AN

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON
VLSI

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of

Technology degree of Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

2024-2025

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Ms. Bhawna Kalra MOHAK KHIMNANI
Assistant Professor & TPO B. Tech. VI SEM, ECE
Department of ECE Roll No.:22EJCEC100

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND
RESEARCH CENTRE SHRI RAM KI NANGAL, VIA SITAPURA
RIICO JAIPUR- 302022
November, 2024
TRAINING CERTIFICATE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Ms. Bhavna Kalra, Assistant Professor and
Training & Placement Officer (TPO) of the Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department at JECRC Foundation, for her unwavering guidance, support, and encouragement
during the course of my industrial training on VLSI Design. Her insightful advice and
constant motivation were instrumental in successfully completing this training and compiling
this report.
I am also deeply thankful to Internshala Trainings, the organization that provided this
enriching training opportunity. The structured curriculum, practical assignments, and access
to cutting-edge tools significantly enhanced my understanding of VLSI Design concepts and
their real-world applications.
Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to my family and friends for their constant
encouragement and to everyone who directly or indirectly supported me throughout this
training period.
Thank you all for contributing to the successful completion of this industrial training report.
 Table of Contents

List of Figures
List of Tables
Abstract
Chapter-1 Introduction
Company’s Profile
1.1 VLSI
1.2 Hardware Descriptive Language
1.3 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)
1.4 Xilinx Vivado Tool
1.5 VLSI Design Flow
Chapter-2 Evolution in Logic Complexity in IC’S designs
2.1 What is an Integrated Circuit (IC)?
2.1.1 Definition of Integrated Chip
2.1.2 Integrated Circuit Design
2.1.3 Digital Design
2.1.4 Analog Design
2.1.5 Mixed Design
2.1.6 Integrated Circuit Construction

2.2 SSI
2.3 MSI
2.4 LSI
2.5 VLSI
2.6 ULSI
Chapter-3 Frontend and Backend in VLSI And Moore’s Law
3.1 Front-End
3.2 Back-End
3.3 Moore’s Law
Chapter-4 Internship Discussion
 4.1 Design Methodology
4.1.1 Top-Down Design Methodology
4.1.2 Bottom-Up Design Methodology
4.2 Module
4.2.1 Behavioral or Algorithmic level
4.2.2 Dataflow Level
4.2.3 Switch Level

Chapter-5 Vivado Components

5.1 Start-up Window

5.2 PS-PL Configuration

5.3 I/O Peripherals

5.4 IP Integrator

5.5 Configuration

5.6 Exporting the Project

Chapter-6 Conclusion

REFERENCES
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 VLSI Design Flow……………………………………….……. 12

Figure 2.1 IC…………………………………………………….....………16
Figure 2.2 SSI……………………………………………………...............26
Figure 2.3 LSI……………………………………………………...………27
Figure 2.4 VLSI…………………………………………………....………28
Figure 2.5 ULSI…………………………………………………....………28
Figure 3.1 Front End Flow………………………………………....………31
Figure 3.2 Moore’s Law………………………………………..….……….33
Figure 4.1 Top-Down……………………………………………………….35
Figure 4.2 Bottom up……………………………………………………….36
Figure 4.3 Behavioral Level of 4:1 Mux…………………………………...38
Figure 4.4 Gate Level of 4:1 Mux………………………………………….39
Figure 4.5 CMOS Inverter………………………………………………….40
Figure 5.1 Start up Window………………………………………………...42
Figure 5.2 Editing Window…………………………………………………43
Figure 5.3 PS-PL Configuration……………………………………………43
Figure 5.4 I/O Periferals……………………………………………………44
Figure 5.5 Creating IP Integrator…………………………………………..44
Figure 5.6 IP Integrator…………………………………………………….45
Figure 5.7 Configuring the Project…………………………………………45
Figure 5.8 Exporting the Project…………………………………………...46
Figure 7.1 Block Diagram of 8x8 Multiplier……………………………....50
Figure 7.2 Sepration of the Partial Products……………………………….51
Figure 7.3 Block Diagram of ADDER 1…………………………………...52
Figure 7.4 Block Diagram of ADDER 2…………………………………...52
Figure 7.5 Block Diagram of ADDER 3………………………….………..53
Figure 7.6 Schematic Diagram……………………………………………..53
Figure 7.7 Power Specification Window…………………………………...54
Figure 7.8 Simulation Result…………………………………………….....54
Figure 7.9 Utilization Specification Window………………………..……..55
Figure 7.10 Timing Specification Window………………………….……..55
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

