CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcomes :

At the end of the chapter students should be able

1. Explain the hydrologic cycle.

2. Explain the importance of hydrology in agricultural development.
3. Eplain the different methods of economizing the use of water.

1.1 DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY

 The science of hydrology encompasses the behavior of water as it occurs

in the atmosphere, on the surface of the ground, and underground.

 In its broadest sense, hydrology is the study of water in all its phases and
includes hydraulics, the physics and chemistry of water, meteorology,
geology and biology.

 As used by scientists and engineers, the word hydrology usually has a

considerably narrower connotation and this is defined as that branch of
physical geography which is concerned with the origin, distribution,
movement and properties of the waters of the earth. The study of
hydrology thus concerns itself with the occurrence and transportation of
water through air, over the ground and through the strata of the earth and
this includes three important phases of what is known the hydrologic
cycle, namely: rainfall, runoff and evaporation.

 However, engineering hydrology includes those segments of hydrology

pertinent to the design and operation of engineering projects for the
control and use of water.

1.2 HYDROLOGY AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The most important uses of hydrology in agricultural development,

especially in the field of agricultural and water resources engineering, are in
the structural and hydraulic design of water control structures, irrigation and

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drainage systems, hydropower generation, flood control, erosion control and
pollution abatement.

1. Structural and Hydraulic Design

In any type of reservoir, provision must be made for passing flood

flows over or around the dam. The spillway section capacity, the height of
dam, downstream protection works, etc. depend on the correct assessment
of flood flow and routing. An underestimate may result an unsafe design
and an overestimate may lead to unnecessary expenditure.

2. Irrigation and Drainage Systems

The hydrologic problems in irrigation are similar to those in water

supply but on a larger scale. Today, we increasingly find ourselves
confronted with limiting conditions because of more ambitious program of
irrigation and complexities of the problem correspondingly increase. On
some rivers, water requirements to irrigate the available farmable land far
exceed the total flow and the downstream projects have to depend on return
flow from upstream projects. More and more, the hydrologist is called
upon to evaluate new projects in areas where the margin of safety is
already low or to discover new sources of water for projects in difficulty or
to develop more economical methods of water use.

On the other hand, because of the uncontrolled siltation in rivers,

streams and other bodies of water, flooding of prime agricultural areas,
especially ricelands, have been already frequently experienced during the
rainy season. To make these areas once again productive even during the
rainy months, flood waters should be drained. Hence, drainage systems
should be designed properly considering the hydrologic conditions in the
area.

3. Hydropower Generation

Hydrologic studies are essential to the planning of any water power

development and for many existing plants, the operating schedule is
dependent on a perpetual hydrologic inventory and prediction system. To
determine the feasibility of a “run-of-the-river” plant, operating with
pondage, just sufficient to tide over the peak demand hours of each day, a
reliable prediction is needed of the absolute minimum daily flow that may
be expected of the stream and of the percentage of time that various other
low rates of flow may be expected to exist. For the “storage plant”, low
seasonal flows rather than low daily flows are the important parameters and
reservoir drawdown studies must be made to determine the prime power

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 possibilities of the site and relative economics of various heights of dam
and capacities of turbine generator units.

4. Flood Control

Flood control projects range from small improvements such as

localized dredging or channel straightening to gigantic, basin-wide
development involving outlays of money. For such projects, it is necessary
first to analyze statistically the probable frequency of floods of various
magnitudes so that potential future flood losses may be predicted. Then, a
“design flood” must be synthesized and a variety of preliminary plans
prepared for works that might protect against it. After this, a number of the
more promising alternatives must be studied in detail, either analytically or
by means of hydraulic methods.

Closely allied to flood control is flood prediction. These forecasts

which achieve a remarkably high degree of accuracy are the joint work of
hydrologists and meteorologists.

5. Erosion Control

Erosion control is basically allied to the sedimentation of reservoirs,

the problem which affects reservoir operation and its life. Reservoir
sedimentation is a function of the quality of runoff water from watersheds.
The higher the rainfall intensity, the more soil sediments are carried by the
runoff water.

