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Other documents randomly have
different content
 The generic name, Ostrya, comes from the Greek ostryos (a
scale), in reference to the scaly catkins of the fruit. Virginiana is the
specific name for the North American hop hornbeam as
distinguished from the European species, which it closely resembles.
The hop hornbeam is found in rich woods from Nova Scotia to
Northern Florida, and westward to Eastern Kansas.
A tree or tall shrub 10 to 25 feet high. Bark
Hornbeam; Blue smooth and dark gray, tough like a horn, and
Beech Carpinus close-fitting. The buds are oval. Delicate twigs, in
caroliniana
flat, spreading layers. Alternate leaf-scars. Fruit in
clusters,—leaf-like bracts, holding little nuts.
 HORNBEAMS
Carpinus caroliniana
Page 73

The hornbeam, like the hop hornbeam, is a small tree and is

found growing under larger trees in the woods. It is readily
distinguished from the hop hornbeam by its smooth, dark bark, the
hornlike appearance of which instantly suggests its name. There is
but one native species in New England, and it is much smaller than
its sister tree from Europe of the same name. The European
hornbeam has long been used for making hedges, and in Germany
the hornbeams are planted in such a manner that every two plants
intersect each other in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross. At the point
where the two plants cross each other the bark is scraped off and
the hornbeams are bound together closely with straw. The two
plants grow together in a knot and send out horizontal shoots in a
few years, making an impenetrable hedge. The hornbeam was much
used in formal gardens for labyrinths, arcades, and groves, and as
hedges for geometric designs known as “the star” and “the goose-
foot.”
The wood, like that of the hop hornbeam, is hard, heavy, strong,
and close-grained. It is used for small articles, like the handles of
tools.
The generic name, Carpinus, comes from the Celtic car (wood),
pinda (head), meaning that the wood was used for making the
yokes of cattle. The specific name, caroliniana, was used to
distinguish the American from the European species.
The hornbeam is found growing on the banks of streams and in
moist woods throughout New England, and in the South and West.
 Chapter VII
THE BEECH, CHESTNUT, AND OAKS
The Chestnut and the Beech.
 Chapter VII
THE BEECH, CHESTNUT, AND OAKS

Family Fagaceæ

A LTHOUGH the beech, chestnut, and oaks are divided into three
separate genera, they all belong to the family Fagaceæ. It is an
interesting family in winter and deserves careful study, particularly
the oaks, which have always been more or less confusing at first
sight.
There is one native beech and one native chestnut, and there are
eleven oaks in the Northeastern States.
A beautiful, spreading tree 60 to 100 feet high,
American Beech with a clean, close-fitting, smooth, gray bark. Buds
Fagus narrow and sharp-pointed, with many overlapping
americana
scales. Twigs smooth, slender, and reddish brown,
with alternate leaf-scars. Fruit a prickly burr inclosing two triangular,
sharp-ridged nuts, the burr hanging on the trees well into the winter.
The beech is not so graceful as the elm, nor so lofty as the pine,
nor so stalwart as the oak, but there is not a tree in the woods so
distinctly lovable. In every detail the beech has a dainty, lady-like
beauty, and among the leafless trees of the winter woods it is as fair
as a flower, with its clean gray bole, its polished brown stems, and
its slender, pointed, lance-like buds. There is no other tree with
which the beech may be confused, and its characteristics are so
pronounced and unvarying that there is little difficulty in recognizing
it immediately in passing. When it has grown up partly shaded by
other trees it has a lofty bearing, but when it has developed in open
ground it is round-headed and spreading in shape. The beech trees
from which the following photograph was taken were once shaded
by other trees, and show this in the height they have attained and
the absence of spreading, lateral branches.
 BEECH TREES
Fagus Americana
Page 78