Table 1.1 Evolution of logic complexity in integrated circuits 7

 ABSTRACT

VLSI Design is a cornerstone of modern electronics, enabling the development of compact,

high-performance integrated circuits for a wide range of applications. This field leverages
advanced design methodologies, hardware description languages, and simulation tools to
create intricate systems-on-chip (SoCs) and other integrated solutions.

The training delved into both theoretical principles and hands-on practice, focusing on
FPGA-based design using the Xilinx Artix 7 platform. Core topics included combinational
and sequential logic design, synthesis, simulation, and hardware implementation. Emphasis
was placed on optimizing performance, minimizing power consumption, and enhancing
design scalability to meet real-world demands.

The study also explored emerging trends in VLSI, such as the integration of AI/ML in
circuit optimization, and its critical role in domains like IoT, telecommunications, and
computing. Despite challenges like the complexity of design verification and the need for
cost-effective solutions, advancements in VLSI continue to redefine possibilities in the
semiconductor industry.

This report highlights the knowledge and skills gained during the training, demonstrating
the transformative potential of VLSI Design in fostering innovation and shaping the future
of electronics.
 CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Company’s Profile

Internshala Trainings is an online learning platform that provides skill-based training

programs designed to bridge the gap between academia and industry requirements. The
platform offers a wide range of courses across various domains such as programming, data
science, business, design, core engineering, and more. Internshala Trainings focuses on
making learning accessible, affordable, and practical for students, fresh graduates, and
professionals.
Each training program on Internshala is structured to be self-paced and beginner-friendly,
allowing learners to progress at their convenience. The courses typically include a mix of
video tutorials, assignments, quizzes, and projects to ensure hands-on learning. Most trainings
are crafted with real-world applications in mind, encouraging learners to work on projects
that demonstrate their skills to potential employers. Additionally, the platform provides
support from industry experts, ensuring guidance and clarity for learners throughout the
course.
Upon successful completion, learners receive a certification that can be added to their resumes
and LinkedIn profiles, boosting their employability. The affordability and quality of the
courses, coupled with their practical focus, have made Internshala Trainings a popular choice
among students in India and abroad. The platform often integrates internships and job
opportunities, providing a seamless transition from learning to earning.

1.1 VLSI
Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of functions they
could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue
logic. VLSI lets IC designers add all of these into one chip. The electronics industry has
achieved a phenomenal growth over the last few decades, mainly due to the rapid advances
in large scale integration technologies and system design applications.

● VLSI stands for” Very Large Scale Integration”.

● VLSI is the process of creating an integrated circuit by combining millions of MOS
transisters onto a single chip.
● VLSI began in the 1970s{1978} when MOS( Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chips were
widely adopted and 20-20000 number of gates used per chip.
● Examples of VLSI devices are Microprocessors and memory chips.
In Short we can say that ‘study and formation of ICs’ called as VLSI design.
 ● vlsi system that has high circuit speed ,low power consumption and low design area
is ‘efficient’ design.
The first semiconductor chips held two transistors each. Subsequent advances added
more transistors, and as a consequence, more individual functions or systems were
integrated over time. The first integrated circuits held only a few devices, perhaps as many as
ten diodes, transistors, resistors and capacitors, making it possible to fabricate one or
more logic gates on a single device. Now known retrospectively as small-scale
integration (SSI), improvements in technique led to devices with hundreds of logic gates,
known as medium-scale integration (MSI). Further improvements led to large-scale
integration (LSI), i.e. systems with at least a thousand logic gates. Current technology has
moved far past this mark and today's microprocessors have many millions of gates and
billions of individual transistors.
At one time, there was an effort to name and calibrate various levels of large-scale integration
above VLSI. Terms like ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) were used. But the huge number
of gates and transistors available on common devices has rendered such fine distinctions
moot. Terms suggesting greater than VLSI levels of integration are no longer in widespread
use.
In short we can say that

