Rome: New Lecture

As Greek civilization is in full swing, a new civilization is in development.

The Romans will eventually overtake the Greeks as the most powerful civilization in the
Mediterranean and will create one of the largest and most stable and long lived empires in the
world.
But they don’t start that way. They are shaped by the geography of their region and their
relationship to others civilizations, just like the Greeks

Geography:
Italian Peninsula-
-Peninsula, surrounded on three sides by water
-in the middle, literally of the mediterranean- so easy to connect with East, West and
South into Africa
-Terrain- Apennine mountains run down the middle, splitting into east and west, but they
aren’t much of a barrier to travel and don’t isolate communities like the Greek mountain ranges
do.
-much more productive farmland than greece, especially around the Po river valley, the
fertile volcanic soil around Mt. Vesuvius in the Campania region, and the Latium region around
Rome
-The city of Rome itself if really well-located, but we’ll talk about that later

Other Cultures:
Roman history is shaped by the other cultures of the Italian Peninsula, which are the Greek
colonies and the Etruscans
-Greek colonies throughout Italy, especially in the south; developing alongside the new city of
Rome, so parts of Italy have greek temples, greek speaking farmers, greek merchants, greek
system of writing, etc while Rome is developing
-Before Rome expands and absorbs these Greek colonies, it is exposed to Greek culture through
the Etruscans
-The Etruscans-
-one of many groups living on the peninsula
-Tuscany is their homeland
-language is not related to any other that we know, so maybe one of the earliest groups to
settle in Italy from Turkey- or maybe indigenous
-they had a hereditary monarchy and a more urban structure to society- were god civil
engineers (sewers, walled-cities, etc)
-regardless, they began to expand their influence and create a little empire in central Italy
around 650 BCE
-brought urbanism and Greek culture, which they had contact with via trade and then
conquest of greek colonies, to their territory
-one city they conquered and ruled was the young city of Rome- Rome was under
Etruscan influence for ~100 years
-Let’s look at some ways that Etruscan culture was influenced by the Greeks, creating a
fusion- a uniquely Italian/Etruscan/Roman style
-Temples:
 Greek elements:pediment, columns, central room with statue of gods
Italian elements: local materials (tufa, wood, terracotta instead of marble),
steps only on the front, not always one big cella (worshipped some greek gods and some local
gods), sculpture on the roof, not in the pediment
-Sculpture:
-borrows from archaic greek style (faces)
-but Etruscan materials, themes and gestures (funeral banquet, men +
women =, terracotta,

Now that the test is behind us, let’s get back to Rome. Answer your pear deck question.
We know the geography and the other cultures in the region, let’s look at Rome itself.
It does not start off huge and dominant.
The Romans are one of many tribes who live in the Italian Peninsula
Their ‘city’ is on seven hills next to the river Tiber, making it easy to defend and getting
residences out of the swampy, unhealthy lower land. Connected by the Tiber to the port of
Ostia, giving it easy access to Med. trade routes while making it harder to attack by sea,
and it’s central location makes it a good trade nexus for anything coming north/south over
land. Good farmland in Latium.

Where do the Romans come from? Who are they? How do we know? Where would
historians look for an answer?
-archaeology
-literary record

We are lucky to have lots of both.

-This is not a heroic or noble start; we got folks, likely outcasts/criminals/folks escaping
enslavement, who settle in some huts on hills to get out of the swamp, to trade

So, the Romans will develop myths about their founding to make themselves grander and
to emphasize what they feel is important about their identity.

Two strains:
1st: Connection to the heroes of the Trojan war. Trojan prince Aeneas, the son of
Venus and Anchises (who is lame because he bragged about sleeping with Venus). He flees the
Trojan war with other heroes, wanders the Med. as refugees, eventually landing in Italy,
marrying the daughter of a local ruler. His descendents will found Rome.