The wood is hard, strong, and very close-grained and is used for
making chairs, shoe lasts, the handles of tools, and for fuel. In old
trees where the heartwood predominates the wood is red, and in
younger trees where the sapwood is more conspicuous the wood is
white, and these differences in color gave rise to the popular belief
among woodcutters that there are two species of beech. Michaux
accepted this theory, which has since become obsolete. The nuts are
sweet and edible, and are sold in Canada and some of the Western
and Middle States.
The generic name, Fagus, comes from the Greek phago (to eat),
in allusion to the nuts, which have always been used as food.
The beech is found from Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Texas.
A large tree with spreading branches and a
European Beech smooth, gray trunk. Buds narrow and sharp-
Fagus sylvatica pointed. Twigs slender, smooth, and reddish brown
in color, with alternate leaf-scars.
Although the beech stands alone in having no other tree like it, yet
it is extremely difficult to tell the American beech from the European
species which is planted commonly in our parks and gardens. The
bark of the European beech is a darker gray in color, its buds are
grayer than those of the American, and the inner scales of the bud
have a tendency towards being more hairy along their edges; for the
rest we must trust to our intuition in telling the trees apart, unless
we are in the woods and know that there the only indigenous beech
is the American.
From the time of Virgil the praises of the beech have been sung in
both poetry and prose. Passienus Crispus, the orator, who married
the Empress Agrippina, was so fond of it that “he not only delighted
to repose beneath its shade, but he frequently poured wine on its
roots, and used often to embrace it.” Evelyn and Cook recommended
it, Boutcher thought that it “hardly had an equal,” Mathews called it
“the Hercules and Adonis” of the sylva of Great Britain, and among
the English poets Beaumont and Fletcher, Leigh Hunt, Gray,
Campbell, and Wordsworth all loved and admired it for its rare
beauty and vigor. Gilpin, however, does not join this chorus of praise;
in his “Remarks on Forest Scenery” he calls it “an overgrown bush,”
and explains at some length his reasons for thinking that it lacks
picturesque beauty.
In Europe the wood has been used for more purposes than in
America, and it also ranks high as fuel. In France oil is made from
beechnuts, used in lamps and for cooking. The specific name,
sylvatica, is from the Latin which means belonging to the woods.
 TRUNK OF A YOUNG BEECH
Page 80

The purple beech is a variety of this tree, which has been

propagated from the original sport found in a German forest over a
hundred years ago. Plants from the seeds of the purple beech have
a tendency to revert to the original green, and to insure its peculiar
colored foliage gardeners perpetuate it by layers. It is a highly
artificial tree, and unless it is carefully placed in appropriate
surroundings its effect is far from pleasing.
One of the largest of our forest trees. The bark
Chestnut is dark hard, and rugged, with coarse ridges on old
Castanea trees. Light brown buds. Alternate leaf-scars.
dentata
Recent shoots are coarse and channelled with two
grooves running down from the base of each leaf-scar, closely set
with white or gray dots. Fruit ripe in October.
At all times a giant among trees, the chestnut seems perhaps
most remarkable in winter when the massive trunk and lofty
branches can be fully appreciated. There is much beauty in the bark
of this tree, the fissures sweep boldly up and down the trunk with
broad, smooth spaces between the furrows and give a most pleasing
impression.
It is interesting to find that the chestnut is one of the exceptions
in nature to the rule that every tree has an unvarying mathematical
arrangement of leaves on the stem. This regular distribution of
leaves on the stem to economize space and light is called phyllotaxy,
and different trees follow various systematic arrangements. When
the leaves or leaf-scars are alternate on the stem, as they are in
those of the chestnut, the arrangement is spiral and one leaf follows
another up the stem in ranks of two, three, five, or more in definite
order according to the kind of tree. In the chestnut, however, the
phyllotaxy is frequently variable in different twigs of the same tree,
and it follows an unruly, wayward leaf arrangement.
 The wood of the chestnut is light, soft, and not strong, but it is
used for making cheap furniture. It is also made into rails, posts, and
railroad ties, as it is durable when used in contact with the soil. The
nuts are sweet and edible and have great market value. The trees
bear fruit when they are very young, and some Western farmers find
that orchards of these trees bring better returns than the same
amount of land in farm products.
The chestnut is closely allied to the sweet or Spanish chestnut of
Europe. The nuts of the American species are sweeter than those of
the Spanish chestnut, but they are much smaller. From a French
experiment it was found that the kernel of the chestnut yields
sixteen per cent of good sugar.
 CHESTNUT
Castanea dentata
Page 82
 1. Red Oak. 2. Scarlet Oak. 3. Black Oak. 4. Pin Oak.
5. Swamp White Oak. 6. White Oak. 7. Mossy-cup Oak.
8. Post Oak. 9. Chestnut Oak.

