Shock Waves (2010) 20:175–190

DOI 10.1007/s00193-010-0257-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Shock wave configurations and flow structures

in non-axisymmetric underexpanded sonic jets
Nandkishore Menon · Beric William Skews

Received: 21 December 2009 / Revised: 9 April 2010 / Accepted: 20 April 2010 / Published online: 21 May 2010
© Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract An experimental and numerical study of underex- 1 Introduction

panded free sonic jet flows issuing from rectangular, elliptical
and slot nozzles has been undertaken. Aspect ratios (AR) of Jet flows are an important part of various mixing and thrust
1, 2, and 4 are described at pressure ratios (exit plane pressure producing propulsion systems. Problems associated with
to ambient pressure), of 2 and 3. There is good qualitative combustion and jet noise have been shown to be associ-
agreement between the experimental observations and the ated with the jet structure, particularly the existence of shock
numerical predictions. In the case of rectangular jets, a com- waves within the jet. The structure of jet flows within
plex system of shock waves forming the incident shock sys- underexpanded or overexpanded jets from axisymmetric noz-
tem is identified. This shock wave system originates at the zles have been investigated fairly rigorously over the past
corners of the nozzle exits, and proceeds downstream. Mach half century commencing with the work carried out by Love
reflections are found to occur on the incident shock wave sur- et al. [6].
face as well as the presence of a Mach disk terminating the Non-axisymmetric nozzles provide improvements in mix-
first jet cell. This Mach disk has the shape of a square, a hexa- ing of the flow within the supersonic jet. The structure of
gon, or an octagon depending on the nozzle shape. For slot the jet flows issuing from non-axisymmetric nozzles, par-
and elliptical jets, the formation of the incident shock wave ticularly rectangular and elliptical nozzles have mostly been
was not observed along the minor axis plane of the nozzle for confined to understanding the shape of the mean jet bound-
AR > 2. The incident shock wave was observed to originate ary. The shock waves that may be present in such jets would
downstream of the nozzle exit in the major axis plane. This be dominated by 3D effects. The shock wave shapes that have
wave system undergoes a transition to Mach reflection as it been identified within axisymmetric underexpanded or over-
propagates downstream of the nozzle exit. In all cases tested, expanded jets cannot be used as a basis to predict the shapes
the shape of the jet boundary is significantly distorted. In of the shock waves present within similar jets issuing from
rectangular jets, the narrowing of the jet boundary along the non-axisymmetric nozzles.
diagonal axis of the nozzle exit is observed, and in the case A considerable body of work exists in the literature on
of the elliptical and slot jets axis switching is noted. the flow field characteristics of axisymmetric jets. Some of
the main features are also pertinent in the discussion on non-
Keywords Jets · Underexpansion · Sonic jets axisymmetric jets. Figure 1 shows some of these features.
The wave pattern shown is based on the explanation given in
[3] but modified for a sonic jet. A centered expansion fan is
generated at the rim of the exit, which propagates to the other
Communicated by D. Zeitoun. side of the jet and reflects off the free boundary as a com-
pression. This converges into a conical shock wave before
N. Menon · B. W. Skews (B) reaching the centre of the jet, resulting in a Mach reflec-
School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Aeronautical Engineering,
tion with its associated Mach disk, reflected wave, and shear
University of the Witwatersrand, PO WITS,
Johannesburg 2050, South Africa layer. The computed and experimental flows using the tech-
e-mail: [email protected] niques described in Sect. 2 below show the corresponding

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176 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Z Z

bulb shock reflected shock

compression wave normal shock
X X
cross-over point

oblique shock

barrel shock

Y Y

Fig. 2 Three-dimensional section view of the shock structure along

the two symmetry planes of an elliptical jet flow field as proposed by
Verma and Rathakrishnan [17]

through an angle of 45◦ resulting in a cross section transposed

with the nozzle exit profile.
Menon and Skews [7] used the Laser Vapor Screen flow
visualisation technique to capture ’slices’ of the flow field of
an underexpanded jet issuing from a square nozzle. These
were the first experimental findings of the near field flow
structure of the underexpanded jet, and the images were uti-
lised to construct a virtual model of the shock surfaces within
Fig. 1 Wave pattern, and computed and experimental shadowgraphs the jet flow field. They established that the jet behaved as an
for an axisymmetric sonic nozzle at a pressure ratio PR = 2 overexpanded jet along the diagonal plane. The origin of the
incident shock wave along the central planes of the jet was
observed to occur some distance downstream of the nozzle
flow field. Using the method of characteristics [11] showed exit. Along the diagonal plane of the nozzle; however, the
how the point of origin of the shock wave within the jet and incident shock wave originated from the corners of the noz-
the shape of the shock wave formation could be obtained zle exit. Numerical studies have shown that the flow field
through theoretical means. may be accurately predicted [8].
There is limited literature on the detailed structure of the More structural data is available in the literature on ellip-
wave system in the near field of an underexpanded rectan- tical jets. Rajakuperan and Ramaswamy [12] computed the
gular jet. Much of the work has concentrated on studies of near field structure of an underexpanded jet from elliptic
screech tones, spreading characteristics, flapping, and shock nozzles. This revealed the overall flow features of the jets
cell lengths [2,4,10,14,18], but only a few give some insight including the differential jet spreading in the planes of sym-
into the nature of the wave system within the jet. metry and the axis switching. They also captured the pres-
Teshima [16] explored underexpanded jets from rectan- ence of a barrel type incident shock in the major axis plane
gular nozzles over a wide range of aspect and pressure ratios and the absence of it in the minor axis plane. The cross-
(PR) using laser-induced fluorescence for visualisation. The sectional shape of the jet was observed to change consid-
main interest was in the transition that was found between erably along the axial direction with the formation of fine
regular and Mach reflection of the incident waves. Loh et al. finger-like structures that were formed as a result of second-
[5] performed computational studies on rectangular jets and ary flows resembling longitudinal vortex structures. Verma
obtained reasonable agreement with the experimental data of and Rathakrishnan [17] investigated the effect of jet efflux
Raman [14]. The work concentrated on the numerics rather Mach number on the acoustic field of a elliptic jet having
than the physics of the flow, and, other than some snapshots an aspect ratio (AR) of 2 experimentally and visualised the
of the flow field in the major and minor axis planes did not flow in both the major and minor planes. The reflected com-
explore the marked differences. A detailed computational pression waves from the jet boundary coalesced to form a
study on the structure of an underexpanded jet from a rectan- cross-over point. The lack of the compression waves on the
gular nozzle was performed by Rao and Abdol-Hamid [15]. minor axis plane is attributed to the dissimilar growth rates of
It was observed that the boundary grew quite rapidly in the the jet along the two planes. A three-dimensional (3D) shock
minor axis plane and that the corners of the original rectan- structure was proposed as shown in Fig. 2.
gular jet get rounded due to the process of turbulent mixing. Menon and Skews [8] numerically investigated the flow
In the case of the square jet, it was observed that the jet turns from elliptical nozzles with AR of 2 and 4, and PR of 2