2nd: Traditionally founded by twins, Romulus and Remus. Local king, Numitor, is
exlied by his brother, Amulius who wants his throne. To prevent any other threats to his power,
Amulius has Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, dedicated to the goddess Vesta. Vestal priestesses
had to maintain their virginity under pain of death, but Rhea Silvia became pregnant- father
debated, possible Mars. Twin boys are exposed- basket by the Tiber, found by a she wolf, who
keeps them alive until they are found by a shepherd and raised as his own. They grow up and
realize their destiny, killing their great-uncle to avenge their grandfather, and then founding their
own city. Unfortunately, they get in a fight while casting an augury related to the cities
boundaries, and Romulus kills Remus, becoming the first king of Rome.

What can we learn from this?

-Violence, especially against women
-Venus and Mars?
-Rome founded by refugees and outcasts, but really want to see themselves as
more (Romulus and Remus are thieves! Romulus murders his brother!)
-religion is everywhere
-Greek influence- they look up to the Greeks, but they know it is not their entire
story

Three stages of Roman history:

-Monarchy- Romulus + 6 more = 7 kings. The last few kings of Rome are Etruscan
-Republic
-Empire

Monarchy:
We don’t know a lot here; some unreliable literature and some archaeology
Etruscans period sees Rome emerge as a city
-drain the area between the hills which will eventually become the forum (cool
sewer system under forum still)
-build roads in the city (via sacra)
-built temples in the greek style, esp. Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the
Capitoline
-wall is eventually built around the city center in 4th century BCE
-Etruscan symbol, the fasces, is adopted as symbol of Roman political power
-Etruscan alphabet is adapted and becomes Latin alphabet
-
Republic:

But Rome will not be satisfied by being ruled by another group, and they will rebel against the
monarchy and establish the Republic instead, around 509 BCE

Aristocrats, rebelling against abuses of power by the Etruscan king and his family, stage a
revolution and overthrow the monarchy. (Read Livy, Rape of Lucretia) OR aristocrats, losing
power as shifts in military tactics put more power in the hands of common soldiers, try a new
form of governemnt that is more of an oligarchy.

In its place they establish the

Roman Republic:
Res publica- the public thing- essentially a state for the public good
SPQR- Senatus Populusque Romanus- for the Senate and People of Rome
A republic is defined as a government not run by a monarch- more broadly, a form of
government where citizens elect officials to represent them
 Rome’s republic begins as essentially an oligarchy: Imperium, the right to
command or govern, divided amongst the elite
Patricians- the aristocracy and Plebians- all other citizens.
Magistrates- the officials with power
2 consuls- chosen each year, administered gov. And led the army
Praetor- office created to govern while consuls are away at war, but
also manages justice
Dictators- could be chosen by senate to rule in emergency for limited
time
Quaestors- financial affairs
Aediles- grain supply and games (these guys are popular with the
people)
Senate- the ruling body, composed of aristocrats from only the oldest and
wealthiest landowning families, members for life- 300 men, advises the
magistrates, but really powerful
Popular assemblies:
Centuriate assembly- army voting- wealthiest voices always get
their way- elected the magistrates and passed laws, though most power landed
with the magistrates and the senate

All works on the patron-client relationship, where aristocrats served as patrons, giving
aid and protection to clients from the lower classes in exchange for their votes in the assemblies
and work. It’s like the mafia- the patrons are the godfathers and the clients are everyone else.
You want your son out of prison or your taxes reduced, you see your patron who might get your
son a good lawyer or give you a loan- he might ask you for a portion of your crop or to work his
land during the harvest or to vote for him when he runs for office

Struggle of the Orders

-Republic is an oligarchy, almost all power in the hands of 300 men (patricians in
senate)
-Plebians begin to want more power and equity- more say in politics and ability for
patrician/plebian marriage, which was illegal
-begin a slow process of changing the Republic to get them more rights
-494- the plebians strike from military service- they move out for a bit- patricians need
their army, so they make changes
-2 magistrates- tribunes of the plebs- are created. Could protect plebians from
arrest by patricians, led the new
-Plebian Assembly added to the centuriate assembly, for plebians only- can adopt
laws for the plebians that are not binding on patricians-(plebiscita) will later be changed to be
binding law for all without approval of senate
-450- plebs pressured patricians to create a special commission of 10 to review and
publish laws- results in the Twelve Tables- practical laws regulating family life, property, etc.
Twelve Tables only highlighted the structural inequality between the classes: (continued
prohibition on intermarriage, kept magistracies for patricians)
-445, revision allowed intermarriage, and consulship open to plebians in 300’s
 -287- Hortensian Law formalizes the rights Plebians have gained- plebisctia are binding
on all and did not need senate approval
OVERALL: Plebs could be consul, could intermarry, could pass binding laws- all equal
under the law, in theory

