, Glen Austin AH, Midrand, 1685 South Africa
2
South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
3
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, United Kingdom
4
South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X101, Silverton, 0184 South Africa

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Emissions savings (tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents)

(1 tonne=1 000 kg)

Figure 38: Top 12 effective ways of

reducing your carbon foot-
print. [Graphic available from:
https://www.science.org/con-
tent/article/best-way-reduce-
your-carbon-footprint-one-
government-isn-t-telling-you-
about].

to be consumed. If you are not sure, check on websites such helps conserve resources and reduces air and water pollution.
as http://speciesstatus.sanbi.org/partners/ and www.wwfsassi. Become a recycling rockstar by separating your waste at home.
co.za. Avoid purchasing imported produce, such as fruit, meat, There are recycling pickers at most dump sites whose lives you’ll
clothes and other products. Our stuff travels more than we do make a lot easier and less messy. Rather try to fix an appliance
and thus has a huge ecological footprint. Rather support local than simply replacing it. You can also create your own compost
suppliers where possible (e.g., local farmers’ markets), try to heap at home. Reduce your water use and recycle grey water
buy fresh and in-season produce, grow your own vegetables as much as possible. More water is used in gardens than for
if possible and avoid and/or minimise the use of high-impact any other category for the average household. Find ways to
products such as palm oil, chocolate, coffee, etc. Educate your- incorporate water-saving techniques around your home, such
self. Read up about what is and is not sustainable. This is a as using rain barrels, washing clothes when you have a full load,
constantly shifting field and it is important to be up to speed. stopping unnecessary tap use, or installing aerated taps that
use less water. Plant indigenous plants in your garden, this will
You can also make changes to your household behaviour. reduce your water usage and encourage more animal species
Make informed decisions about how many children you have to visit your garden. Make a small pond to encourage aquatic
(see figure 38). Reduce and/or avoid single use plastics. All plas- species (like frogs and dragonflies) to your area. Try to avoid
tic that has ever been made still exists today and we use plas- having large concrete walls around your property, palisade or
tic bags for approximately 12 minutes before we throw them mesh fencing still allow for movement of smaller animals. The
way. The same goes for other single-use plastics such as straws, energy sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions.
cups and utensils. Rather use reusable water bottles and coffee Where possible, switch to renewable energy sources. You will
mugs and start refusing plastic as much as you can every day. save money in the long term and you will be buffered against
Reduce and/or avoid items with lots of packaging. Recycling the effects of load shedding. If you have the budget to switch

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

to solar, look into installation options. If you don’t, there are protected. Pack your own travel lunches and drinks, and pack
still many ways to reduce your use of non-renewable energy. your insulated coffee mug for on the road drinks.
For example, avoid the use of heaters in winter where possi-
ble. Burning invasive alien wood in a fireplace is much more
sustainable and romantic. Reduce electricity use wherever pos- Become pro-active
sible by ensuring that you switch off all unnecessary lights and
turn your geyser down a few degrees. Buy and use energy effi- Finally, and perhaps most importantly since the most effective
cient appliances. Most brands now display efficiency, aim for A solutions to climate change require action – become pro-ac-
to A+++. Purchase rechargeable batteries and reduce the use tive. Be a conservationist: even though it’s not your day job,
of air conditioners when you can. Lastly, buy cleaning products you can still be an ambassador for wildlife and conservation.
that are environmentally friendly and avoid household poisons. Stand up to people who make poor environmental decisions,
Use environmentally friendly solutions to deal with pests. keep an eye out for unsustainable development in general and
report or oppose irresponsible decision-making. Be a voice
Everything in moderation, this applies across the board. Making for conservation. Spread the message about sustainable living,
changes to your daily travel can also make a massive differ- good conservation work that you hear about and the value
ence. Our cars release many pollutants into the air and our of wildlife and wilderness areas. Put your money where your
oceans. Car-pool or implement other means of fuel-use re- mouth is. Support a non-government organisation (NGO) that
duction. Only use air-conditioning when absolutely necessary. implements solid and long-lasting conservation action. Don’t
Consider the type of vehicle that you drive, do you really need
a vehicle with an engine size of over 2 litres? Avoid diesel ve-
hicles if possible and service vehicles regularly with approved
service centres (they will recycle old oil). When you’re able to
travel without a car, take advantage! If you can, cycle to work
or work online from home.

Changes to your lifestyle

There are many simple things you change in your lifestyle to
reduce your ecological footprint and leave the world in better
shape than you found it. When considering holiday destina-
tions, do a bit of extra research and check out the conservation
ethic of the destination and/or hotel. Consider all travel options
and opt for one that would have the lowest carbon footprint.
Support our national parks and provincial or municipal nature
reserves. Try camping, it has a much lower environmental foot-
print than hotels. Drive rather than fly if you are heading to
a local destination. Do not support places with questionable
conservation or ethical practices, such as any place with di-
rect wildlife interactions, especially cub petting. Visit a strategic
water source area and learn to appreciate that these areas are
Photograph: Anna Oliinyk
the source of most of our freshwater. Some, but not all, are

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 South African animals at risk of extinction

Photograph: John Cameron Photograph: Alex Jumper

wait for them to come to you and encourage others to do the ecotourism ventures – remember, local is lekker! South Africa
same. These NGOs are doing the brunt of the work to conserve has so much to offer. Try to see and experience it all before you
our heritage, our wilderness areas and our natural resources, consider to take your support elsewhere. Living a sustainable
and they rely entirely on donor funding. What NGOs need life may cost more, but this is only because we have not been
most is the resources to do their work: offer to help organ- paying the true price of products. By supporting products that
ise dinners, golf days and similar fundraising events. Support are good for the environment, we increase competition and
and enjoy newly established protected areas and small-scale drive down prices of these Earth-friendly solutions.

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Photograph: Anna Shvets

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