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RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Stainless Steel As A Structural Material: State Of Review

Minakshi Vaghani*, Dr. S.A. Vasanwala**, Dr. A.K. Desai***
*(Civil Engineering Department, Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Surat – 1, Gujarat, India)
** (Applied Mechanics Department, SVNIT, Surat- 1)
*** (Applied Mechanics Department, SVNIT, Surat- 1)

ABSTRACT
Stainless steels have not traditionally been widely used as structural materials in building and civil engineering.
Where the steels have been used for this purpose there has been some other imperative driving the design,
usually corrosion resistance or architectural requirements rather than the inherent structural properties of the
steel. The primary reason for this low use in structural applications is usually the perceived and actual cost of
stainless steel as a material. Developments over the last 10 years, both in available materials and attitudes to
durability, are now offering a new opportunity for stainless steels to be considered as primary structural
materials. This paper introduces stainless steel alloys and briefly discusses the important properties and
commercial aspects of these alloys relevant to structural designers. The paper also considers recent
developments, particularly with respect to available alloys and considers obstacles to the wider use of stainless
steels in structural engineering that are related to both supply chain costs and efficiency of design.
Keywords – Austenitic, Corrosion, Plasticity, Stress-strain, Toughness.

I. INTRODUCTION dependent on the chromium content and is enhanced

Stainless steel sections have been by additions of molybdenum and nitrogen. Nickel is
increasingly used in architectural and structural added, primarily, to ensure the mechanical properties
applications because of their superior corrosion and the correct microstructure of the steel. Other
resistance, ease of maintenance and pleasing alloying elements may be added to improve particular
appearance. The mechanical properties of stainless aspects of the stainless steel such as high temperature
steel are quite different from those of carbon steel. properties, enhanced strength or to facilitate
For carbon and low-alloy steels, the proportional particular processing routes [4].
limit is assumed to be at least 70 % of the yield point, Several applications already exist worldwide
but for stainless steel the proportional limit ranges for structural and non-structural components made of
from approximately 36 % - 60 % of the yield strength SSs, All these steels are alloys of iron, chromium,
[1]. Therefore the lower proportional limits would nickel and to varying degrees molybdenum. The
affect the buckling behaviour of stainless steel characteristic corrosion resistance of stainless steel is
structural members. Stainless steel structural dependent on the chromium content and is enhanced
members are more expensive than carbon steel. by additions of molybdenum and nitrogen. Nickel is
Therefore, more economic design and the use of high added, primarily, to ensure the mechanical properties
strength stainless steel could offset some of the costs. and the correct microstructure of the steel. Other
Stainless steel can be a confusing material to alloying elements may be added to improve particular
those unfamiliar with the alloys as the term stainless aspects of the stainless steel such as high temperature
steel refers to a large family of material types and properties, enhanced strength or to facilitate
alloys. The commonest grades of SSs utilized for particular processing routes [4].
structural applications include austenitic (ASS), Austenitic stainless steels are the steels most
ferritic (FSS), and austenitic–ferritic (AFSS) or architects, engineers and lay people think of stainless
duplex. This classification is based on the amount of steels. The term austenitic refers to the microstructure
chromium (Cr) present in the alloy considered. of the steel. Designation and compositions are given
Several applications already exist worldwide for in TABLE 1. Recent developments in alloy
structural and non-structural components made of technology relevant, to structural engineering, have
SSs, All these steels are alloys of iron, chromium, seen the introduction of newer low alloy duplex
nickel and to varying degrees molybdenum. The steels, often referred as duplex steels. Designation
characteristic corrosion resistance of stainless steel is and compositions of the same are given in TABLE 2.

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Fig.1 Structural (left) and Non-structural (right) Applications of Stainless Steel in Modern Buildings
(Source: L. Di Sarno et. al.(2006))
Table 1 Major Alloy Element Compositions of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Steel designation Alloy composition (Min%) from EN 10088
ASTM
EN10088 Chromium Nickel Molybdenum
International
1.4301 304 17 8 -
1.4404 316 L 16.5 10 2
1.4435 316 L 17 12.5 2.5
(Source: Graham Gedge et. al.(2008))

Table 2 Major Alloy Element Compositions of Duplex Stainless Steels

Steel designation Alloy composition (Min%) from EN 10088
(EN10088) Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Nitrogen
1.4462 21 4.5 2.5 0.22
1.4410 24 6 3 0.35
1.4362 22 3.5 0.1 0.05
1.4162 (LDX2101) 21.5 1.5 0.3 0.22
(Source: Graham Gedge et. al.(2008))

