Indian Journal of Ecology (2024) 51(1): 14-20 Manuscript Number: 4190

DOI: https://doi.org/10.55362/IJE/2024/4190 NAAS Rating: 5.38

Artificial Recharge Structures for Heggada Devana Kote Taluk

in Southern tip of Karnataka, India using Geospatial Tools

M.C. Manjunatha
DBT-BUILDER, JSS AHER, Sri Shivarathreeswara Nagar, Mysuru-570 015, India
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Global warming, climate change, deforestation, rise in water demand for industrial uses rather than domestic purposes has posed
serious threats to surface and subsurface water resources. Karnataka is one of the agrarian states in India where groundwater dependency
showed always high. The present study involved the artificial techniques in groundwater augmentation analysis by modifying surface runoff in
GIS environment with AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process) methods. Important thematic maps are generated using toposheets, satellite data
by GIS insights. Suitable sites for Artificial Recharge Structures (ARS) are derived through AHP by assigning specific weightages depending
upon features priority. The results enumerate geospatial technology and AHP tools in achieving best suitable sites for ARS.

Keywords: ARS, Geospatial tools, AHP, Heggada Devana Kote

Scarcity of water and its crisis still rising even though the N latitudes and 76 06' to 76 33' E longitudes with an area of
0 0

annual average rainfall of 1100mm is recorded recently in our 1611.29 km (Manjunatha and Basavarajappa 2021) (Fig. 1).
2

country. Karnataka State records over-exploited class for The plain regions elevated at 660 mts above MSL, whereas
groundwater is 26%; whereas other blocks are observed higher elevation ranged at 960 mts above MSL observed in
under critical class. Groundwater is the vital component of southern parts. H.D kote taluk lies at southern tip of Karnataka
irrigation and domestic activities in Heggada Devana (H.D) that connects to Kerala state through Yerahalli village main
Kote taluk, however the increasing demand of water road (Manjunatha and Basavarajappa 2021). Annual average
resources and its over-withdrawal with gradual rise in rainfall recorded is 832 mm with temperature ranges from 210
population impacts the aquifer equilibrium and ecological to 310C (CGWB 2012). It is a part of Southern Transition Zone
imbalance (Manjunatha et al 2019). High intensity of rainwater of hilly regions showing cool and moist weather along with
run-off on hill slope regions loses sufficient amount of water to sub-humid to semiarid tropical type conditions (CGWB 2012).
other lands without much infiltration (Manjunatha et al 2019). About 67% of irrigated land is dependent on bore wells and
Groundwater dependency may rise in near future by both hardly any dug wells (CGWB 2012). Paddy, Maize, Ragi,
manmade and natural processes. In hard rock terrains, ARS Sugarcane, Tobacco, Oilseeds and vegetables were grown
sites need detailed assessment of lithology, geomorphology, extensively in the taluk (CGWB 2022). Gneisses and
lineaments that are controlled by climate, weathering grade, schistose are well exposed major rock groups in hilly terrains
drainage pattern, landforms, slope, permeability, fracture along with residual and transported soils.
extent, and land use patterns (Fateme Falah et al 2016). Data Used: Toposheets (57A/1, 5, 6, 9; 57D/4, 7, 8, 11, 12) of
The present study aims in identifying suitable ARS sites 1:50,000 scale are collected from Bengaluru-Survey of India
for H.D kote taluk in an effort to maintain the aquifer (SoI) office and digitized as the base maps for taluk boundary
equilibrium and store sufficient amount of water for summer extraction (Manjunatha and Basavarajappa 2021). IRS-1D,
seasons (Manjunatha et al 2019). AHP methods are LISS-III (Nov-2001 & Jan-2002) is collected from ISRO-
analyzed in order to find best ARS sites by opting specific NRSC, Hyderabad with 23.5 mts and PAN of 5.8 mts;
priorities within the best options (Thomas Saaty 1980). Pair- whereas DEM satellite data is downloaded freely from
wise comparison are interpreted in assigning specific USGS-earthexplorer (Fig. 2a) (Manjunatha et al 2019). Both
weights through Saaty's continuous rating scale of AHP Digital Image Processing (DIP) and Visual Image
through GIS. Interpretation Technique (VIIT) are applied on LISS-III image
in extraction of thematic layers (Fig. 2a to 2l) along with
MATERIAL AND METHODS limited field survey using Garmin eTrex-10 GPS (Manjunatha
Site description: The study taluk falls under 11 44' to 12 17' and Basavarajappa 2021).
0 0
 Artificial Recharge Structures for Heggada Devana Kote Taluk 15