Concerned with preventing the abuses of the monarchy, Rome’s republic

is organized so there is are checks on individual power
- 2 consuls run the senate and command the armies, but have
limited terms (1 year), veto power over each other, and return
to senate membership when term is up (so they have to
cooperate with the senate while consul)
- Magistrates (different gov’t positions) of varying power are
chosen from among the senators- become a ladder to climb to
the consulship
- Censor- two of them, every five years- they conduct a census
of citizens and also decide senate membership (can be removed
for loss of property, poor moral behavior or added for the
opposite reasons) Often oldest, most experienced senators-
almost always previous consuls
Plebian Tribunes: over time, common citizens, called plebians, fought for more
power in the republic and they got it
Tribunes were plebians, not patricians, and tribunes had veto
power over the senate
Aristocratic senate still in control, but their power is balanced by a plebian voice in the tribunes
and in popular assemblies, in which all citizens voted on important issues proposed by the
senate
All works on the patron-client relationship, where aristocrats served as patrons, giving
aid and protection to clients from the lower classes in exchange for their votes in the assemblies
and work. It’s like the mafia- the patrons are the godfathers and the clients are everyone else.
You want your son out of prison or your taxes reduced, you see your patron who might get your
son a good lawyer or give you a loan- he might ask you for a portion of your crop or to work his
land during the harvest or to vote for him when he runs for office

Roman Expansion:
Early Republic includes frequent warfare with neighbors in Italy
-Livy gives us lots of myths about the early leaders of the Republic and their
values
With an army of citizen-farmers, Rome conquers central Italian neighbors by 400
BCE and most of italy, including Greek colonies, by 264 BCE
Offering many of them full Roman citizenship or ally status (allies ran their own
affairs and provided soldiers for Rome), allies could aspire to full citizenship, and most
made that choice- Why not become part of something so successful?
Romans also made settlements in newly conquered territory- fortified Roman towns
at strategic locations
Built Roads to connect the towns- military and communications network
Cincinnatus:
-Values in the story

Most conquered territory accepted Roman rule- many were granted citizenship rights,
some were allowed to keep local governments under Roman control- the benefits of cooperating
out-weighed the lack of independence
Punic Wars:

Continued expansion in Italy leads Rome to look at the broader Mediterranean for rivals
Carthage, a Phoenecian city in Tunisia, Africa, is the big rival- they control trade in the
Western Med, including important island of Sicily, so Rome needs to eliminate them.
Punic Wars- series of conflicts between Rome and Carthage-
1st Punic War- 264-241- for control of Sicily- forces Rome to become a naval power-
they gain sicily and $ from Carthage and a truce
Feeling emboldened, Rome seized control of Corsica and Sardinia, too, three
years later- Carthaginians are super-mad, and the story is that their leader- Hamilcar Barca-
teaches his son to say that he will hate Rome forever- kid was Hannibal
2nd Punic War- 218-202- This is the cool one
Carthage recovers power and influence by creating colonies in Spain to make up
for the loss of Sicily- builds up a large army using Spanish troops
Rome allies with a city on the Carthaginian section of Spain and encourages them
in anti-Carthaginian practices, provoking Carthage
Carthaginian general Hannibal attacks a Roman ally in Spain, Saguntum, breaking the
truce and just asking for trouble
218- Rome declares war on Carthage
Rome declares war and quickly realizes that Hannibal is a genius. He does the unexpected and
marches his army overland through spain into northern Italy- has to cross the alps with
elephants!!!!! Lost about half his army and most of his elephants in the two week march- but gets
to italy and wins battle after battle, bringing allies over to his side--- at Cannae, he destroys a
Roman army of 80,000, killing up to 40,000 men- Hannibal runs wild in northern Italy
Scipio Africanus rises to the command of the Roman armies and is a match for
Hannibal- in 204, Scipio defeats Hannibal at the battle of Zama, forcing Carthage to submit to
Roman domination- in the third punic war 149-146, Rome takes the city itself and removes all
power from Carthage
Carthage gives up Spain, pays Rome more $ for damages, and is forbidden from going to war
without Rome’s permission- essentially humbled and impoverished- Hannibal flees to the East
and eventually dies from suicide
NOT ENOUGH for some: Cato, conservaitve politician, ends every speech he makes in
the Senate with “and I think carthage must be destroyed”
When Carthage essentially defends itsls territory against a roman ally in N. africa, Rome
uses it as an excuse to go to war- PUNIC WAR 3- 149-146- under Scipio Aemelianus
-city destroyed, people enslaved, fields were salted, territory made the Roman province of Africa
(See text box)