These steels are characterized by design guidance. However, unlike carbon steel,
comparable strength to established duplex grades but stainless steel exhibits a rounded non-linear stress-
lesser resistance to localized corrosion although strain relationship with no strictly defined yield point
comparable to established austenitic steels [4]. (Fig. 2). Hence, no sharp behavioural transition occurs
at any specified stress [5]. This complexity is
1.1 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels overcome by defining the yield point as the stress level
The stress-strain behaviour of duplex and corresponding to 0.2 % permanent strain ฀0.2, and
austenitic steels in a tensile test differs from that of assuming bilinear stress-strain behavior for stainless
carbon steels. Stainless steels are also characterized steel as for carbon steel. The substantial differences in
by: the structural response between the two materials are
 A high degree of plasticity between the proof neglected in favour of simplicity, generally resulting in
stress and the ultimate tensile stress. conservative slenderness limits for stainless steel
 Very good low temperature toughness. cross-sections. Stainless steel exhibits a rounded
 A degree of anisotropy stress-strain relationship with no sharply defined yield
Given the relatively recent emergence of point as illustrated in Fig. 2. Traditionally its stress-
stainless steel as a structural material, efforts have strain relationship has been described by Ramberg-
been made to maintain consistency with Carbon steel Osgood model. Ramberg and Osgood proposed the

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𝜎 𝜎 𝑛
expression given in (1) for the description of material 𝜀= + 0.002 (3)
stress-strain behavior, where Eo is Young’s modulus 𝐸𝑜 𝜎0.2
and K and n are constants. This equation has been found to give
𝜎 𝜎 𝑛 excellent predictions of stainless steel material stress-
𝜀= + 𝐾 (1) strain behaviour up to 0.2 % proof stress 0.02 but
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜
This basic expression was later modified by greatly over-predicts the stress beyond that level. Fig.
Hill to give (2) where Rp is a proof stress and c is the 3 shows a typical comparison between a measured
corresponding plastic strain. stainless steel stress-strain curve and the Ramberg-
𝑛
𝜎 𝜎 Osgood equation (3).
𝜀= + 𝑐 (2)
𝐸𝑜 𝑅𝑝
In both expressions, the total strain is 1.2 Behaviour at Elevated Temperature
expressed as the summation of elastic and plastic At both room temperature and elevated
strains which are treated separately. The power temperature, the material characteristics of stainless
function is applied only to the plastic strain. The steel differ from those of carbon steel due to the high
Ramberg-Osgood expression is a popular material alloy content. At room temperature, stainless steel
model for non-linear materials since its constants displays a more rounded stress-strain response than
have physical significance and it also provides a carbon steel and no sharply defined yield point,
smooth curve for all values of strain with no together with a higher ratio of ultimate to yield stress
discontinuities [8]. and greater ductility (Fig. 4). At elevated
temperatures, stainless steel generally exhibits better
retention of strength and stiffness in comparison to
carbon steel [6].

1.3 Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels

There are two broad categories of corrosion
that need to be considered:
 General or uniform corrosion which refers to a
general corrosion and loss of section over the
entire surface of the metal. All austenitic and
duplex stainless steel are resistant to this type of
corrosion in atmospheric conditions and water
Fig. 2 Indicative Stainless Steel and Carbon Steel
(sea or fresh) immersion.
Stress-Strain Behavior
(Source: Mahmud Ashraf et. al.(2006))  Localized corrosion which refers to surface
straining, pitting, crevice corrosion and stress
The proof stress was taken as the value corrosion cracking (SCC). Stainless steel has
corresponding to the 0.2% plastic strain giving the varying resistance to these forms of corrosion
most familiar form of the Ramberg-Osgood and in broad terms, the resistance can be related
expression as given by (3). to the alloy content for a given environment.

Fig. 3 Comparison between the Measured Stress- Fig. 4 Stress-Strain Curve using EN 1993-1-2
Strain Curve and the Ramberg-Osgood Material guidelines for an Austenitic Grade 1.4301
Model for an Austenitic Grade 1.4301 at Elevated Temperatures
(Source: L. Gardner et. al. (2010))