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Non-axisymmetric jet structure 177

Jet boundary in the major axis plane

Incident barrel shock
Reflected shock
Normal shock
Pd

Shock formed in the minor axis plane

(to make minor axix plane flow
compatable with the high pressure Pd)
Compression waves
Jet boundary in the minor axix plane

Fig. 3 Conjectured shock structure of underexpanded jets from slot

nozzles by Rajakuperan and Ramaswamy [13]
Fig. 4 Overall view of the experimental facility, and examples of the
and 3. The most obvious feature of the flow was the pres- three nozzle formats
ence of the normal shock within the jet flow. The size of
the Mach disk was seen to increase as the AR of the nozzle Table 1 Dimensions of all the nozzles
was increased and its orientation showed axis switching. The
Aspect ratio (AR) Major axis ( mm) Minor axis ( mm)
presence of a shock wave originating close to the nozzle lip
along the major axis plane was noted. The Mach disk was 1 10 10
noted to have a marked upstream curvature and that in the 1.5 12 8
case of the smaller AR, it was elongated in the minor axis 2 14 7
plane. 3 18 6
There is limited experimental knowledge on the behav- 4 20 5
iour of underexpanded jets issuing from slot nozzles. Raja-
kuperan and Ramaswamy [13] performed a series of detailed
experiments on slot jets. Besides visualisation, pitot pressure
measurements were made. They presented a proposed shock 2 Experimental and computational issues
structure in the near field of the jet as shown in Fig. 3, but
suggested it be treated with caution. It was observed that the 2.1 Experimental facilities
strong barrel-type incident shocks emerged almost from the
nozzle lip along the major axis plane. The incident shock The nozzle test assembly consisted of a settling chamber,
thus formed underwent a Mach reflection for most of the made out of mild steel tubing, having an inner diameter of
PR tested and is similar to what is present in an axisym- 102 mm, a thickness of 6 mm, and a length of 2 m. It was
metric jet. The shock structure in the minor axis plane was supplied with air from a large reservoir in turn supplied from
observed to be similar for the nozzle of AR of 1.4, but was a compressor through an air dryer. A pressure port was fitted
different for all other AR. The incident shock was absent where both static and dynamic pressure were measured. The
for AR >1.4, even though the presence of the normal shock nozzles are clamped onto the end of the settling chamber as
similar to the Mach disk and oblique shocks resembling the indicated in Fig. 4. The dimensions of the nozzles that were
reflected shocks were observed. The axis switching location constructed and tested are given in Table 1.
was observed to vary with both pressure and AR. It was noted The assembled nozzle test rig is shown in Fig. 4 together
that in the major axis plane, the shock structure resembled with typical nozzle examples viewed from the inlet side. The
an axisymmetric underexpanded jet, but in the minor axis square and rectangular nozzles were constructed in a differ-
plane, the barrel shock was not present although an oblique ent manner to that of the slot and the elliptical nozzles. The
shock resembling a reflected shock was present. The PR had a square nozzle is constructed out of four independent alu-
significant effect on the jet spreading characteristic along the minium sections that are located together with dowel pins
minor axis plane, but only a marginal effect on the major axis and bolts. The nozzle has a contoured inlet. The elliptic and
plane. It was suggested that the axis switching is not influ- slot nozzles were also constructed from aluminium and were
enced by the higher spreading but by an instability within machined with a 45◦ bevel on the inlet side. The effect that
the jet. The cross-sectional shapes of the jets from the slot inlet geometry has on the external flow was first noted by
nozzles varied significantly along the length of the jet. For Addy [1]. The influence for the current nozzles has been
the nozzles with AR = 2, the jet cross-section was noted to be treated by Menon and Skews [9]. It is shown that there are
almost circular at the axis switching location. Further down- effects on cell length, Mach stem size, and other dimensions
stream, the jet was noted to be elliptic in cross-section with but that there is limited influence on the global topology as
the major axis of the jet now on the minor axis of the nozzle described in the current work. The radius of the circular sec-
and vice versa. tions of the slot nozzles were maintained at 5 mm. The flat

123
178 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Fig. 5 Computational domain

section on each nozzle was varied to achieve the appropriate

AR.
A standard folded contact shadowgraph system was used Fig. 6 Comparison of experiment and computed flood plots for axi-
to visualise the flow fields. Imaging was on ISO 400 film symmetric sonic jets with pressure ratios of 3. Top left experiment, top
with a shutter speed of 250 ms. right Spallart–Allmaras, bottom left K −, bottom right K –ω