Data analysis: GSI Quadrangle maps 57D and 58A of

1:250,000 scale are utilized in generating the lithology map;
while geomorphology layer is digitized using 1:250,000 scale
of geomorphological map of Karnataka (Manjunatha et al
2019). DEM data of 30m resolution is overlaid on SoI topo
map in extraction of drainage patterns (Fig. 2d) and
(Manjunatha et al 2019). Land use/ land cover categories and
lineaments are extracted from PAN+LISS-III image of 5.8m
resolution (Fig. 1) (Manjunatha et al 2019); whereas slope
map is digitally extracted from DEM data (Manjunatha et al
2019). All seven layers of H.D kote taluk have been overlaid
by pair-wise comparison using weighted method and ARS
best sites are portrayed in Fig.3 (Table 1, 2, 3).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Lithology: Weathered zones of granitic-gneisses and
alluvium of shallow aquifers are observed along the stream
courses in NNE parts of the taluk (CGWB 2012). The hard
Fig. 1. IRS-LISS-III Satellite data of H.D kote taluk rock terrain of taluk consists of migmatites, amphibolites,

Fig. 2. (a) DEM (b) Lithology (c) Geomorphology (d) Drainage (e) Drainage Density
(f) Lineament (g) Lineament Density (h) Soil map (i) Slope map (j) LU/LC (k)
Stream Order and (l) Overlay weightage map of H.D Kote taluk
16 M.C. Manjunatha

charnockite, limestone and dolomite (Fig. 2b). Tonalitic ARS sites. It's a computation of sum of the channel lengths
gneisses granodiorite, migmatites are observed extensively; per unit area along with relief and slope gradient. High Dd
whereas charnockites are restricted to NW parts following indicate channel closeness exhibiting impermeable or feeble
this amphibolites with pelitic/ metapelitic schist noticed at subsurface; while low Dd reveal permissible soil or highly
many locations. Weathered granitic-gneisses are noticeably resistant material, low relief with thick vegetation cover in
seen along discontinuities and caused complex weathering kote. Coarser drainage texture showed mountainous relief,
profiles. The hard bedrock of kote taluk reveal little scanty greenery type; while finer drainage texture convey
groundwater infiltration rates and percolations that need ARS high and closeness of drainage patterns. Higher runoff are
to arrest surface water runoff through artificial methods of more common in higher Dd areas that are not suitable for
infiltration. ARS, whereas little runoff in low Dd areas implies highly
Geomorphology: Geomorphic units of kote taluk are suitable (Fig. 2e).
delineated as dissected pediment, denudational hills, Lineament & its density: Groundwater occurrences and its
channel island, pediment, inselberg, pediment inselberg distribution are controlled by fractures, lineaments direction
complex, pediplain shallow, pediplain moderate, & joints and bore wells yield high water located on these
river/stream, residual hills, structural hill, reservoir, and valley zones. Lineaments/ faults filled with clay and silt of
fill shallow (Manjunatha et al 2019) based on NRIS impermeable material will arrest further flow of groundwater.
classification system (Fig. 2c). Pediplain moderate and valley Eminent lineaments of kote observed along directions of NW-
fill shallow features showed excellent for groundwater SE and NNE-SSW and strongly influence static water levels,
potential areas while pediplain shallow features exhibits boreholes yields, groundwater distribution & occurrences
good to moderate; pediment and pediment inselberg (CGWB 2012) (Fig. 2f). Rocks of kote taluk are hard and
complex features reveal moderate to poor; inselbergs, compact that imply higher runoff with low infiltration rates
residual hills, and denudational hills indicate poor to very observed along fractures, seepages, weak planes, dykes
poor potential areas for kote taluk (Srinivasa et al 2005). and hence higher Lineament density (Ld) is essential to
Granitic-gneisses and charnockite rocks exhibits continuous determine. Ld are digitally generated using Line Density tool
range of hard surfaces that perform high runoff. Priorities on IRS-LISS-III data. Very high, high, moderate, low, and
based weightages are considered for each very low classes (Anirudh Datta et al 2020) are showed
geomorphological features that help in better ARS site through lineament density layer (Fig. 2g) and their
suitability except for river/ streams, reservoir and hills (Table weightages for ARS sites are shown in Table 3. Higher Ld
3). indicates more suitability for ARS with higher groundwater
Drainage & its density (Dd): Dd forms vital component for recharge potential zones.