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Designers should also be aware that factors (S220), while a value of 45–55% was found for
other than simply the alloy content have an effect on greater thicknesses;
corrosion performance [4]. These include:  SS generally exhibits rather greater increases in
 The quality of surface finish strengths at fast rates of loading [1,3]. The initial
 The presence of welds and heat tint around welds stress state of the material has an effect on the
 Contamination of the surface with debris from strain rate.
other materials, most notably carbon steel swarf.  Austenitic SSs possess greater toughness than
mild steels. The former are less susceptible to
II. STAINLESS STEEL COSTS brittle fracture than the later for service
The mill price of stainless steels is temperatures down to −40 ◦C.
comprised of two parts: The above properties render SS an attractive
 The base production cost that is set by the steel metal for applications in plastic and seismic design,
maker particularly for seismic retrofitting of steel, concrete
 The Alloy Adjustment Factor (AAF) that relates and composite structures. The suitability of the
to the current price of the alloy elements. The application of SSs for seismic retrofitting is analyzed
AAF is not directly controlled by the steelmaker. herein with regard to multi-storey framed structures,
The actual cost of stainless steel fabrication is clearly either MRFs or CBFs.
not related solely to the ex mill price of base material,
the final cost will be dependent on other factors and Eunsoo Choi et. al. [3] have studied the bond
parts of the supply chain [4]. These include: behavior between steel reinforcing bars and concrete
 The procurement route – mill, mill service centre, confined via steel wrapping Jackets. Lateral bending
stockiest or trader. tests are conducted for the reinforced concrete
 The supply condition – base plate, cut and columns with continuous longitudinal reinforcement
prepared plate, specified surface finish quality etc. or lap-spliced longitudinal bars confined by the steel
wrapping jackets.
 The cost of fabrication – fabrication costs are
In this study, the specimens of concrete
likely to be somewhat higher than carbon steel
cylinders prepared were expected to induce splitting
due to higher consumable costs and lower
bond failure in an unconfined state; concrete
production rates.
cylinders with dimensions of 100 mm x 200 mm
 The requirement for a finish- architectural
were used. Stainless steel jackets with the dimensions
finishes add significant cost.
of 324 mm x 200 mm were prepared in order to
 The workmanship standard specified for the confine the concrete cylinders; the width was 10 mm
work. larger than the perimeter of the cylinder in order to
create the welding overlap. Steel jacket thicknesses
III. OUTLINE OF RESEARCH of 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm were chosen to assess how the
ACTIVITIES amount of confinement has an effect on the bond
In order to accumulate the basic data for behavior. There were three types of specimens for the
applying stainless steel to buildings as a structural splitting failure mode: (1) unconfined, (2) confined
material, research papers from various reputed by a 1 mm jacket, and (3) confined by a 1.5 mm
journals were studied. jacket. Each type had two specimens, and a total of
six specimens were prepared for the bonding tests.
L. Di Sarno et. al. [5] assess the feasibility of the It is found that the jackets increase the bond
application of SSs for seismic retrofitting of framed strength and ductile behavior due to the transfer of
structures, either braced (CBFs) or moment resisting splitting bonding failure to pull-out bonding failure.
(MRFs) frames. Number of experimental tests carried In the column tests, the steel wrapping jackets
out primarily in Europe [6,7] and Japan [5] on increase the flexural strength and ultimate drift for
austenitic (304 and 316) and austenitic–ferritic grades the lap-spliced column. The bond strength of the lap-
of SSs have demonstrated that: spliced bar in the jacketed column was estimated as
 Experimental tests on SS beams, columns and 6.5 MPa that was 1.52 times as large as that of the
beam to- column connections have shown large lap-spliced bar in the unjacketed column. The
plastic deformation capacity and energy flexural strength of the jacketed lap-spliced column
redistribution at section and member levels. was 1.32 times as large as that of the unjacketed
 The ultimate elongation (εu) and the ultimate-to- column. Consequently, it was reasoned that the
proof tensile strength ratios (fu/ fy) are on increment of the flexural strength of the lap-spliced
average higher than for Carbon Steel. For column was due to the increment of the bond stress in
austenitic plates with thicknesses less than 3 mm the lap-spliced bars providing lateral confining
the values of εu range between 35% and 40% pressure of the steel jacket.

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Steel and fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) jacketing basic design information on the strength of materials
methods possess critical drawbacks such as grouting and is an acceptance test for the specification of
for steel jackets or bonding for FRP jackets. The materials. The major parameters that describe the
grouting of the steel jackets increases the cross- stress-strain curve obtained during the tension test are
sectional area and creates the discontinuity in the the tensile strength (UTS), yield strength or yield
column surface. Also, the grouting bonds the steel point (σy), elastic modulus (E), percent elongation
jacket to the concrete surface. The bonding of the (ΔL%) and the reduction in area (RA%). In this test,
FRP jackets with an adhesive such as epoxy causes a a specimen is prepared suitable for gripping into the
problem of wrinkles in the FRP sheet surface. These jaws of the testing machine type that will be used.
wrinkles inhibit the confining action on the concrete The specimen used is approximately uniform over a
and reduce the effectiveness of the FRP jacket. gage length (the length within which elongation
measurements are done).
IV. TESTING OF STAINLESS STEEL A tensile load is applied to the specimen
SPECIMEN until it fractures. During the test, the load required to
Mechanical testing plays an important role make a certain elongation on the material is recorded.
in evaluating fundamental properties of engineering A load-elongation curve is to be plotted, so that the
materials as well as in developing new materials and tensile behavior of the material can be obtained. An
in controlling the quality of materials for use in engineering stress-strain curve can be constructed
design and construction. If a material is to be used as from this load-elongation curve by making the
part of an engineering structure that will be subjected required calculations. Then the mechanical
to a load, it is important to know that the material is parameters that we search for can be found by
strong enough and rigid enough to withstand the studying on this curve [10]. A standard specimen is
loads that it will experience in service. prepared in a round or a square section along the
The most common type of test used to gauge length as shown in Fig.7 a) and b)
measure the mechanical properties of a material is the respectively, depending on the standard used [10].
Tension Test. Tension test is widely used to provide