2.2 Computational issues exhausts into is at atmospheric pressure, which for the pur-
poses of the analysis presented in this paper is at 101,325 kPa.
The simulations of the free jet cases were done using the The outer walls of the nozzles are modeled as zero slip walls,
Computational Fluid Dynamics solver Fluent 6.1.22©. The to prevent formation of an outer boundary that could influ-
pre-processing tasks such as the CAD model development, ence the formation of the jet boundary from the nozzle inlet.
and the generation of the mesh was performed with Gambit©. In order to get sonic conditions at the nozzle exit the
The computational domain for the simulations is displayed theoretical ratio of exit pressure to stagnation pressure of
in Fig. 5. The extents of the computational domain are 0.52828 was used for the domain pressure outlet condition
100 mm in the direction of the jet flow (x-axis), and 50 mm of 101,325 Pa. Thus, the stagnation pressure inlet conditions
each in the orthogonal directions to the jet flow (y- and z- for the domain were 383,604 and 575,405 Pa for the PR of 2
axes). There are two planes of geometric and flow symmetry and 3, respectively. Inlet and outlet temperatures were set at
that exists in underexpanded supersonic jet flow simulations. 300 K.
Hence, only a quarter of the complete flow field is modeled The coupled solver with a 2nd order discretisation scheme
allowing for a more optimal use of computational resources was utilised to develop the solution. Four levels of refine-
available. The planes of symmetry are identified by the sur- ment were used with adaptation based on the gradient of
faces with black edges in Fig. 5. These are the surfaces that density.
lie on the planes, x–y and x–z. The nozzle inlet is located at The choice of a turbulence model was made by simulat-
5 mm into the computational domain to allow for the devel- ing an axisymmetric free jet operating at the chosen PR of 2
opment of the flow field in the ambient medium around the and 3, and comparing the results with corresponding experi-
nozzle and the jet issuing from the nozzle. The outermost sur- ments. Three standard turbulence models that are fairly well
faces of the domain are modeled as pressure boundaries as understood and established in the literature were evaluated
Fluent is capable of handling inflow and outflow through the for their appropriateness to model the jet flow fields. These
same boundary. The nozzle inlet boundary condition is mod- are the K –, the K –ω, and the Spallart–Allmaras models.
eled as a pressure inlet boundary condition where the total The comparison in the case of a PR of 3 is shown in Fig. 6.
pressure, the static pressure and the static temperature have to The three models predict the shape of the viscous dominated
be specified. Pressure outlet boundary conditions require the jet boundary very well, with all three models predicting an
specification of a static (gauge) pressure at the outlet bound- almost identical shape. The shock wave and expansion sys-
ary. The value of the specified static pressure is used only tem within the jet flow field are predominantly inviscid inter-
while the flow is subsonic. Should the flow become locally actions with viscous effects not being dominant. The K – and
supersonic, the specified pressure will no longer be used; K –ω models tend to distort the shock system within the jet
pressure will be extrapolated from the flow in the interior. and the experimental flow is not well predicted. The Spall-
All other flow quantities are extrapolated from the interior. art–Allmaras model resolves the shock system very well for
The pressure in the ambient domain into which the jet flow both PR tested and correlates well with the experiments.

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Non-axisymmetric jet structure 179

The variation of pressure, temperature, and Mach num-

ber along the axis of the jet for the three turbulence models
were also compared as shown in Fig. 7. The presence of the
Mach reflection within the jet only occurs with the Spallart–
Allmaras model. The isentropic expansion of the gas within
the jet as well as the reflected compression waves are well
modeled by all models. The Spallart–Allmaras turbulence
model is hence used for all the simulations presented due to
the correct modeling of the shock wave system.
The experimental image of the under expanded jet flow
field shows that the shear layers emanating from the locus of
triple points at the normal shock wave form a converging–
diverging nozzle. The subsonic flow through this “nozzle”
is accelerated to sonic conditions downstream of the normal
shock wave. The S–A model resolves this flow phenomenon
as can be seen in the reduction in Mach number downstream
of the normal shockwave, followed by the increase to super-
sonic conditions. This is also confirmed by the increase in
static pressure downstream of the normal shock wave fol-
lowed by an isentropic expansion of the gas through the noz-
zle formed by the shear layers. The K – and K –ω models
are unable to resolve this flow feature.

3 Square and rectangular nozzles

Nozzles with sharp corners exhibit features not found in axi-

symmetric nozzles, particularly relating to the formation of
shock waves right at the corners.

3.1 Square nozzles

Underexpanded jets from non-axisymmetric nozzles are

characterised by a complex interaction of shock waves and
expansion waves with each other and with the jet boundary
which encloses them. Images of the flow field of underex-
panded jets issuing from a square nozzle are shown in Fig. 8
for PR of 2 and 3. The features along the major axis plane of
the square (both orthogonal axes being the same) is markedly
similar to the flow field from an axisymmetric jet at the same
PR as seen in Fig. 1. The jet flow expands into the ambient
medium upon exiting the nozzle due to the positive pressure
differential, and expansion fans originating at the nozzle exit
also propagate outwards with the expanding jet. The expan-
sion fans reflect off the jet boundary as compression waves,
which then coalesce downstream of the nozzle exit to form
shock waves. These shock waves can be seen on the major
axes in Fig. 8 and originate some distance downstream of the
nozzle exit. The incident shock waves converge onto each
other from opposites sides of the flow field and reflect in an
irregular manner, to form a small Mach reflection in the case Fig. 7 Comparison of the axial variation of pressure, temperature and
of the lower PR flow field and a significantly larger Mach Mach number for the three turbulence models. Red Spallart–Allmaras,
stem in the case of the higher PR. green K ω, blue K 

123
180 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Expansion fan
Reflected shock/boundary
interaction

Shear layer
Mach disk
(a) (g)

Reflected
shock
Incident
shock

Jet boundary
(b) (h)

Reflected shock
Shear layer

Mach
disk
(c) (i)
Jet
boundary

Incident
shock
Reflected shock/boundary
interaction (d) (j)
Fig. 8 Identification of features in a sonic jet issuing from a square
nozzle. Top pair of images PR = 2, bottom pair PR = 3. Top image of
each pair major axis plane, bottom image diagonal plane