6. Pollution Abatement

The enormous growth of population and large scale industrialization

in many countries of the world have brought about many public health
problems, not the least important of which is that of the pollution of
streams. Many rivers downstream from cities have become open sewers
dangerous to public health and destructive of fish and other wild life and
natural beauty. Complete prevention of stream pollution, although possible
on some streams, is not economically feasible. It is here that the
hydrologist comes to the assistance of the sanitary engineers. A complete
stream pollution control study must include an investigation of stream
flow, particularly the magnitude and duration of low flows. In some
instances, the augmentation of low flows by means of reservoir, has proven
to be at least as important to the control of stream pollution as have
investments in additional sewage-treatment plants.

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1.3 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

 Hydrologic cycle is the descriptive term applied to the general circulation

of water from the seas to the atmosphere, to the ground and back to the
seas again. Beginning with evaporation from the water surfaces into the
atmosphere, the vapor condenses by various processes, causing
precipitation on the earth surface, of which a part is retained on land in the
soil, the surface depressions and on vegetation, and again returns to the
atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration and the balance does back
into the sea through devious surface and underground channels. A diagram
of the hydrologic cycle is shown in Fig. 1-1.

Fig. 1.1. The hydrologic cycle.

 The hydrologic cycle continuously keeps a balance between the water of

the earth and the moisture in the atmosphere. In order to better understand
the hydrologic cycle, we should know the meaning of the different
processes included in the cycle, as follows:

1. Evaporation – is the escape of water molecules from land and water

surfaces into the atmosphere in the gaseous form.

2. Transpiration – is the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.

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 3. Precipitation – is the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth’s
surface in any form.

4. Infiltration – the vertical entry of water into the earth’s surface.

5. Percolation – is the downward movement of water through the soil

profile beyond the rootzone depth.

6. Overland flow (surface runoff) – is that water which travels over the
ground surface to a stream or a surface depression.

7. Interflow – is that water which moves through the subsoil until it

reaches the stream or surface depression but at a much later time than
overland flow.

8. Base flow (dry-weather flow) – is that water coming from the

groundwater reservoir which eventually discharges into the streams if
the water table intersects the stream channels of the basin.

9. Seepage – is the movement of water in any direction through the pores

from a reservoir or irrigation canal into the soil or substrata outside the
water source.

10. Surface storage – is that portion of the precipitation which is stored on

depressions in the ground surface.

11. Soil water – is that water that is stored in the rootzone depth of plants.

12. Groundwater – is that water that occurs within the voids of the rocks
and underground geologic formations.

 The hydrologic cycle has some peculiarities as compared to other

atmospheric cycles, as follows:

1. An outstanding peculiarity of the hydrologic cycle is that water resource

is inexhaustible, in so far as it is available every year again and again,
though often varying in quantity from year to year, while maintaining a
fairly reliable average over a period of years.

2. Another peculiarity of this cycle is that the availability of water varies

geographically and periodically.

 The hydrologic cycle may be said to be determined by conditions of three

kinds:

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 1. The nature and application of the radiant energy from the Sun, that
keeps up the circulation.

2. The inherent properties of the material of circulation, i.e. of the water

itself.

3. The structure of the natural reservoirs and conduits, i.e. of the

atmosphere, the land surface, and the soil and rocks, which hold water
or conduct it in its course.

 An agricultural engineer has three major concerns in the hydrologic cycle,

as follows:

1. The maintenance of soil infiltrability in order to retard runoff or

overland flow and control erosion.

2. In irrigated areas, percolation losses should be cutoff and interflow

reduced.