Society and Culture in the Roman Republic:

So you are constantly at war and engaged in expansion, you have this sort-of democratic
government, and this growing sense of your identity as a people, but what is it like to live at this
time? Beyond politics and warfare? How do people spend their time/relate to one another?

Religion:
You understand your world through religion- it is an essential part of each day and the arc of the
year
Anthropomorphic Gods, Greek Pantheon + local Roman/Italian gods,
Jupiter Optimus Maximus- Rome’s patron god
Flexible about allowing/incorporating the gods of the people the conquer- there is no one,
true god, so you can worship whoever
Day-to-Day worship involved ritual
-follow rituals to keep the gods happy so they would benefit and not harm you, the
individual, or Rome the collective state
-College of Priests- known as pontiffs (bridges between gods and men) are established to
perform state rituals- 3 to 16 in number. Led by pontifex maximus- the great bridge. . . title held
by caesar and all later emperors- church and state are one
-College of Augurs- they interpret omens. Leaders in rome consult them before doing
anything important
-read the flights of birds, examine the organs of sacrificed animals,
-Household cults- extends down to the family; certain gods are especailly relevant to
keeping the home and family running
-Vesta, goddess of hearth
-Janus, god of doorways
-penates- gods of storehouse
-rituals of purification, of honoring the gods- lots of small sacrifices
-Religious festivals are also big
-public events lasting several days, like holidays- games, chariot races, theater
performances, gladiatorial contests, feasts, days off from work, sometimes forgiveness of debts

How were you educated?

-no public education
-Family provided education or not- upperclass children were educated to assume
their gender roles- men to farm, fight, and politic and women to run the home and raise
children- reading/writing were important
-The more Rome connected with Greece, the more Greek-style education become
common among the upper classes
-rhetoric and philosophy
-private tutors, sometimes slaves from Greece
-small schools for the elite
-reading, writing, arithmetic
-Grammaticus teaches literature, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
music, Greek literature- most elite were bilingual

Slavery:
Early Republic, a Roman farmer might have a slave, usually someone from Italy who was
paying off a debt, and they worked alongside the farm owner to plant and harvest
Roman expansion changed everything:
-War captives become slaves, as do their children
-expansion bring ever more slaves from all over the roman world- maybe up to 20%
of the Roman population
Wide gulf between the experience of different kinds of slaves
-the rich had lots of slaves, and it became an expression of wealth and status to have
many slaves
-Educated Greeks were often enslaved and served as tutors, musicians, personal
doctors, artists, record keepers etc
-Most slaves were farm laborers on huge plantations known as latifundia
-their lives were short, same with slaves in the mines, and those doing other
manual labor for the state- building roads, bridges, aqueducts, public buildings etc.
-domestic servants, too
-Some slaves were freed by their masters, usually after their death, and some
adopted their master’s family name to continue their link with the family as clients. They
also gain full citizenship after manumission
-Many more suffered horrific abuse; lots of penalties for harboring a runaway slave
in Roman law
-Slave revolts were not uncommon- big one in Sicily in second century BCE, and the
Spartacus Revolt in 73 BCE, where some 70,000 slaves gather together and fight for their
freedom. 6,000 rebels were crucified all along the main road into Rom
-praetor +3,000 sent from Rome to end the revolt, looses, and more local men join
the Gladiators
-another praetor comes after them with another army, also defeated
-begin moving north to get out of Roman territory
-both consuls sent to defeat them
-governor of the alps region, Cassius, is almost killed when he meets them in battle-
given command by the senate, and he is not messing around
-when one of his commanders is defeated and many of his soldiers flee the battle, he
gathers them back together and decimates them- 500 divided into 50 groups of 10, kills one
from each group, chosen by lot, while rest of army watches- old method of military
discipline
-