Fig. 7 Standard Tensile Test Specimen for (a) Cylindrical Bar (b) Sheet Specimen
(Source: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM))

Both ends of the specimens should have be underestimated in this case. Any heat treatments
sufficient length and a surface condition such that should be applied on to the specimen prior to
they are firmly gripped during testing. The initial machining to produce the final specimen readily for
gauge length Lo is standardized (in several countries) testing. This has been done to prevent surface oxide
and varies with the diameter (Do) or the cross- scales that might act as stress concentration which
sectional area (Ao) of the specimen. This is because if might subsequently affect the final tensile properties
the gauge length is too long, the % elongation might due to premature failure.

(a) Dimesion Details

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(b) Specimen casted from SS 304 having thickness of 3 mm (c) Failure pattern of SS Specimen
Fig. 8 Details of SS Specimen for Tension Test and its Failure Pattern

Three specimens are prepared from SS 304 ultimate tensile strength, strain, stress-strain curve
and SS316L having thickness of 3 mm following the and modulus of elasticity. Fig. 8 (c) indicates the
standard dimensions. They were tested using failure pattern of SS304 specimen.
universal testing machine in order to determine the

Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Stainless steel (304)

Specimen Gauge Final Fracture Stress Strain Modulus of
No. length Lo Elongation Load (N) (N/mm2) Elasticity E
(mm) (mm) (N/mm2)
1. 50 78.20 21000 560.00 0.564 992.90
2. 50 77.50 20000 533.33 0.555 969.70

Necking has been observed before the circular RC columns", Engineering

specimen failed. Concave-convex shape is developed Structures 48 (2013) 43–54.
after necking with further increase in load but clear [4] Graham Gedge, "Structural uses of stainless
cup and cone failure is not observed. Results obtained steel - buildings and civil engineering",
from the tension test using universal testing machine Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64
are shown in TABLE 3. However, more authentic (2008) 1194-1198.
and accurate results can be obtained by conducting [5] L. Di Sarno, A.S. Elnashai, D.A. Nethercot,
repetition of tension tests. So, same procedure will be "Seismic retrofitting of framed structures
repeated for getting higher accuracy. with stainless steel", Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 93–
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS 104.
From the past research work, suitability and [6] L. Gardner, A. Insausti, K.T.Ng, M.Ashraf,
material properties of stainless steel as a structural "Elevated temperature material properties of
material is studied with reference to mechanical stainless steel alloys", Journal of
properties like stress-strain behavior, thermal Constructional Steel Research 66 (2010)
resistance, corrosion resistance and cost. In this 634-647.
research, SS plates of grade SS304 and SS316L will [7] L. Gardner, M. Theofanous, "Discrete and
be used. 3.0 mm thickness of SS304 shows the tensile continuous treatment of local buckling in
strength of 550 MPa and elastic modulus of 992.9 stainless steel elements", Journal of
MPa. Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008)
1207-1216.
REFERENCES [8] Mahmud Ashraf, Leroy Gardner, David
[1] Ben Young, "Experimental and numerical Nethercot, "Finite element modelling of
investigation of high strength stainless steel structural stainless steel cross-sections",
structures", Journal of Constructional Steel Thin-walled Structures 44(2006)1048-1062.
Research 64 (2008) 1225-1230. [9] S.M. Zahurul Islama, Ben Young,
[2] E.L. Salih, L. Gardner, D.A. Nethercot, " "Strengthening of ferritic stainless steel
Numerical study of stainless steel gusset tubular structural members using FRP
plate connections", Engineering Structures subjected to Two-Flange-Loading", Thin-
49 (2013) 448–464. Walled Structures 62 (2013) 179–190.
[3] Eunsoo Choi, Young-Soo Chung, [10] Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing
Kyoungsoo Park, Jong-Su Jeon, "Effect of of Metallic Materials Designation: E 8/E 8M
steel wrapping jackets on the bond strength – 08 by ASTM.
of concrete and the lateral performance of

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