3. Reduction of evaporation losses in croplands.

1.4 AVAILABILITY OF WATER

Plant and animal life cannot survive without water and air. With the
rapid growth of population and improvement in living standards, the
consumption of water is rapidly increasing. It is simply a question of time
when in most parts of the world, the available supplies of water will prove
inadequate. There is enough water in our seas and oceans; however, this sea
water contains about 3.5% sodium chloride plus small amounts of others
substances. It has been estimated that it will cost somewhere between five and
ten times to make sea water acceptable for industrial and agricultural uses as
compared with the cost of developing inland waters.

1.4.1 Types of Water Resources

The water resources of the world are of two kinds as follows:

1. Surface Water Resources. The waters of the earth and the moisture
in the atmosphere is continuously balanced by the hydrologic cycle.
The water resource is inexhaustible and it is always available ever
year again and again. However, its usefulness is limited by its
composition and availability. It is only the fresh waters which can
be utilized for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses.

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Furthermore, only a fraction of the fresh waters can be easily tapped
as shown in Table 1.1.

The quantity of precipitation from year to year varies from one

place to another. As a result, runoff volume varies also
geographically as given in Table 1.2. It will be observed that South
and North America are more favored with water than any of the
other continents of the world. Most of the arid areas lie in Asia,
Africa and Australia. Australia is the driest of all continents and the
Australians are genuinely worried about their growth.

Table 1.1. General Distribution of Earth’s Water Resources.

Type of Total Water Proportion of

Water (km3) Total Water Fresh Water
TOTAL 1,500,000,000 100
Salty 1,425,000,000 95
Fresh 75,000,000 5
FRESH
Frozen 60,000,000 4 80
Liquid 15,000,000 1 20
FRESH LIQUID
Groundwater 14,850,000 0.99 19.8
Soil water 30,000 0.002 0.04
River water 15,000 0.001 0.02
Atmospheric 15,000 0.001 0.02
Biological 7,500 0.0005 0.01
Lake 82,500 0.0055 0.11
SOURCE: Lecture Notes in Advanced Soil and Water Conservation Engineering by Dr.
Abraham A. Caoili.

Table 1.2. World Distribution of Runoff (According to

L’vovich)
Continents of the Total Land Runoff
World Area (km2) (cm)
Europe (Including Iceland) 9,680 26.2
Asia (Including Japanese & Phil. Islands) 42,300 17.0
Africa (Including Madagascar) 29,850 20.3
Australia (Including Tasmania & N. Zealand) 7,970 7.6
South America 17,928 45.0
North America (Including West Indies & C. America) 20,195 31.4
Greenland & Canadian Archipelago 3,880 18.0
Malayan Archipelago 2,620 16.0
TOTAL 131,423
AVERAGE 25.0
SOURCE: Engineering Hydrology by Varshney.

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 2. Groundwater Resources. Besides the surface water flowing in
rivers, there is the subsurface water which is derived from some
rainfall percolating into the porous subsoil under the influence of
gravity. This water is designated as groundwater, and the water
level of this subsurface water is known as water table. It conforms
in a general way to the surface of the ground above it, sloping in the
same direction but with less inclination. The groundwater level rises
and falls during the year, its height depending upon the amount of
percolation which is added to it during the different seasons. Thus,
the water table is at its highest soon after the end of the monsoon and
lowest just prior to the commencement of the monsoon.

The movement of groundwater is very slow because of the

greater frictional resistance which it has to overcome. The velocity
of groundwater may vary from 6 meters per day in coarse sand and
gravel with a steep gradient to about 3 meters per year in fine-
textured sand stones. Thus, the groundwater in sand and gravel
formations is a more important source of supply than in sand stones
and other rock formations.

The availability of groundwater varies from place to place,

depending upon precipitation and subsoil conditions. It is seldom
found economical to pump out groundwater from depths exceeding 5
meters, except where surface waters have already been developed to
the maximum economic limit. Where the water table rises to within
1.5 meters of the ground surface, water-logging develops and affects
the yield of crops due to efflorescent salts rising to the rootzone of
crops and due to lack of aeration. Such areas are particularly
suitable for groundwater development.