The reflected shock wave that originates from the triple (e) (k)
line (the periphery of the Mach disk) also propagates down-
stream of the nozzle exit until is reflects at the jet bound-
ary. This line of reflection is identified in Fig. 8. The flow
field along the diagonal axis of the square nozzle is where
the three-dimensionality of the flow becomes apparent. The
incident shock wave originates at the nozzle exit, unlike the (f) (l)
case along the major axes where the incident shock wave
originated some distance downstream. This incident shock Fig. 9 Computed cross-sections of jets from a square nozzle. Left
column PR = 2, right column PR = 3
wave also propagates downstream and reflects in an irregu-
lar manner forming a Mach stem.
Figure 9 shows the cross-sectional schlieren image slices regular in nature, the reflection in the higher PR is irregular
of the flow field developed from the numerical simulation. with a Mach stem being present between the incident shock
It is clear from Fig. 9b, h that the incident shock wave does wave and the reflected portion of the incident shock wave.
originate at the corners of the nozzle exit. The intersection The incident shock surface hence consists of the incident
of the incident shock wave at the major axis planes is what shock wave from the corners of the nozzle exit (henceforth
is observed experimentally to be the origin of the incident referred to as the incident corner shock wave), the Mach stem
shock wave along the major axis plane. This is why it appears portion of the incident shock wave (henceforth referred to as
to originate some distance downstream of the nozzle exit for the Mach corner shock wave) and the reflected portion of the
both PR that have been tested. The appearance of the incident incident shock wave (henceforth referred to as the reflected
shock wave in the major axis view is in fact a reflection of corner shock wave). Hence, the incident shock wave that
these incident corner waves as can be seen in Fig. 9e, k. The is observed experimentally along the major axis plane is in
reflection of the incident shock wave produces a reflected fact a Mach stem on the incident shock wave surface. The
wave, which propagates toward the jet boundary. While in reflected shock wave that is formed in both cases appears to
the case of the lower PR nozzle, this reflection appears to be be near circular in cross-section. The jet boundary in both

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Non-axisymmetric jet structure 181

cases are also very different in that the jet boundary at the
higher PR is more distorted downstream of the nozzle exit
from its original cross-sectional shape of that of a square (this
is discussed in greater detail later). The shear layers from the
Mach stem in the case of the higher pressure jet flow field
appear to converge on themselves, and this is also observed
in the cross-sectional slices of the flow field in Fig. 9. These
shear layers form a converging duct through which the flow
through the Mach stem (subsonic immediately downstream
of the Mach stem) will be accelerated to sonic conditions.
This phenomenon is confirmed by the formation of a normal
shock wave in the diagonal plane downstream of the initial
Mach reflection in the flow field.
The cross-sectional shape of the Mach reflection in the
case of the lower PR of 2, is square, as the incident shocks
from the corners of the nozzle have reflected in a regular man-
ner along the major axes of the nozzle flow field. The shape
of the square is however offset by 45◦ to the orientation of the
nozzle exit (Fig. 9c, i). The Mach reflection that occurs along
the direction of the jet flow has a octagonal shape (Fig. 9j)
in the case of the jet with a PR of 3 as a result of the conver-
gence of the incident shock wave system (which comprises
of four sections of the incident shock wave that originated at
the four corners of the nozzle exit, and four Mach reflection
portions that propagate along the major axes planes of the Fig. 10 3-dimensional representation of the flow field for the underex-
panded jet from a square nozzle. Top PR = 2, bottom PR = 3. Iso-surfaces
nozzle). of density gradient
3D representations of the flow fields from a square nozzle
are shown in Fig. 10. The representation is generated from
iso-surfaces of the gradient of density from the numerical
simulation. From these the formation and development of
the incident shock surface is evident for both cases.
In Fig. 8, there are two hitherto unexplained waves pres-
ent immediately downstream of the Mach reflection of the
incident corner shock system. These waves can be identi-
fied when considering the 3D representation of the flow in
Fig. 11. Along the major axes and the diagonal axes the addi-
tional waves behind the Mach stem are the intersection of the
reflected corner shocks with the main reflected shock. Along
the major axes these lines of intersection appear to diverge
from each other, while along the diagonal axes they converge.
The lines of intersection are apparent in the 3D representation
of the flow field. Fig. 11 Explanation of additional flow features seen in the experimen-
tal images, PR = 3
3.2 Rectangular nozzles
dent shock wave along the major axis plane originates some
The flow field within the underexpanded jet issuing from a distance downstream of the nozzle exit. The incident shock
nozzle of AR 1.5 is found to be similar to that of the square wave undergoes a Mach reflection forming a three shock sys-
nozzle and is not discussed here. tem comprising of the incident shock wave, the Mach stem
The experimental images for an underexpanded jet issu- and the reflected shock wave for all PR that have been inves-
ing from a rectangular nozzle having an AR of 2 is given in tigated. The incident shock wave is straight in the lower PR
Fig. 12. The characteristics of the flow field along the major case and develops a curvature toward the jet centre-line as
axis planes of the two nozzles are similar to that observed in the PR increases. This phenomenon was also noted in the
the square jet case described earlier. As in that case the inci- case of the square nozzle.