Roman Family:
Paterfamilias- has imperium over the family, wife, children, adult sons and their wives nad
children, enslaved persons
Women under the guardianship of men; paterfamilias and then husband in early republic
Women gain more freedoms, with lots of opposition
Marriage used to pass women legally to the control of their husbands (cum manu),
then more often they remained in their father’s legal contro, sine manu, and since fathers
were likely to die before husbands, this meant women had more legal rights with sine manu
marriage- more control over property, inheritance, etc
 Divorce became common in the later republic, especially in hte upper classes, where
marriages were alliances between families
Child marriage is common- 12 is the legal age, most married 14-16.

Transition to Empire:
Really begins with the consequences of Rome’s victories in the Punic Wars:
-Continue to expand, including Greece and Macedonia after the Punic Wars
-rich get richer off newly acquired lands, poor don’t, importance of slavery in the economy
increases (bad for independent farmers), BUT most importantly, the republican system, which
worked well for the smallish city of Rome, is under stress now that Rome is a far-flung empire
Really an oligarchy now: Senate is seat of most power, as magistracies are held by
reps from a very small number of families: nobiles- wealthy patrician and plebian families-
233-133- 26 families produce 80% of consuls, 50% from only 10 families
Military commanders have tons of political power now, and Roman army and
navy are very well-trained and semi-professional
Roman army is called a legion, organized into groups of 10 then 100- a
centurion is the commander of a 100 man unit- very organized and disciplined army (decimate)
Farms are owned by aristocrats and worked by enslaved people (latifundia)
Cities are full of poor laborers who used to be farmers
Politically, this situation pits aristocrats (who want to protect their own wealth and
privilege) against politicians who support the poor and want to see change (power comes
from support of the poor)

Fall of the Republic:

1. political reform:
a. the Gracchi brothers- Tiberius and Gaius- come to power with the support of
the people
1. populares- men who hold government positions with the
support of the poor, of the people in opposition to the wishes of
the patricians/ the nobiles
2. Tiberius becomes tribune, promises to take from the rich and
give to the poor- to redistribute land
a. A mob of senators and their clients have Tiberius and
300 of his followers killed and thrown into the Tiber
before he can become tribune for a second term
3. Gaius becomes tribune- tries for more reform- land to veterans,
power to the equestrian class- he too is murdered
4. We are now seeing violence used to solve political problems-
not a good sign for the health of the Roman Republic
2. growth of military power:
a. Marius and Sulla
i. No more farmer-soldiers to take up arms to defend their farms when
necessary. Gaius Marius- consul and general- an equestrian, not a
patrician (Cicero calls his an ‘uneducated man, but a real man”)uses an
army of volunteers, mostly the poor who had lost their farms. The
 army is loyal to him (wins big victories in Africa and against the Celts)
and he in turn provides them with benefits- usually land when the war
is over. He recruits volunteers from the propertyless- urban and rural,
with promise of land- semi-professional army loyal to the general-
The general with the loyal army becomes a threat to the senate- Marius
is consul 8 times!
Italian War: Rome’s Italian ally states revolt in 90BCE- don’t feel like
they have benefitted as much as they deserve- 2 years of bitter fighting ends with all italian allies
being granted full citizenship rights--->lots of new voters in the popular assemblies, so more
power to the populares
ii. Sulla makes his mark in the Italian war. He is younger than Marius
and is also a talented general- a patrician, a politician. Unlike Marius,
Sulla defends the rights of the Senate
iii. Civil war erupts between the two men after Tribune of plebs takes a
military command away from Sulla and gives it to Marius-- Sulla does
the unthinkable, he and his legions march into the city of Rome to take
it from Marius- Sulla now has complete power, names dictator by hte
senate to put Republic back together- brutal purge of his enemies,
reforms to strengthen the Senate’s power, but the ideas of the republic
are so ingrained that he gives his power back to the senate and retires
in 79bce!!!