‘‘Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by

combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex
semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed.’’

History of VLSI

The history of the transistor dates to the 1920s when several inventors attempted devices that
were intended to control current in solid-state diodes and convert them into triodes. Success
came after World War II, when the use of silicon and germanium crystals as radar detectors
led to improvements in fabrication and theory. Scientists who had worked on radar returned
to solid-state device development. With the invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs in
1947, the field of electronics shifted from vacuum tubes to solid-state devices.

With the small transistor at their hands, electrical engineers of the 1950s saw the possibilities
of constructing far more advanced circuits. However, as the complexity of circuits grew,
problems arose. One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer
was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must
be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.

The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem
by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor
material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be
automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer,
which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale
integration (MSI) in the late 1960s.

General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964. In
the early 1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology allowed the integration of more than
10,000 transistors in a single chip. This paved the way for VLSI in the 1970s and 1980s, with
tens of thousands of MOS transistors on a single chip (later hundreds of thousands, then
millions, and now billions).

The first semiconductor chips held two transistors each. Subsequent advances added more
transistors, and as a consequence, more individual functions or systems were integrated over
time. The first integrated circuits held only a few devices, perhaps as many as ten diodes,
transistors, resistors and capacitors, making it possible to fabricate one or more logic gates
on a single device.

Now known retrospectively as small-scale integration (SSI), improvements in technique led

to devices with hundreds of logic gates, known as medium-scale integration (MSI). Further
improvements led to large-scale integration (LSI), i.e. systems with at least a thousand logic
gates. Current technology has moved far past this mark and today's microprocessors have
many millions of gates and billions of individual transistors.
At one time, there was an effort to name and calibrate various levels of large-scale integration
above VLSI. Terms like ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) were used. But the huge number
of gates and transistors available on common devices has rendered such fine distinctions
moot. Terms suggesting greater than VLSI levels of integration are no longer in widespread
use. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.

ERA DATE COMPLEXITY

Single transistor 1959 Less than 1

Unit logic (one gate) 1960 1

Multi-function 1962 2-4

Complex function 1964 5-20

Medium Scale Integration 1967 20-200

Large Scale Integration 1972 200-2000

Very Large Scale Integration 1978 2000-20000

 Ultra Large Scale Integration 1989 200000-?

Table 1.1: Evolution of logic complexity in integrated circuits.

1.2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION LANGUAGE

In computer engineering, a hardware description language (HDL) is a specialized computer

language used to describe the structure and behavior of electronic circuits, and most
commonly, digital logic circuits.A hardware description language enables a
precise, formal description of an electronic circuit that allows for the automated
analysis and simulation of an electron ic circuit. It also allows for the synthesis of an HDL
description into a netlist (a specification of physical electronic components and how they are
connected together), which can then be placed and routed to produce the set of masks used
to create an integrated circuit.A hardware description language looks much like a
programming language such as C or ALGOL; it is a textual description consisting of
expressions, statements and control structures. One important difference between most
programming languages and HDLs is thatHDLs explicitly include the notion of time. HDLs
form an integral part of electronic design automation (EDA) systems, especially for complex
circuits, such as application-specific integrated circuits,microprocessors, and programmable
logic devices

1.3 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are semiconductor devices that are based around
a matrix of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) connected via programmable interconnects.
FPGAs can be reprogrammed to desired application or functionality requirements after
manufacturing. This feature distinguishes FPGAs from Application Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs), which are custom manufactured for specific design tasks. Although one-
time programmable (OTP) FPGAs are available, the dominant types are SRAM based which
can be reprogrammed as the design evolves.