123
182 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Fig. 13 Minor axis plane images for an AR = 2 nozzle. Top PR = 2,

bottom PR = 3

Fig. 12 Identification of features seen in the experimental images for On increasing the PR there are two differences that are
a nozzle aspect ratio of 2. Top PR = 2, bottom PR = 3, upper minor axis identified compared to the case of the lower PR. These are
plane, lower major axis plane that the reflection of the incident shock waves (also originat-
ing from the corners of the nozzle) is irregular along the major
The presence of an incident shock wave is not observed axis plane as was the case of the square nozzle at the same PR.
along the minor axis in Fig. 12. In the numerical simulation The formation of the three shock system (comprising of the
in Fig. 13, the incident wave is not completely formed, but is incident shock wave, the reflected corner shock wave and the
a collection of compression waves. The incident shock wave Mach corner shock wave) with associated shear layers can be
along the minor axis plane of the jet is significantly weaker clearly seen in Fig. 14k. The incident shock system reflects
than along the major axis plane. along the minor axis at 23 mm downstream of the nozzle exit,
The cross-sectional slices of the flow field for the two forming the incident shock wave seen in the numerical sim-
PR shown in Fig. 14 show the formation of the incident ulation in Fig. 13. The incident shock wave is weaker after it
shock wave at the corners of the nozzle exit as in the case reflects along the major axis plane as in the case of the lower
of the square nozzle. The incident shock waves reflect off PR. The Mach reflection that is observed in Fig. 12 can be
each other along the major axis plane of the nozzle. At the seen in cross-section in Fig. 14k. The Mach disk in this case
lower PR the reflection is regular in nature and the incident is hexagonal in shape as compared to the octagonal shape
shock wave weakens downstream of the reflection while the seen in the square nozzle for the same PR. The formation of
reflected shock wave (now curved toward the nozzle corners) the hexagonal Mach disk is as a result of the regular reflec-
gains in strength. The lack of the incident shock wave on the tion of the incident shock wave along the minor axis plane.
minor axis plane may be understood from Fig. 14e, where just The shear layers formed from this reflection are closed and
before the incident shock wave system undergoes a reflec- appear to curl onto themselves along the minor axis plane
tion in the direction of the jet flow, the incident shock has not of the nozzle. The shear layers take on a dumb-bell shape
reflected along the minor axis plane. The incident shock sys- (Fig. 14l). The reflected shock wave that is formed takes on
tem reflects in an irregular manner forming a Mach stem that an elliptical cross-section with switched axes as can be seen
is flanked on either side by two reflected shock waves as seen in the same figure.
in Fig. 14f. This is confirmed by the presence of shear layers 3D representations of the flow field are shown in Fig. 15
extending between the two Mach stems across the centre of based on the variation in the density gradients in the numer-
the nozzle, and not forming a closed system as seen in the ical simulations. The incident corner shock wave, the Mach
case of the square nozzle. corner shock wave, and the reflected corner shock wave are

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Non-axisymmetric jet structure 183

Fig. 15 3-dimensional representation of the flow field for the under-

expanded jet from a rectangular nozzle, AR = 2. Top PR = 2, bottom
PR = 3

Fig. 14 Computed cross-sections of jets from a rectangular nozzle,

AR = 2. Left PR = 2, right PR = 3

all clearly observed in both cases. The locus of the triple

point signifying the intersection of the Mach corner shock
wave, the incident corner shock wave and the reflected cor-
ner shock wave along the minor axis plane can also be seen
in the experimental image (see Fig. 12).
Increasing the AR to 4 results in flow features that are qual-
Fig. 16 Shadowgraph images of the flow field in a free jet issuing from
itatively similar to that observed in the AR 2 case. The inci- a rectangular nozzle, AR = 4. Top pair of images PR = 2, bottom pair
dent shock wave is not observed along the minor axis plane in PR = 3. Large images Major axis plane, small images minor axis plane
both PR that were tested (Fig. 16). The incident shock wave
originating downstream of the nozzle exit is observed in the than the incident shock wave. In the higher PR case, the Mach
major axis plane only. The incident shock wave undergoes stem is not as large as in the case of the lower PR. The Mach
an irregular reflection forming a Mach stem, and a reflected stem in this case is also curved outward in the direction of
shock wave. The Mach stem formed in the lower PR case the flow. The shear layers from the triple point propagate
is greater than the width of the minor axis of the nozzle. downstream of the Mach reflection.
The Mach stem has a pronounced outward curvature in the In the cross-sectional slices of the flow field in Fig. 17 the
direction of the flow. Shear layers from the triple point of the formation and the development of the shock wave system
reflection are not visible in the experimental shadowgraph can be observed. In the lower PR case, the incident shock
for the lower PR case where the incident shock wave appears wave from the nozzle corner reflects along the major axis
to form a single continuous wave with the Mach stem. The plane, and rapidly loses strength, with the reflected portion
reflected shock wave that is formed is considerable weaker of the incident shock wave gaining in strength downstream

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184 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Fig. 18 3-dimensional representation of the flow field for the underex-

panded jet from a rectangular nozzle, AR = 4. Left PR = 2. Right PR = 3

expanded. Expansion fans are generated at each edge of the

nozzle exit, and they propagate downstream. The pressure
across the expansion fan is such that it equalises the high
Fig. 17 Rectangular nozzle, cross-sectional numerical schlieren
pressure at the nozzle exit with the lower pressure of the
images downstream of the nozzle exit, AR = 4. Left column PR = 2. ambient surrounding. This phenomenon occurs at each edge
Right column PR = 3 of the nozzle exit. At the corners of the nozzle though, the
two expansion fans from the orthogonal edges at the corner
of the nozzle exit. For this case the cross-sectional slices cut cross over each other, and the resulting pressure is lower than
through the Mach reflection due to its pronounced curvature. that of the ambient medium. Hence a shock wave develops to
This is evident in Fig. 17d where the Mach reflection has provide the pressure equalisation that is needed. This shock
occurred. The occurrence of the Mach reflection can be dis- wave propagates downstream and forms the incident shock
cerned from the presence of the reflected shock wave (seen wave identified in the preceding discussion.
as a small curved wave between the reflection and the jet
boundary). The case of the increasing PR is similar to that of
the AR 2 nozzle, with the irregular reflection of the incident 4 Nozzles with curved profiles
shock waves as observed in Fig. 17j. The shear layers from
this reflection appear to close up and form an enclosed tube- Common nozzles in this category are elliptical and slot noz-
like structure. The Mach reflection consists of Mach stems zles as described in Sect. 2. Although the profiles are similar
flanked by reflected shock waves. the flow fields can be quite different. They will thus be dis-
The 3D representations of the flow fields are presented cussed together in order to contrast the differences.
in Fig. 18. Additional waves that have been observed in the
experimental image along the major axis plane (Fig. 16) have 4.1 Elliptical and slot nozzles
been identified as being the reflection of the reflected corner
shock wave on the jet boundary. The experimental images of the flow fields issuing from
elliptical and slot jets having AR of 2 at PR of 2 and 3
3.3 The formation of the corner shock are shown in Fig. 19. The similarity between the ellipti-
cal and the slot nozzle is in the minor axis plane where in
The complex interactions that occur are largely because of both cases the formation of an incident shock wave is not
the development of the shock wave that arises at the nozzle observed. Along the major axis planes, however, an inci-
corners in the above cases even though the nozzle is under- dent shock wave is observed to originate downstream of the