The next generation:

Lots of other figures here acting to sway positions:
-Cicero: new man of the equestrian order- first consul in his family
-rises up the ladder as a talented lawyer
-consul in 63
-argued for more cooperation between orders
Pompey-
One of Sulla’s generals, leads his own client army against Marius- successful military
campaign in Spain- gets a triumph when he gets back
A man of two titles- the Great and the Teenage Butcher- very successful military
commander (pirates), makes a fortune establishing Roman control over cities of the East
He and Crassus are consul together in 70- undo some of Sulla’s reforms and weaken
Senate’s power again to favor populare politicians
Crassus- Real estate, mines, slaves- he is super-wealthy
Many people in debt to him
His fire brigade would refuse to put out a fire until the owner sold him the property for
nearly nothing
Slept with a vestal virgin to get her property
Gains glory putting down Spartacus revolt-100 miles of crucified bodies on rome’s
busiest rode, every 40 yards
Both Consul in 70 together- undid some of Sula’s reforms, shifting power to the populares
Pompey given more military commands by the tribunes he supported; pirates and Mithradates in
the East-- both win him prestige and wealth
Caesar
A relative of Marius, narrowly escapes being killed when Sulla eliminates his enemies
Another successful general, but a populare
Pompey and Caesar ally with Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome, to form the 1st Triumvirate-
push the senate around: Pompey’s vets get land, Crussus’ equestrian clients get tax breaks,
Caesar gets to conquer Gaul for five years
Then Caesar gets five more years, Crassus gets a command in Syria, Pompey gets one in Spain

Crassus dies in battle, leaving Pompey and Caesar to struggle for power
Pompey tries to get the senate to rule Caesar an enemy of rome while he is away with his legions
fighting in Gaul
Caesar crosses the Rubicon with his legions- the river marking the boundary with Italy- no
turning back- civil war has erupted
Civil war 49-46 caesar v pompey
Pompey has senate backing, control of the east, most of spain and italy
Caesar has only one legion, but pompey has only two in italy
C manages to force pompey to flee to the east
C then defeats pompey’s allies in spain in less than three months
August 48, c defeats p in pharsalus/pharsalia in the east
Pompey flees to Egypt, murdered by Ptolemy
Caesar chases him there, where he is given pompey’s head, and supports ptolemy’s sister’s bid
for the throne- 18 yr old Cleopatra
October 48- dictator for the year- while in Egypt (caesarion, his son by Cleopatra)
Leaves in 46, defeats rest of pompey’s army in north Africa- made dictator for 10 years
Pompey’s son still fighting on in spain, defeated at Munda in 45- then caesar returns to rome
Made dictator for life early in 44, marc antony offers him a crown publicly and he refuses
publicly
44- march 15th idea of march- assassinated on the way to the senate, dies at the foot of pompey’s
statue
cassius and brutus (who may have been Caesar’s son) lead as many as 60 men in an assault on
caesar’s life leading, of course, to civil war
Marc Antony and Octavian
in 44, Marc Antony is consul with Caesar and Lepidus was ceasars master of cavalry- his army
chief
MA reads caeasrs will to the people, gives him a eulogy and buries the body with ceremony- the
crowd is on his side
Brutus and Cassius leave rome
Caesar’s nephew, Octavian, is adopted in his will and named his heir
After a little struggle for power, Marc Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus form the second
triumvirate in 43- public and legal
-2 rounds of proscriptions- lists are posted and enemies executed/exiled- including
Cicero, who hates MA 150 senators,150 knights
-divide roman world between them
-go to war against caesar’s assassins, who were controlling the east
win battle at Philippi- brutus and cassius commit suicide
-lepidus gets Africa nd moves there
 -MA reorganizes the wealthy east
-octavian stays in rome but has to deal with a problem in sicily (pompey’s son, sextus
pompeius- a pirate king of sicily
42-36- problems begin to arise
antony marries octavians sister, Octavia to heal a dispute between the two
After Octavian’s naval general, marcus Agrippa, defeats Sextus Pompeius, Lepidus moves in to
claim Sicily, Octavian is unhappy convinces lepidus legions to desert him and forces lepidus into
exile in Africa where he lives for the next 24 years
Octavian in the West, Antony in the East
Perfect for O- who can now claim that Antony has deserted rome for Cleopatra-
has two children with her, wants in his will to be buried by her side, rumored to want the capitol
moved to Alexandra, divorces Octavia, senate turns against him and in 32 Octavian declares war
on Cleopatra and Antony is stripped of his powers
Sept. 2, 31- Battle of Actium- a naval battle, antony and Cleopatra return to Alexandria and
commit suicide a year later when it is clear they cannot recover. Caesarion is murdered, Egypt
becomes a formal part of rome