Applications include:
• Aerospace & Defense - Radiation-tolerant FPGAs along with intellectual property
for image processing, waveform generation, and partial reconfiguration for SDRs.
• ASIC Prototyping - ASIC prototyping with FPGAs enables fast and accurate SoC
system modeling and verification of embedded software
• Automotive - Automotive silicon and IP solutions for gateway and driver assistance
systems, comfort, convenience, and in-vehicle infotainment.
• Broadcast & Pro AV - Adapt to changing requirements faster and lengthen product
life cycles with Broadcast Targeted Design Platforms and solutions for high-end
professional broadcast systems.
• Consumer Electronics - Cost-effective solutions enabling next generation, full-
featured consumer applications, such as converged handsets, digital flat panel
displays, information appliances, home networking, and residential set top boxes.
• Data Center - Designed for high-bandwidth, low-latency servers, networking, and
storage applications to bring higher value into cloud deployments.
• High Performance Computing and Data Storage - Solutions for Network Attached
Storage (NAS), Storage Area Network (SAN), servers, and storage appliances.

1.4 XILINX VIVADO TOOL

Xilinx was founded in Silicon Valley in 1984 and headquartered in San Jose, USA. Xilinx
sells a broad range of FPGAs, complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs), design
tools, intellectualproperty and reference designs. Xilinx customers represent just over half
of the entire programmable logic market, at 51%. Altera (now Intel) is Xilinx's strongest
competitor with 34% of the market. Other key players in this market are Actel (now
Microsemi), and Lattice Semiconductor.
In 2011, the company introduced the Virtex-7 2000T, the first product based on 2.5D stacked
silicon (based on silicon interposer technology) to deliver larger FPGAs than could be built
using standard monolithic silicon.[23] Xilinx then adapted the technology to combine
formerly separate components in a single chip, first combining an FPGA with transceivers
based on heterogeneous process technology to boost bandwidth capacity while using less
power.
Xilinx's FPGAs have been used for the ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment)
at the CERN European laboratory on the French-Swiss border to map and disentangle the
trajectories of thousands of subatomic particles. Xilinx has also engaged in a partnership with
the United States Air Force Research Laboratory's Space Vehicles Directorate to develop
FPGAs to withstand the damaging effects of radiation in space, which are 1,000 times less
sensitive to space radiation than the commercial equivalent, for deployment in new satellites.
Xilinx FPGAs can run a regular embedded OS (such as Linux or vxWorks) and can
implement processor peripherals in programmable logic. The Virtex-II Pro, Virtex-4, Virtex-
5, and Virtex-6 FPGA families, which include up to two embedded IBM PowerPC cores,
are targeted to the needs of system-on- chip (SoC) designers.
Xilinx's IP cores include IP for simple functions (BCD encoders, counters, etc.), for domain
specific cores (digital signal processing, FFT and FIR cores) to complex systems (multi-
gigabit networking cores, the MicroBlaze soft microprocessor and the compact Picoblaze
microcontroller). Xilinx also creates custom cores for a fee.
The main design toolkit Xilinx provides engineers is the Vivado Design Suite, an integrated
design environment (IDE) with a system-to-IC level tools built on a shared scalable data
model and a common debug environment. Vivado includes electronic system level (ESL)
design tools for synthesizing and verifying C-based algorithmic IP; standards based
packaging of both algorithmic and RTL IP for reuse; standards based IP stitching and systems
integration of all types of system building blocks; and the verification of blocks and systems.
A free version WebPACK Edition of Vivado provides designers with a limited version of
the design environment.
1.5 VLSI DESIGN FLOW