There is, however, a need to limit groundwater development.

Intensive development of groundwater has been accompanied by
marked subsidence of land surface and salt water intrusion. Land
subsidence created problems primarily related to construction and
maintenance of engineering structures. Salt water intrusion will also
affect the life of the foundation of buildings, aside from rendering
the groundwater non-utilizable for domestic and industrial uses.

1.4.2 Seasonal Distribution of Water

In monsoon countries like the Philippines, nearly 90% of the river

flow occurs during the monsoon months of September through

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 December; while during the remaining dry period, the small flow is fed
largely by seepage or very little rain. This seasonal distribution causes
floods and flood damage during the rainy season and scarcity of water
or drought during the dry period. Thus, the only remedy is to store
water during the excess period for controlled and regulated use
throughout the year.

1.4.3 Water Quality

Water availability is a function of both quantity and quality.

Most often, the required volume of water is available but its quality is
not acceptable, most especially when such water is to be utilized for
domestic and industrial uses.

The rapidly increasing demand for water by the human population

and the industries led to the universal clamor for higher water quality
standards. In general, two standards are being currently practiced: a
higher water quality standard for domestic use, and a lower water
quality standard for industrial uses. Water for domestic uses must be
free from impurities and any odor. In addition, it should be palatable
and colorless. Even a small trace of salt or a very light color will make
water unacceptable. On the other hand, the requirements for industrial
water is not so severe as for domestic water. However, water for
industrial use must be suitable for the special processes involved.

As regards to water for agricultural purposes, no regulations have

been laid down yet; however, such water must not contain objectionable
salts, solids and other substances, either dissolved or suspended in
excess of certain prescribed limits.

1.4.4 Methods of Economizing the Use of Water

In view of the shortage of economical dam sites for the storage

of surplus water during the monsoon months, it is necessary to take
early measures for economizing the use of water. Some of the
measures presently practiced are:

a. Reducing water allowance of crops, most of which at present

receive more than necessary for maximum yields. The popular
notion among inexperienced farmers that “More water, more
crops” should be corrected. This leads to inefficient and wasteful
application of water. The depth of water to be applied should be
determined correctly considering soil texture, structure and root-zone

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 depth. In most soils, with a rootzone depth of 1.2 meters, the
maximum water depth in a single irrigation should not exceed 15 to
17.5 cm.

b. Reducing losses in unlined canals amounting to over 33%.

Lining of canals substantially reduces absorption and seepage losses.
Designing canals for higher velocities leads to sufficient reduction in
canal section.

c. Reducing evaporation losses from reservoirs by use of chemicals.

Hexadecanol, a kind of wax, has been found to form, on a water
surface, a monomolecular film that is resistant to the action of dust
and wind and thus, suppresses evaporation. Coconut oil is also
under study and it is expected that its usage as evaporation
suppressant will be found economical. The use of chemicals,
however, is not yet promoted because of problems of availability
and economy. Further research should be done on the onsite and
offsite effects of these chemicals.

d. Reducing losses in industrial processing, cooling condensers of

steam plants, etc., by purification, recirculation, air cooling and
other devices. Research activities on methods to reduce water
losses in industrial systems should be intensified.

e. Drainage of marshy and water-logged lands. Marshy and water-

logged areas are adaptable to development of groundwater. Hence,
they should be drained in order to convert them from an unhealthy
and unsanitary place into a profitable area.

f. Research into the processes of purifying saline water. There is

already a technology to desalinize/purify saline or brackish water.
However, this is not yet economically feasible.

g. Relocation of industry to the sea coast, reserving the interior for

agriculture as far as economically feasible. Relocating the
industrial companies to the sea coast will lessen the pollution of the
land and water resources.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Illustrate and explain the flow of the hydrologic cycle.

2. Define and explain the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle.

3. What are the importance of Hydrology in Agricultural development

especially in the field of Agricultural and Civil Engineering?

4. What are the different methods and ways in economizing the use of water?

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