The generic name was taken from Castanea, a town in Thessaly,

and the specific name, dentata (having teeth), refers to the
serrations of the leaf. The chestnut is found throughout the
Northeastern States.
There are in all nearly three hundred different
Oaks Quercus oaks which have been described by botanists, and
fifty of these are found in North America, exclusive
of Mexico. The oaks are large trees of temperate climates, and both
in Europe and America few trees have the same varied and general
usefulness. The extraordinary strength in the great, horizontal
branches, their breadth and lateral sweep, and the rugged boldness
of the trunk have long associated the oak with all that stands for
strength, duration, and unswerving vitality. An oak never seems out
of place; no matter whether we find it growing in unbroken forests,
on a country estate, in a little garden, or by the roadside, it always
harmonizes with its surroundings and adds to the composition of the
landscape.
Oaks are divided into two groups, the white oaks and the black
oaks. In New England there are eleven native oaks, six white oaks
and five black. The white oak, the swamp white, the mossy cup, the
chestnut, the dwarf chestnut, and the post oak belong to the first
group, and the black oak, the red, the scarlet, the pin, and the bear
or scrub oak belong to the second group.
The oak is distinguished from all other trees by its acorn.
The general characteristics of the oaks in winter are as follows:—
The upper lateral buds cluster at the top of the twig.
The buds have a tendency towards being five-sided in shape.
The bud scales are close and overlapping.
 The leaf-scars project from the stem.
The bundle-scars are scattered over the leaf-scar.
The pith is five-angled. By cutting a twig across, the pith can be
seen in the centre in the form of a five-rayed star.
The leaves very often remain on oaks through the winter.
The following characteristics distinguish the white oaks from the
black oaks:—
The bark of the white oaks is lighter in color than that of the black
oaks, and it flakes off in strips instead of breaking away in coarse
ridges, as it does in the black oaks.
 WHITE OAK
Quercus alba
Page 85

The acorns of the white oaks mature in one year, those of the
black oaks take two years to ripen, so that these young acorns are
found on the branches of the black oaks in winter.
The leaves of the white oaks have rounded lobes, and the lobes of
the black oak leaves are tipped with a sharp bristle point.
The generic name, Quercus, comes from the Celtic quer (fine) and
cuez (a tree), or possibly it may be derived from the Greek choiros, a
pig, because in Europe pigs formerly fed on the acorns of oak trees.
A large tree, 60 to 80 feet high, with a trunk
White Oak often six feet in diameter. The bark is light gray;
Quercus alba the twigs smooth and light gray; the recent shoots
light reddish or grayish brown; alternate leaf-scars.
Small, round buds, smooth and short, about as long as they are
wide. Acorns in a shallow, rough cup, often sweet and edible.
The white oak seems to figure in one’s earliest associations with
the woods in winter. The sound of the withered leaves rustling in the
wind is peculiarly suggestive of cold weather and dreariness, and
invariably strikes the keynote of the woods on a bleak December
day. Towards the end of winter the leaves are blown away or fall off,
and then the beautiful ramifications and stalwart limbs of the trees
are fully revealed. I have often noticed in the country that when one
large, old white oak is found growing in an open pasture, there are
usually five or six more of the same size and age within a short
distance. This may be accounted for by the fact that in the early
New England days these trees were in great demand for ship-
building, and farmers waited for the most promising trees to reach
maturity before selling them. On some farms these oaks happened
to escape the axe, and have not only outlived the men who spared
them, but stand for landmarks now, long after the farms themselves
have been deserted and forgotten.
The wood of the white oak is very heavy and hard, and durable in
contact with the soil. It is used in the construction and interior finish
of buildings and in ship-building, for making carriages, cabinets,
agricultural implements, baskets, and for fences and railroad ties. It
also makes excellent firewood.
The specific name refers to the light color of the wood and bark in
contrast with that of the black oaks. It is found from Southern Maine
to Northern Florida and westward.
A large tree, 60 to 80 feet high, common in
Swamp White swamps and where the soil is moist. The bark
Oak Quercus shags off along the branches, and the trunk is
platanoides
more deeply fissured than that of the white oak.
The twigs are coarser than those of the white oak, often shorter in
length, and the stems are rounder. Short, thick-set buds and
alternate leaf-scars. Acorns set in a shallow cup, often mossy-fringed
at the margin; the nut is sweet and edible.
 TRUNK OF A WHITE OAK
Page 86