The figure shows the design flow used by designers who use HDL’s. in any design design
spections are written first which describe the functionalitiy ,interface and overall archiecture
of the digital circuit. At this atge designers need not think about the implementation.A
behavirol description is then created to anna;yze the desin in terms of
functionality,complpliance to standards and performance.The behaivoral description is then
manually converted to RTL Description in an HDL. The design has to describe thedata flow
that will implement the desired digital circuit.From here the process statrs using CAD
tools.Logic synthesis tools convert RTL dscription to gate level netlist, a gate level netlist is
a discription of the ciricuit in terms of gates and connection between. This gate level netlist
is input to automatic place and rout tool which create a layout. This layout is verified and
fabricated on chip.After RTL tools have been frozen, Cad tools are available to assist the
designer in further process. Designing at RTL has shrunk design cycle times from years to
months. Behavioral tools can cretae RTL discription from behaviroal discription of
vircuit.The CAD toold help the designer to convert the behavioral descriptiom to a final
chip.
Figure 1.1 – VLSI FlowChart
1 System Specification:
• Define the functionality, performance, and power requirements of the system.

2 Architectural Design:
• Partition the system into functional blocks and decide how they interact.

3 Functional and Logic Design:

• Create the logic for each block using Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) like
Verilog or VHDL.

4 Circuit Design:
• Translate the logic design into electrical components like transistors and logic gates.

5 Physical Design:
• Convert the circuit design into a physical layout suitable for fabrication. Includes:
o Partitioning: Dividing the design into smaller manageable sections.
o Floorplanning: Allocating space for each block.
o Placement: Placing components within their allocated spaces.
o Clock Tree Synthesis (CTS): Ensuring a balanced clock distribution.
o Signal Routing: Connecting the components with wires.
o Timing Closure: Verifying that the design meets timing requirements.

6 Physical Verification and Signoff:

• Check for design rule violations, layout-versus-schematic (LVS) errors, and electrical
rule violations (DRC/LVS/ERC).

7 Layout Post Processing:

• Final optimizations for manufacturability and performance.

8 Fabrication:
• Manufacture the chip on silicon wafers.

9 Packaging and Testing:

• Encapsulate the chip and test its functionality.
 CHAPTER - 2
Evolution in Logic Complexity in IC’S designs

The conventional method of making circuits was to select components like R, C, L, diode
and semiconductors. There are so many factors stopping to build off big circuits like:
1. Bulky in size.
2. Not entirely shockproof
3. Reliability
4. More power consumption
5. Less durability
The concept of fabricating an entire circuit on a single small block (or chip) of a
semiconductor has revolutionised electronics technology. Such a circuit is known as
Integrated Circuit (IC). In this article, let’s study IC.

2.1 What is an Integrated Circuit (IC)?

Before the discovery of ICs, the basic method of making circuits was to select the
components like diodes, transistors, resistors, inductors and capacitors and connect them by
shouldering. But due to size and power consumption issues, it was necessary to develop a
small size circuit with less power consumption, reliability and shockproof.
After the invention of the
semiconductors and transistors, things
were quite simplified to a particular
extent, but the development of integrated
circuits changed electronics technology’s
face. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments
and Bob Noyce from Intel are the
official creators of integrated circuits,
and they did it independently.The
integrated circuit is a fundamental
concept of electronics that builds on
other basic concepts previously
discussed in our syllabus. Therefore, for
a quick reference, go through the articles
listed below
• Electric Circuits Figure 2.1 IC
• Resistors
• Transistors
• Diodes
 • Capacitors

2.1.1 Definition of Integrated Chip

Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L, diodes and transistors.
They are built on a small single block or chip of a semiconductor known as an integrated
circuit (IC). All of them work together to perform a particular task. The IC is easily breakable,
so to be attached to a circuit board, it is often housed in a plastic package with metal pins.