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Non-axisymmetric jet structure 185

Fig. 19 Experimental shadow images for AR = 2. Top four images

elliptical nozzle, bottom four slot nozzle. Top pairs PR = 2, bottom
pairs PR = 3. Left column minor axis plane. Right column major axis
plane

Fig. 20 Shadow images for AR = 4. Top four images elliptical nozzle,

nozzle exit. The incident shock wave propagates downstream bottom four slot nozzle. Top pairs PR = 2, bottom pairs PR = 3. Left
and reflects in a regular manner in the case of the elliptical column minor axis plane. Right column major axis plane
nozzle and in an irregular manner in the case of the slot noz-
zle, forming a Mach reflection with a small Mach stem. The
Mach stem is not easily visible due to its size but its pres- on the minor axis plane. The Mach stem on the minor axis
ence is inferred from the shear layers emanating from the plane of the nozzle is larger than in the major axis plane for
reflection point. The formation of the incident shock wave both slot and elliptical jets. This shows that the cross-section
along the major axis plane and the lack of an incident shock of the Mach stem has switched axes as compared to the axes
wave along the minor axis plane has been reported before of the nozzle exit. The width of the reflected shock wave on
by Rajakuperan and Ramaswamy [13] for the case of slot the minor axis is also larger than in the major axis plane for
jets, and by Rajakuperan and Ramaswamy [12] and Verma both nozzles. This suggests that the jet boundary is wider in
and Rathakrishnan [17] in the case of elliptical jets. the minor axis plane than in the major axis plane at the point
Increasing the PR results in the flow fields shown in the where the reflected shock wave intersects with it. Compar-
images in Fig. 19. Along the major axis planes the flow field ing the reflected shock wave in the slot jet to the elliptical jet,
for the elliptical and the slot jets look similar to each other, along the minor axis the reflected shock wave is much wider
and also similar to the case of axisymmetric jets. The incident at the point where it meets the jet boundary. Hence the jet
shock wave formed along the major axis plane of the nozzle boundary width for the slot nozzle is greater along the minor
flow field is curved inwards into the jet flow, and the reflection axis plane than for the case of the elliptical nozzle (this is
of the incident shock wave is irregular in nature. The Mach confirmed and explained in greater detail in Sect. 5).
stem height is significantly larger than that observed for the Increasing the AR results in the flow fields displayed in
case of the slot jet at the lower PR. Along the minor axis Fig. 20. The flow field along the minor axis planes of the AR
plane of the nozzle, the incident shock wave is significantly 4 nozzle for the lower and higher PR cases looks strikingly
weaker that along the major axis plane. While its presence, as similar to that observed in the case of the rectangular nozzle.
in the case of the slot nozzle, is not easily observed as com- The absence of an incident shock wave is observed in both
pared to the major axis plane flow field, the incident shock the elliptical and the slot jets for both PR. The reflected shock
wave is present from the fact that a Mach reflection occurs wave spans the width of the flow field for both the elliptical

123
186 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

Fig. 22 Flow cross-sections for an aspect ratio, AR = 4, for elliptical

and slot nozzles at pressure ratios of 2 and 3

shock wave that is formed in both cases along the major axis
plane of the nozzle has the curvature as that of the nozzle exit.
In the case of the elliptical nozzle, the incident shock wave
propagates downstream and retains its curvature as it under-
Fig. 21 Flow cross-sections for an aspect ratio, AR = 2, for elliptical
and slot nozzles at pressure ratios of 2 and 3 goes the irregular reflection. The Mach stem that is formed is
also elliptical in shape, but with its axes switched to be oppo-
site to that of the nozzle exit (Fig. 21d). The reflected shock
wave that is formed is also elliptical in cross-section. The
and the slot nozzles. There is no evidence of any other waves
incident shock wave, in the case of the slot nozzle, retains its
(apart from Mach lines produced by imperfections along the
curvature similar to that of the nozzle exit immediately after
nozzle inlet face) between the nozzle exit and the reflected
its formation. At 13 mm downstream of the nozzle exit, the
shock wave for the lower PR. Along the major axis plane of
incident shock wave undergoes a Mach reflection along its
the nozzle, the incident shock wave undergoes an irregular
cross-section, breaking up into a three shock system as can be
reflection forming a Mach stem, and a reflected shock wave.
seen in Fig. 21c, d. The incident shock system (now compris-
The Mach stem appears to be of similar height in the case
ing of the three shock waves) undergoes a Mach reflection
of the slot and the elliptical nozzle. The shape of the shear
along the jet axis forming a Mach stem and reflected shock
layers are, however, very different. The shear layers from
wave that has an elliptical cross-section.
the elliptical nozzle stay parallel and diverge downstream
In the higher AR cases presented in Fig. 22, the transition
of the Mach reflection, whereas the shear layers in the case
to Mach reflection along the incident shock wave is observed
of the slot nozzle converge downstream of the nozzle exit.
for both PR and nozzle exit shapes. In the lower PR cases the
The cross-sectional slices of the elliptical and slot jet flow
three shock system formed after the incident shock wave has
fields are presented in Figs. 21 and 22. Comparing the cross-
transitioned into a Mach reflection is not easily visible. The
sections of the flow field for the lower PR case, there is very
waves that are encountered are similar to those discussed ear-
little difference between the two except for the shape of the
lier. The 3D representations of the flow fields are displayed
jet boundary. The shape of the reflected shock wave is dif-
in Fig. 23.
ferent as it meets the jet boundary due to the shape of the jet
boundary. The cross-sectional shape of the reflected shock
wave is elliptical in both cases, with the axes of the reflected 4.2 Incident shock wave formation in elliptical and slot jets
shock wave cross-section being opposite to that of the nozzle
exit. The origin of the incident shock wave on the major axis in
For the higher PR case in Fig. 21, there are significant dif- the case of elliptical and slot jets is the same as that for axi-
ferences in the flow fields that are not easily noted in the shad- symmetric jets. The characteristics that originate from the jet
owgraph experimental images presented earlier. The incident boundary coalesce to form the incident shock wave as was