Table 1. Continuous rating scale of Saaty's analytical hierarchy process

1/9 1/7 1/5 1/3 1 3 5 7 9
Extremely Very strongly Strongly Moderately Equally Moderately Strongly Very Strongly Extremely
Less Important Equal More Important
Source: Saaty (1980)
Note: 1/8, 1/6, 1/4, 1/2, 2, 4, 6, 8 can also be used if more number of classes exists

Table 2. Percentage of influencing factors based on Saaty's Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
Influencing factor Saaty's scale Saaty's scale Percentage influence = Relative influencing factor
(in fraction) (in decimal) (Saaty's Scale/sum * 100)

Lithology 1 1 38.71 39
Geomorphology 1/2 0.5 19.35 19
Drainage Density 1/3 0.33 12.77 13
Lineament Density 1/4 0.25 9.67 10
Soil types 1/5 0.20 7.74 8
Slope categories 1/6 0.16 6.19 6
LU/LC 1/7 0.14 5.42 5
Sum = 2.583
 Artificial Recharge Structures for Heggada Devana Kote Taluk 17

Table 3. Assigned weight according to Saaty's analytical hierarchy process

Influencing factor Class intervals or features Saaty's scale Saaty's scale Percentage Influence = Relative
(Fraction) (Decimal) (Saaty's scale/ sum) * 100 influencing factor

Lithology Limestone & Dolomite 1 1 48.07 48

Migmatite and Granodiorite 1/2 0.5 24.03 24
Amphibolite /Metapelitic Schist 1/3 0.33 15.86 16
Charnockite 1/4 0.25 12.01 12
Sum=2.08
Geomorphology Pediplain 1 1 40.98 41
Pediment 1/2 0.5 20.49 20
Pediment inselberg complex 1/3 0.33 13.52 14
Reservoir 1/4 0.25 10.24 10
River/ Streams 1/5 0.20 8.19 8
Hills 1/6 0.16 6.55 7
Sum=2.44
Drainage density 0.99 – 1.32 1 1 43.85 44
(m/m )
2

0.82 – 0.99 1/2 0.5 21.92 22

0.60 – 0.82 1/3 0.33 14.47 14
0.31 – 0.60 1/4 0.25 10.96 11
0 – 0.31 1/5 0.20 8.77 9
Sum=2.28
Lineament 0.38 – 0.64 1 1 43.85 44
density (m/m )
2

0.29 – 0.38 1/2 0.5 21.92 22

0.19 – 0.29 1/3 0.33 14.47 14
0.09 – 0.19 1/4 0.25 10.96 11
0 – 0.09 1/5 0.20 8.77 9
Sum=2.28
Soil types Clayey-skeletal 1 1 54.64 55
Clayey 1/2 0.5 27.32 27
Rocky land 1/3 0.33 18.03 18
Sum=1.83
Slope categories 0 – 3 degree 1 1 43.85 44
3 – 7 degree 1/2 0.5 21.92 22
7 - 11 degree 1/3 0.33 14.47 14
11 – 18 degree 1/4 0.25 10.96 11
18 – 51 degree 1/5 0.20 8.77 9
Sum=2.28
Land use/ land Wastelands 1 1 43.85 44
cover
Agricultural land 1/2 0.5 21.92 22
Forest cover 1/3 0.33 14.47 14
Water bodies 1/4 0.25 10.96 11
Built-up land 1/5 0.20 8.77 9
Sum=2.28
18 M.C. Manjunatha