2.1.2 Integrated Circuit Design

An integrated circuit is created using certain logic methods and circuit layouts. The two
categories of IC design are as follows:

• Analog Design
• Digital Design
• Mixed Design

2.1.3 Digital Design

The digital design approach is used to create integrated circuits (ICs), which are utilised as
computer memories (such as RAM and ROM) and microprocessors. With this approach to
design, the circuit density and overall efficiency are both maximised. The ICs created with
this technique operate with binary input data like 0 and 1. The process for designing digital
integrated circuits is depicted in the diagram below.

2.1.4 Analog Design

IC chip is created by using the analog design process when:

• ICs are utilised as regulators, filters and oscillators.

• Optimal power dissipation, gain and resistance are required.

2.1.5 Mixed Design

The analog and digital design ideas are used in mixed designs. The mixed ICs perform either
Analog to Digital or Digital to Analog conversions.

2.1.6 Integrated Circuit Construction

A complicated stacking of semiconductors, copper, and other related elements to create

resistors, transistors, and other components is an integrated circuit. A die is a combination of
these wafers that have been sliced and moulded.
The ICs’ semiconductor wafers are delicate, and the connections between the layers are
extremely complex. The ICs are packaged because an IC die is too small to solder and connect
to. The delicate and tiny die is transformed into the familiar black chip by the IC packaging.
The connections between the layers are exceedingly complicated, and the semiconductor
wafers used to make the ICs are delicate. Because an IC die is too small to solder, the ICs are
packed.
All integrated circuits (ICs) are polarised, and each pin has a specific location and
functionality. As seen in the illustration below, integrated chips employ a notch or a dot to
denote the first pin. The subsequent PINs rise consecutively in a counterclockwise way
around the chip after the first pin is identified.

Integrated Circuit Features

Construction & Packaging

ICs are built with semiconducting components such as silicon. Because of the small size and
delicate nature of IC, a series of tiny gold and aluminium wires are joined together and
moulded into a flat block of plastic or ceramic. Metal pins on the block’s exterior link to
cables inside. The solid block stops the chip from overheating and keeps it cool.

Size of an IC
The size of the integrated chip varies between 1 square mm to more than 200 mm.

Integration of an IC
Because they combine various devices on one chip, integrated chips get their name. A
microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that combines a microprocessor, memory, and
interface into a single unit.

Commonly Used ICs

Logic Gate ICs

The combinational circuit generates logical outputs based on a variety of input signals. It may
only have two to three inputs but one output.

Timer ICs
A Timer IC is produced with accurate timing cycles with a 100 % or 50 % duty cycle.

Operational Amplifiers
An OpAmp or an Operational Amplifier is a high gain voltage amplifier with a differential
input and a single-ended output.

Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator IC provides a constant DC output irrespective of the changes in DC input.

Advantages Of An IC:
1. The entire physical size of IC is extremely small than that of discrete circuit.
2. The weight of an IC is very less as compared entire discrete circuits.
3. It’s more reliable.
4. Because of their smaller size it has lower power consumption.
5. It can easily replace but it can hardly repair, in case of failure.
6. Because of an absence of parasitic and capacitance effect it has increased operating
speed.
7. Temperature differences between components of a circuit are small.
8. It has suitable for small signal operation.
9. The reduction in power consumption is achieved due to extremely small size of IC.

SSI (Small Scale Intrgration)

MSI (Medium Scale Intrgration)

LSI (Large Scale Intrgration)

VLSI (Very Large Scale Intrgration)

ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Intrgration

2.2 SSI
SSI was developed where transistors numbering in the tens providing a few logic gates was
present on the chip. Early developments of the integrated circuits started in 1949 when
German engineer Werner Jacobi filed a patent on integrated-circuit-like semiconductor
amplifying device showing five transistors on a common substrate in a 3-stage amplifier
arrangement. The basic idea behind the IC was to create small ceramic squares , each
containing a single miniaturized component Semiconductor IC’s fabrication includes three
key process steps — imaging, deposition and etching. The main process steps are
supplemented by doping and cleaning. Silicon is almost always used, but various compound
semiconductors are used for specialised applications. The entire manufacturing process,
from start to packaged chips ready for shipment, takes six to eight weeks and is performed
in highly specialized facilities referred to as fabs. Integrated circuits are composed of many
overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different
colours.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and
aerospace projects helped inspire development of the
technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo
program needed lightweight digital computers for their
inertial guidance systems first MOS chips were small-scale
integration chips for NASA satellites.
Figure 2.2 SSI