Octavian takes the title of Augustus- the most high- and becomes the undisputed master of rome-
the Emperor! The Republic is dead.

Daily Life in the Empire:

Sources:
-literature, and we have lots of it. Poetry- Virgil’s epic poems, Horace’s satires, Livy’s
histories- Juvenal’s satires from the beginning of 2nd century CE
-archaeology; lots of Roman ruins preserved or excavated throughout the Empire, from
Syria to England, roads and aqueducts and harbors to temples and villas, to garbage dumps

Who gets left out:

-women’s voices, folks from the provinces, enslaved people- especially those on farms or
mines, soldiers, those that Rome conquers

Reconstructing a full picture is a challenge, but we have some help:

What happened in 79 CE??

Pompeii- pop est. 10,000 to 25,000

Herculaneum- pop est 5,000
Area around Bay of Naples is a vacationland for the wealthy- lots of country homes
Total deaths unknown- Vesuvius was showing signs of trouble, and many began to evacuate
before the major erruption
We have about 1,150 remains of bodies in and around Pompeii, and 350 in Herculaneum 9most
by the docks)

Freezes the Late Republic/Early Empire for our study and observation
We can see the features common to Roman cities and the character of everyday life and things
that are not well preserved elsewhere, like painting
Pompeii has features that are then replicated in other cities throughout the Roman Empire- as
Rome expands it creates mini-Romes with all the comforts of home

Let’s think about our own experience and what we can expect: What is essential in a
modern city? What do you most like to visit? Would you expect the same things in an
ancient city?

Heart of any Roman city is the Forum:

Usually where two main streets intersect
a public square or marketplace used for judicial and other business.
A: Marketplace, center of economic activity
B: Location of important temples and religious activity
C: Location of buildings like courts and meeting houses, center of civic activity,
Pompeii’s has two story collonades leading up to the Temple of Jupiter, later a Capitolium to
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva- standard Republican tufa/stucco
Civic business conducted there- the Basilica at the lower left is where the law courts
were, along with meeting places and offices- nave with two aisles
Building of Eumachia- linen/fabric warehouse maybe?, dedicated to a Eumachia- local
woman, wealthy merchant family, marries local elite, priestess of the goddess Venus Pompeiana (the
city's patron goddess), and successful patronus of the economically significant guild of fullers, the
guild which consisted of tanners, dyers and clothing-makers

Other Public buildings:

The Ampitheater:
Earliest ampitheater known- seats 20,000, Seating assigned by rank, Concrete
barrel vaults hold up the seating
Theater
Bath
Fast food places- thermopolium
Bakery
Lots of storage jars everywhere: wine, oil, grain, garum=fish sauce. Can trace the trade
coming in and out of Pompeii by looking at the jars-- wine from crete, dye from north africa,
grain from egypt

All these public spaces are important, because most folk did not have private space and
spent most time out in public.
-most romans lived in multistory apartment buildings called insula- Latin for Island
typically occupied a city block with roads on every side
-often 5 or even 9 floors: Emperors set safety restrictions on height- Augustus put the cap
at 68 Roman feet, Nero reduces to 60 after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64.
-shops on the bottom, rooms up above
-crowded, no indoor plumbing, hopefully near the well/fountain for water
-fire risk, families in a room or two
-no cooking space- you brought your grain to the bakery to be made to bread
What problems and challenges in modern cities might you also see in Pompeii, esp. Given
the insula we just looked at
-Juvenal: Roman poet, possibly son of a freedman, writing in late first/early 2nd century
CE- mostly in genre of Satire, humorous social critique of Roman life and politics- likely earns
him an exile from the emperor
-critics city life- rent is too high, landlords don’t care for buildings, people live in close
quarters in dirty, noisy, fire-prone buildings