When once the swamp white oak’s peculiarities are known it is

seldom confused with any other oak, even in winter. Its unkempt
appearance, the peeling away of the bark along the branches, and
its generally straggling habit of growth distinguish it quite as much
in the winter as at any other season of the year; it is at all times the
untidy member of the oak family. The branches begin very low down
on the trunk of this oak, and one can distinguish the tree from a
distance in this way. Emerson says that in warm and sheltered
situations it is a neat and beautiful tree, but that when it is too much
exposed to the east or north wind it shows the effect by its ragged
appearance; as one sees the tree generally through Southeastern
New England one deduces from its appearance that the prevalent
winds are those from the east and north.
The wood is heavy, hard, strong, and tough, and is used for the
same things that that of the white oak is used for, and is not
distinguished from it commercially.
The specific name, platanoides (platanus-like), comes from the
generic name of the plane tree or buttonwood, and refers to the
bark of the young trees, which, like that of the buttonwood,
separates and curls off in large thin flakes along the branches.
The swamp white oak grows in low, wet ground throughout the
Northeastern States.
A large tree, sometimes 160 feet high. The bark
Mossy Cup, is corky, with corky ridges along the twigs. The
Overcup or Bur buds are like those of the swamp white oak, but
Oak Quercus
macrocarpa
the scales are more pointed. Often the dried
stipule or a piece of it is left, as it is persistent in
this species. Alternate leaf-scars. The acorn is almost entirely
enclosed in a thick cup with a mossy fringed border.
 The curious corky ridges along the twigs distinguish the mossy
cup oak at all seasons of the year, and its aspect in winter is unusual
and picturesque, owing to this peculiarity.
 MOSSY CUP OAK
Quercus macrocarpa
Page 88
 The branches are irregular, the buds are small, and the acorns are
large and enclosed for more than half their length in a cup covered
with prominent scales and bordered with a thread-like fringe.
Michaux says that these threads do not appear when the tree is in
the midst of a forest or when the summers are not very warm.
The wood of the mossy cup oak is even more valuable than that
of the white oak. It is heavy, strong, hard, tough, close-grained, and
durable in contact with the soil. It is used for the same purposes as
that of the white oak.
One can easily trace the family resemblance between the mossy
cup oak and the cork tree of Southern Europe, which yields the cork
of commerce.
The specific name, macrocarpa, comes from two Greek words
meaning large fruit, and refers to the cups and acorns. The mossy
cup oak is found in the West and in certain localities in New England.
It is found on the banks of the Penobscot River in Maine, on the
shores of Lake Champlain in Vermont, and among the Berkshire
Hills, near Stockbridge, and on the banks of the Ware River in
Massachusetts.
A middle-sized or small tree usually, although it
Chestnut or is sometimes 100 feet high. The bark does not
Rock Chestnut flake. The buds are pointed,—an exception for the
Oak Quercus
prinus
white oaks. The buds are long in proportion to
their width. There is no pubescence on the bud,
the edges of the scales are bleached and have turned gray, the
centres remaining a rich reddish brown. Smooth, glossy twigs, move
apt to be ridged than those of the white oak. Alternate leaf-scars.
The acorn is covered nearly halfway with a thick cup. The kernel is
sweetish and edible.
The chestnut oak is distinguished in winter by its beautiful smooth
bark and by its pointed buds, entirely unlike those of the other white
oaks. It sometimes grows to be a large tree, but in New England it is
usually middle-sized or small.
 The wood is heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained, and is used
for making fences, railway ties, and for fuel. The bark is rich in
tannin, and is used for tanning leather.
The specific name was derived from the Greek, and was the
ancient name for an oak tree.
The chestnut oak is found on the banks of the Saco River and
near Mount Agamenticus in Southern Maine, among the Blue Hills
and in rich woods in Massachusetts, and it becomes more common
as one goes south.
 A YOUNG POST OAK
Quercus minor
Page 91

The dwarf chestnut, or chinquapin oak (Quercus prinoides), is the

smallest member of the oak family in New England, and seldom
grows to be more than two or three feet high. It is found in
Massachusetts and in the South and West.
It is a small shrub of no commercial value, although its little
branches are rich in tannin. The specific name, prinoides, means
prinus-like, the name of the chestnut oak, and refers to the general
resemblance between the two species.
A medium-sized tree, 40 to 50 feet high. Buds
Post or Rough and twigs stumpy and thick set with short
Oak Quercus branching. Buds very round and rusty. Twig
minor
persistently rough, alternate leaf-scars, the bark is
hard and rough. Acorn enclosed in a deep, saucer-shaped cup.
The branches of the post oak are so thick set, short, and crooked
that this oak is seldom confused with any other. It rarely grows to be
more than twenty-five or thirty feet high, and the many low, crooked
branches, crowded together at the base of the trunk, give, as
Emerson says, the effect of the top of a tree whose trunk is under
ground. The leaves of the post oak are often held through the
winter, and they are so stiff, rough, and abundant that they are, in
themselves, a distinguishing mark. The specimen in the Arnold
Arboretum, from which the accompanying photograph was taken,
holds its leaves later in the spring than any of the other oaks.
The wood is heavy, close-grained, hard, and durable, but it is
difficult to season. It is used in the construction of houses, in the
manufacture of carriages, and for cooperage, fencing, railway ties,
and for fuel.
The specific name, minor (smaller), refers to the height of this oak
as compared with that of the larger members of the family.