2.3 MSI
It was the next higher level of IC integration, in which, typically 10 to 1000 transistors making
30 to 300 logic gates per chip are fabricated on a single chip. Medium-scale integration
technology was prominent between years 1966 and 1971. This technology is used to make
multiplexers, decoders, counters, and registers.

MSI circuits was developed in the early days of mainframe computers. It was the next step in
the development of integrated circuits contained hundreds of transistors on each chip. In
1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with an
incredible (at the time) 120 transistors on a single chip. As compared to SSI , MSI devices
were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices.
they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less
assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.

They are available as ICs (integrated chips) and implement specific, commonly used digital
functions such as:

1. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

2. Encoding and Decoding

MSIs can be used as a stand-alone IC or in combination with other ICs in order to implement
combinational circuits in various applications. In this module, you will study many of the
common types of MSI devices. Some of the most widely used MSI circuits:

● 74283 4-bit adder, 74HC283 from Philips, 555 timer.

It was used in the core of the CPU of such computers as the PDP-11 and VAX 11/780.

2.3 LSI
It is the process of integrating or embedding thousands of transistors on a single silicon
semiconductor microchip. LSI technology was conceived in the mid-1970s when computer
processor microchips were under development.
The term “large scale integration” (LSI) was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer
when describing the theoretical concept; that term gave rise to the terms “small-scale
integration” (SSI), “medium-scale integration” (MSI), “very-large-scale integration”
(VLSI), and “ultra-large-scale integration” (ULSI). Large scale integration (LSI)
and application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are exactly what they say they are:
integrated circuits that have been specially designed and tooled to do one very specific job.
In other words, miniature worlds of components emulating what otherwise would be put
together using quantities of separate components on a printed circuit board.
LSI chips are widely used in applications with specific processing requirements and where
parameters such as speed and very low cost are important. Custom designed logic integrated
circuits devices result in better performance,
lower cost, and sometimes lower power
consumption at given speeds. They also have
some built in security protection: their operation
cannot be easily copied by competitors.
Applications are to be found just about
everywhere: hand-held organizers, cell-phones,
telecommunication equipment, musical
instruments, MP3 decoders and Figure 2.3 LSI
telephony receivers. Most commercial network interface chips are nothing but LSI devices
specially designed to interface between the network and a microprocessor.

2.4 VLSI
Very large scale integration is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining
millions of MOS transistors onto a single chip.VLSI began in the 1970s when MOS
integrated…..circuit chips..were..widely…adopted,…enabling….complex semiconductor an
d telecommunication technologies to be developed. The microprocessor and memory
chips are VLSI devices. Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited
set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of
a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI lets IC designers add all of these into one
chip. Very large-scale integration was made possible with the wide adoption of the MOS
transistor, originally invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in
1959. Atalla first proposed the concept of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960, followed
by Kahng in 1961, both noting that the MOS transistor’s ease of fabrication made it useful
for integrated circuits. General Microelectronics introduced the first
commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964. In the early 1970s, MOS integrated circuit
technology allowed the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single chip. This
paved the way for VLSI in the 1970s and 1980s, with tens of thousands of MOS transistors
on a single chip (later hundreds of thousands, then millions, and now billions).Structured
VLSI design is a modular methodology originated by Carver Mead and Lynn Conway for
saving microchip area by minimizing the interconnect fabrics area. This is obtained by
repetitive arrangement of rectangular macro blocks which can be interconnected using wiring
by abutment. An example is partitioning the layout of an adder into a row of equal bit slices
cells. In complex designs this structuring may be achieved by hierarchical nesting.