Soil: Soil highly influences the groundwater infiltration in (Basavarajappa et al 2014). The kote taluk denotes medium
ARS site suitability analysis. Surface water flow and precipitation and nearly flat to steeper sloppy areas. Greater
infiltration rates are controlled by permeability and porosity of discharge are recorded from higher stream orders. Six
various soil types. Charnockite and granitic-gneisses are the number of streams are extracted from DEM image for the
parent rocks of soil types observed in kote taluk (Fig. 2h). present study and denoted as 1 to 6 (Fig.2k). Gentler slope
st th

Deeply well drained and slight salinity are shown by clayey lands in association with the stream orders of 2 , 3 or 4 are
nd rd th

soils; whereas moderately well drained with and slight salinity satisfactorily acceptable for ARS percolation tank and other
are observed by clayey-mixed soils (CGWB 2012, storage tanks (Table 2, 3).
Basavarajappa et al 2013). Very deep, well-drained with Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
slight erosion are noticed by clayey-skeletal soils in Weighted overlay method: Each thematic layers are
association with gravelly clay soils of shallow to excessively assigned proper weightages in accordance with their
drain and moderately eroded (CGWB 2012). Deep to respective contribution towards the best ARS results for H.D
moderately drain on gently sloping areas with modest eroded kote taluk. All layers are transformed into raster format using
particles are noticed from rocky land soils (Basavarajappa et ArcGIS and later the pair-wise interpretation was analyzed in
al 2013). Basic intrusions in contact with schist rocks showed computing the overall score of each criteria. Highly suitable,
mixed soil types localized at certain junctions of kote taluk. suitable, moderate, poor, and very poor categories are
The soil textures and types of various infiltration capacity are obtained by using standard deviation classification scheme.
analyzed to determine best sites for ARS with specific Settlements, temples, telephone lines, power lines, taluk &
weightages (Table 3). state roads, and other features are ruled out while mapping
Slope: Surface water runoff and infiltration capacity are ARS best site (Fig. 3). Considering the respective
determined by slope classes. Slopes are classified into five significance among the factors portray the real ground
categories and proper (Fig. 2i, Table 3). Flat to gentler slope conditions.
zones imply low runoff and longer water residing time for Need for artificial recharge structures: The effective
higher infiltration rates that are benefitted for ARS sites; improvement of groundwater recharge is required for
whereas moderate to greater slopes increase surface runoff strengthen of major/ minor irrigation and balances between
making unsatisfactory for ARS. Nearly flat terrain (0-3 demand-supply equilibrium to all water requiring sectors in
degree) is most acceptable lands for 'Very Good' ARS H.D kote taluk. ARS is a vital components and major
category with higher infiltration capacity. Gentler to slightly strategies in groundwater management planning for natural
undulating lands (3-7 degree) are moderately acceptable as
'Good' ARS category which accepts some amount of runoff.
Moderate slopes of 7-11 degree exhibit little infiltration
capacity due to higher surface runoff; whereas moderately
steep slopes (11-18 degree) represents much higher runoff.
Steeper slopes (18-51 degree) imply highest runoff with
negligible infiltration capacity.
Land use/ land cover: Built-up, waterbodies, forest,
agricultural land, wastelands, and other features are
successfully digitized in ArcGIS platform (Fig. 2j)
(Manjunatha and Basavarajappa 2021). The agricultural
practices of H.D kote taluk are regularly impacted by the
surface and sub-surface hydrologic factors of surface flow,
evaporation, catchment area, infiltration capacity and
interception. Manmade land patterns are assigned with least
weight, since this affects recharge. Appropriate weightages
are provided based on various land patterns and their
specific utilization that may influence ARS sites (Table 3).
Stream Order (Sμ): Identification of stream orders is an
essential part in the interpretation of drainage basin.
Lithology, morphology and precipitation influences the
variation of total stream number and its length in the terrain Fig. 3. Final output map to implement ARS for H.D Kote taluk
 Artificial Recharge Structures for Heggada Devana Kote Taluk 19