123
Non-axisymmetric jet structure 187

Fig. 24 Sonic surfaces within the jet boundary of underexpanded rect-

angular sonic jets. Left column PR = 2, right column PR = 3. Aspect
Fig. 23 3-dimensional representations of the flow fields for elliptical ratios from top to bottom: AR = 1, 2, and 4
and slot nozzles. Top four images AR = 2, bottom four AR = 4. Left
pairs PR = 2, right pairs PR = 3
jet boundary given in Fig. 24, the flow direction is from the
top left of each image to the bottom right.
conjectured by [3] (and indicated in Fig. 1). As the radius of
curvature of the nozzle exit decreases (along the major axis
plane) the characteristics merge together to form the shock 5.1 Square and rectangular nozzles
wave in the same manner in which a barrel shock is formed
in an axisymmetric jet. Along the major axis plane the jet The jet boundary in the square nozzle at the lower PR has a
boundary expands less than along the minor axis plane, hence square cross-sectional shape as it exits the nozzle, and this is
the characteristics converge first along the major axis plane similar for the other nozzles with increasing AR at the same
of the nozzle as has been observed. The incident shock wave PR. The jet boundary is not markedly distorted and assumes
propagates downstream and across into the jet flow field. In a shape as one would intuitively expect it to be, based on the
elliptical jets as the AR increases the radius of curvature of shape of the nozzle. In the case of the square nozzle the jet
the minor axis increases hence delaying the onset of the for- boundary takes up a circular cross-section a short distance
mation of the incident shock wave on it. This also applies to downstream of the nozzle exit as seen in the 3-dimensional
slot jets where the curved ends of the nozzle exit are separated representation based on the ridge that is formed on its sur-
by straight sections. face (Fig. 24). This ridge denotes the position at which the
reflected shock wave intersects the jet boundary.
From the cross-sectional slices of the flow field in the
top row of Fig. 9 the only change in the jet structure is the
5 Jet boundary shapes in non-axisymmetric gradual curving of the edges. The appearance of a ridge is
underexpanded jets also observed in the increasing AR cases in Fig. 24. Though
unlike in the case of the square and AR 2 nozzles, the reflec-
The jet boundary in underexpanded jets is defined here to be tion line of the reflected shock wave on the jet boundary in
the surface on which the Mach number is unity within the the case of the AR 4 nozzle is not seen to extend around the
jet boundary. The reflection of any waves interacting with jet boundary. The shape of the jet boundary in the case of
the jet boundary occurs at the sonic surface within the jet the AR 2 nozzle also appears to be nearing a circular cross-
boundary. In all of the 3-dimensional representations of the section downstream of the reflection point of the reflected