For the Wealthy: The House:

Not just a private place for the family
For aristocrats, the home is where you project your status
Patron Client relationship allowed for ‘visiting’ or office hours, where your client came
to your home and waited to speak with you, like in the godfather
So the house is set up to impress them
Enter through the narrow fauces into the grand atrium
Atrium is open to the sky to collect rainwater in the impluvium
Atrium is flanked with bedrooms or rented out shops, if open to the street
In the middle are the triclinium-dining room, or tablinum –office, where the imagines of
the ancestors are housed and the patron would meet with clients, with a peristyle courtyard open
to the sky in the back, sometimes with a kitchen garden
The peristyle often has mosaic floors, wall paintings, greek statues

Fresco and Mosaics:

Small tesserae set in mortar
Usually on the floor, but more and more on walls later in the empire, including some at
Pompeii
Floor mosaics:
Alexander Mosaic:
A battle between Alexander vs. Darius III of Persia, there are two
possibilities, Alexander wins both. Often called the Battle of Issus.
- Roman copy of a Greek painting from the Hellenistic period on the floor of the House of the
Faun, Pompeii (now in Naples museum)
Almost 9 x17 feet
Reconstruction now back in House of the Faun
Excellent for knowing more about Greek panel painting and the Roman
admiration for it
Note construction of space: foreshortening, diagonals from lances, use of light to
create depth
This is a very Hellenistic image: Motion, Emotion- pathos, theatricality, etc.

And imperial portraiture will be mostly about propaganda:

Emperor is the princeps, the imperator, the pontifex maximus
Pax Romana allows for the creation of public works all over the empire- money to be
spent on the people, with portraits of those responsible
 Portraits of emperors and their wives/families in every town in the empire, almost- all
over the place- public display
Augustus, for example: his face is the same, based on an official model, but his head then
appears in several different ways to represent different elements of his rule:
Victorious general, virtuous citizen, pious religious man, god a, b, or c, etc
Augustus Primaporta=Augustus as victorious general- breastplate commemorates his victory
over the Parthians, emphasizing his divine power
• Portrait found at wife Livia’s villa in atrium, facing out to greet guests.
• Right arm forward like Orator, holding commanders baton.
• Body of Doryphorus (Greek influence) with head and armor added. Ridges of brows,
tight hair emulate Polykleitan style.
• Bare feet show he is deified (made after death).
• Cupid at feet on dolphin: family of Julians traced ancestry back to Venus, include son to
show lineage. Most popular image of the empire: catalogue in 1993 lists 148 replicas,
more than double any other image.
Also as pontifex maximus and wearing the civic crown- the honor reserved for men who had
saved rome from defeat (ended civil wars)

Augustan propaganda does not stop with official portraits, he embarks on a campaign to
turn rome from a city of brick into a city of marble (like Athens under Pericles). Opens
new marble quarries at carrara in Italy, making white marble cheap and plentiful.
Constructs his own forum next to forum of JC, among other buildings like the:
The Ara Pacis:
- Altar dedicated to Augustus’ greatest achievement, the Pax Romana
- Square with central ramp into interior where the altar is- no roof
- Bottom frieze of exterior= acanthus leaf floral/vegetal pattern full of animal life-
small frogs, bugs, birds
- Front and back have top have two relief scenes a piece- one of aeneas sacrificing,
emphasizing Julian link to gods, other a unidentified female image of fertility, bounty,
plenty, harmony (mother earth, ceres, peace, venus)
- Frieze around the sides on top is a procession of senators/imperial family to worship
at the altar, like the panathenaic frieze on the Parthenon (deliberate reference- rome is
the new Athens), but with an emphasis on specific individuals- the imperial family,
complete with the children who will carry the dynasty forward
- On the inside, garlands of flowers (with plants from every season, showing continual
peace) held by ox skulls surrounding the altar, symbolize sacrificial offerings.