supply of groundwater. Farm ponds, check-dams, categorized under safe zone with groundwater exploration of
percolation tanks, nalah bunds, barrages are the efficient 47% (CGWB 2022). However ARS is essential especially
storage methods of rain water especially for agricultural during extreme summer conditions where sufficient amount
practices in the taluk which is majorly rainfall dependent. This of water cannot be supplied for paddy, sugarcane and
acts as a sustainable strategy in groundwater augmentation tobacco which are high water intensive crops.
especially in lean seasons. Nalah bunds (17), percolation tanks (10), farm ponds (5)
Farm ponds are compact sized and rectangular shaped and check dams (5) are identified to implement best ARS
trenches that receive surface run-off water over agricultural sites for H.D kote taluk using AHP in GIS platform. Southern
lands by a narrow stream having 10% ground slope on either and eastern parts of H.D kote taluk shows hilly and rugged
sides (Fig. 3). Shrub/ barren types with moderate infiltration topography where nalah bunds are appropriate to build;
capacity of soils are acceptable land to build farm ponds whereas on flat to nearly gentler areas are suitable for
(Manjunatha et al 2019). The elevation of these ponds must percolation tanks (Fig. 3). These structures also helpful to
be higher than any irrigated lands where it can deliver prime reduce future water crisis that may occur due to global
goal for irrigation (Manjunatha et al 2019). These ponds warming, industrial and agricultural water demands. The
receives the groundwater recharge from post-monsoon infiltration rates are noticed to be high near waterbodies,
periods also. The groundwater contaminations are diluted by croplands and floodplains that exhibits best ARS sites;
interconnecting nearby farm ponds for effective recharge of whereas low infiltration rate lands show least suitability.
better quality water. Both soil erosion and conservation of
water are addressed by series of check dams that harness CONCLUSION
water over larger areas. These dams must be built near the Check dams and nalah bunds are suited as a
crop types of higher potential for better allocation of management method to tackle over-withdrawal of water and
harvested water. The gentler slopes of 1st and 2nd stream to avoid fall in groundwater table. AHP and WOM are the
orders are most appropriate for these structures (Fig.3).They excellent approach for ARS sites in ArcGIS insights that
store runoff water most of confined type to stream course with significantly enhance the crop yield, irrigation capacity, and
less than 2m height from ground level. sustainability of water sources for demographic growth and
Best conventional method of groundwater recharge demands. Geospatial technology proved to be a policy
especially in India is Percolation tanks in case of both hard making in controlling surface water runoff and larger
rock terrains as well as alluvial such as H.D kote taluk (ARS recharge to deep aquifers through cost effective techniques.
Guide 2000). These are artificially managed surface water on AHP is the best site suitable analysis in assigning priority
permeable lands observed parallel to the streams in such a based weightages for arresting subsurface flows and
way that it can achieve maximum percolation with least groundwater augmentation.
evaporation lose. Small streams with gentler slopes of 3-7
degree are most satisfactory for these tanks (Fig. 3) that ACKNOWLEDGMENT
stores monsoon runoff over larger lands of soil types having The authors are inadeptly acknowledged to Dr. Madhu. B,
moderate to higher pores/ voids. Nalah bunds are small Deputy Dean Research, JSS AHER, Mysuru; ISRO-NRSC,
earthen dams of 2 to 3 m high, 1 to 3 m wide and, 10 to 15 m Hyderabad; Survey of India, CGWB, Bengaluru; NBSS-LUP,
long which normally acts as mini percolation tank Nagpur.
(Manjunatha and Basavarajappa 2021). These are best
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Received 12 September, 2023; Accepted 28 December, 2023