123
188 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

shock wave. As in the case of the square nozzle at lower

PR the only effect on the jet boundary is the gradual cur-
vature of the edges of the jet boundary toward a circular
cross-sectional shape (Fig. 14). This is expected as there has
been evidence of jet flows from non-axisymmetric nozzles
approaching to near quasi-axisymmetry downstream of the
nozzle exit [8]. Hence as the AR increases, there is a nar-
rowing of the jet boundary downstream of the nozzle exit
along the major axis planes of the nozzle. In the case of the
AR 4 nozzle, the change of the jet cross-section to a circular
shape is not seen to occur. The jet boundary appears to take
a slot shape as can be seen from the left column of Fig. 17.
The narrow sides of the jet boundary are circular in cross-
section while the longer sides of the jet boundary remain
straight.
On increasing the PR to such an extent that the exit plane
pressure of the nozzle is three times that of the ambient con-
ditions, the shapes of the jet boundary are markedly different
from what is observed at lower PR. This is evident from Fig. 25 In-plane vector plot 15 mm downstream of the nozzle exit.
AR = 1, PR = 3
Figs. 9, 14, and 17. The defining feature in all three figures
is the narrowing of the jet boundary that can be seen along
for clarity. Within the enlarged portion of the vector plot the
the diagonal axes of the jet flow field.
flow from within the jet (bottom right corner) tends to flow
In the case of the square nozzle (Fig. 24), the jet boundary
outwards from the centre of the jet. The flow in the ambi-
appears to be expanding along the orthogonal axis planes of
ent medium is flowing toward the jet. Along the flat sides
the nozzle, whereas along the diagonal plane, the jet bound-
of the nozzle, these flows meet, forming a stagnation point
ary is pulled inwards into the jet flow field (see right column
along the jet boundary and the flows are diverted to be in the
in Fig. 9). The intersection of the reflected shock wave on
direction of the jet (out of the page in the figure). Along the
the jet boundary can also be seen in the 3-dimensional repre-
diagonal plane of the nozzle exit, the flow from the ambient
sentation of the jet boundary in Fig. 24. The cross-sectional
surroundings and from within the jet meet, and the flow in
shape of the reflected shock wave shown previously is as
the ambient medium is diverted to the sides, and not along
a result of the shape of the jet boundary. From the cross-
the direction of the jet. This sets up a recirculating zone that
sectional slices of the flow field in Fig. 9, the narrowing of
travels downstream along the jet boundary in the shape of a
the jet boundary along the diagonal plane of the nozzle is
conical spiral flow region increasing in diameter downstream
clear. The narrowing of the jet boundary occurs from the
of the corners of the nozzle. These vortices result in the nar-
moment the jet boundary originates at the nozzle exit.
rowing of the jet boundary along the diagonal plane, and the
In the cases of increasing AR the dominant feature is again
consequent diverging of the jet boundary along the major and
the narrowing of the jet boundary along the diagonal axis
minor axis planes. These vortices are generated at each cor-
of the nozzle. The shape of the jet boundary is a function of
ner of the nozzle exit, for all PR, but the effect of the vortex
the AR of the nozzle. Downstream of the nozzle exit the jet
on the jet boundary is only visible as the PR increases.
boundary that started out having the same width as that of
the minor axis of the nozzle is significantly narrower at the
minor axis as can be seen in the lower row of Fig. 14. The 5.2 Elliptical nozzles
jet boundary that originated at the major axis of the nozzle
is slightly curved in cross-section downstream of the noz- The jet boundaries in elliptical jets are characterised by the
zle exit. This lateral expansion is the dominant feature on switching of axes. In jets issuing from nozzle exits with an AR
increasing the AR of the nozzle exit to 4, as seen in Fig. 24 of 2, the cross-sectional shape of the jet boundary undergoes
and the bottom row in Fig. 17. an axis switch before the termination of the second shock cell
The narrowing of the jet boundary along the diagonal axis in all cases that have been simulated as part of this study. The
of the jets can be explained by considering the vector plot jet boundary has a smooth surface with the only discontinu-
in Fig. 25. The vectors are constructed such that they only ities on it being that when the internal shock waves intersect
display the in-plane velocities at a distance of 15 mm down- the jet boundary (see the first pair of images in Fig. 26).
stream of the nozzle exit (compare with the 16 mm case in The phenomenon of axis switching is even more pro-
Fig. 9). The vectors have also been sized to the same length nounced in its rapidity of occurrence when the PR is increased

123
Non-axisymmetric jet structure 189

Fig. 26 Sonic surface in the jet boundary for elliptical nozzles. Left
pair AR = 2, right pair AR = 4. For each pair PR = 2 on the left and
PR = 3 on the right Fig. 27 Sonic surface in the jet boundary for slot nozzles. Left pair
AR = 2, right pair AR = 4. For each pair PR = 2 on the left and PR = 3
as can be seen in the second column of Fig. 21. The jet bound- on the right
ary has reached a circular cross-section at a distance of 12 mm
The jet boundary contorts significantly as can be seen in the
downstream of the nozzle exit, and has assumed a completely
third column of Fig. 21. The jet cross-section also appears to
switched axis cross-section by 16 mm downstream of the
become symmetrical along the major and the minor axes. On
nozzle exit.
increasing the PR of the jet such that the exit plane pressure
Increasing the AR for a PR of 2 does not result in a vastly
of the nozzle is three times that of the ambient pressure, the
different shape of the jet boundary as can be observed in the
shape of the jet boundary is more distorted (see fourth col-
right pair of images in Fig. 26. The switching of the axis is
umn of Fig. 21). The jet boundary distorts less than 15 mm
similar to that in the case of the AR 2 nozzle at the same
downstream of the nozzle exit. The cross-sectional shape of
PR. The axis switching however does not occur as close to
the jet no longer resembles that of a slot, and is even more
the nozzle exit as in the case of the lower AR nozzle. The
greatly elongated in the minor axis plane of the nozzle.
switching of the axis occurs only 3–3.5 shock cells down-
The slot jets from larger AR nozzles as shown in the lower
stream of the nozzle exit (not shown in the figures). The
pair of images in Fig. 27 are very different to those of the
cross-sectional shape of the jet boundary does not seem to be
smaller AR nozzles. There is no evidence of axis switching
greatly influenced by the PR as seen in Fig. 22. The elliptical
occurring. The jet boundary begins to narrow along a diago-
cross-section transits smoothly to a circular cross-section.
nal axis of the jet cross-section as seen in Fig. 22. At higher
At the higher PR of 3, the larger AR nozzle does begin to
PR, the jet boundary cross-section begins to resemble that of
exhibit differences in the jet boundary shape as observed in
the rectangular jet for the same pressure and AR (Fig. 17). In
Fig. 26. The jet boundary is pulled inward into the jet flow
both cases, the portion of the jet boundary issuing from the
field quite sharply along the major axis plane of the nozzle,
straight section along the major axis remains straight down-
and along the minor axis plane of the nozzle close to the
stream of the nozzle exit. The narrowing of the jet boundary
intersection of the Mach stem with the jet boundary. This
along the diagonal plane is the defining characteristic of the
can clearly be seen in the cross-sectional slices of the flow
increased AR jet at the higher PR.
field in the second column of Figs. 21 and 22. The switching
of the axis is found to be complete in the images at the end
of the columns.
6 Conclusions
5.3 Slot nozzles
Underexpanded jets issuing from rectangular, elliptic and slot
For an AR of 2 there is not the switching of axis of the jet nozzles of AR of 2 and 4 under two different PR have been
boundary as was observed in the case of the elliptical nozzle. experimentally observed and numerically predicted.

123
190 N. Menon, B. W. Skews

In the case of rectangular jets, the interaction of the 2. Alkislar, M.B., Krothapalli, A., Lourenco, L.M.: Structure of a
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