VLSI Technology has advanced rapidly since late 90s. Low cost, high performance Chips
designed and fabricated made strong impact in systems development and resulted in
applications to diversified fields like computers, communications, entertainment electronics,
medicine, and rural necessities. Spreading of Internet globally, making this world as a ‘global
village” and rapid strides in mobile communications have a direct bearing on the progress
made in VLSI technology.
Research work is being done to further develop the technology in new dimensions like
Silicon Photonics, Organic semi-conductors, Flexible displays etc. These developments take
the technology further close to rural applications and
can result in significant improvement in the quality of
life in villages. Fibre optic connectivity, hosting of
portals with useful information to rural folk, e-
governance, energy conservation, wireless sensor
networks, Telephone-TV can improve the standard of
living in rural areas significantly. VLSI technology
directly or indirectly is playing a vital role in this
direction Figure 2.4 VLSI

2.5 ULSI
VLSI Technology has advanced rapidly since late 90s. Low cost, high performance Chips
designed and fabricated made strong impact in systems development and resulted in
applications to diversified fields like computers,
communications, entertainment electronics,
medicine, and rural necessities. Spreading of Internet
globally, making this world as a ‘global village” and
rapid strides in mobile communications have a direct
bearing on the progress made in VLSI technology.
Research work is being done to further develop the
technology in new dimensions like Silicon Photonics,
Organic semi-conductors, Flexible displays etc.
These developments take the technology further close
to rural applications and can result in significant Figure 2.5 ULSI
improvement in the quality of life in villages. Fiber optic connectivity, hosting of portals
with useful information to rural folk, e-governance, energy conservation, wireless sensor
networks, Telephone-TV can improve the standard of living in rural areas significantly.
VLSI technology directly or indirectly is playing a vital role in this direction
 CHAPTER - 3
Frontend and Backend in VLSI And Moore’s Law

3.1 Front End

● In this we get functionality of the design by writing code in hardware Language i.e.
VHDL, Verilog etc.
● Then code is simulated and synthesized and we get gate level hardware by CAD tools,
then Gate level code is converted into transistor level diagram as all gates can be
formed using MOS transistor.
● Then the transistor level diagram goes into foundry for fabrication for forming a
chip according to the circuit of Transistor level Diagram .

Figure 3.1 Front End Flow

3.2 Back End
• Physical Implementation: Translates the logical design (netlist) into a physical
layout, including floor planning, placement, and routing of components.
• Timing and Power Optimization: Ensures the design meets timing, power, and area
constraints through techniques like clock tree synthesis (CTS) and static timing
analysis (STA).
• Verification and Validation: Checks the design for errors using Design Rule Check
(DRC), Layout vs. Schematic (LVS), and parasitic extraction. Final Layout
Generation: Produces the chip's final manufacturable layout in GDSII format for
fabrication.

3.3 Moore’s Law

Moore's Law, articulated by Gordon E. Moore, co-founder of Intel, in 1965, is an empirical

observation that has profoundly shaped the trajectory of the semiconductor industry. Moore
predicted that the number of transistors on a microchip would double approximately every
two years, leading to exponential growth in computational power. This trend, while not a
physical law, has been remarkably consistent for decades and has driven innovation across
computing and electronics.

The doubling of transistors has enabled significant advancements in the performance of

integrated circuits (ICs). Increased transistor density translates into faster processing speeds,
greater memory capacity, and more sophisticated functionalities within the same chip area.
As a result, consumer devices have become smaller, more powerful, and more efficient,
revolutionizing industries such as computing, telecommunications, and consumer electronics.

Another key implication of Moore's Law is cost efficiency. As manufacturing processes

improve, the cost per transistor decreases despite the increasing complexity of chips. This has
made powerful computing resources accessible and affordable, democratizing technology
and fostering the development of groundbreaking applications in fields like artificial
intelligence, robotics, and biotechnology.

However, sustaining Moore's Law has become increasingly challenging. As transistor

dimensions approach the atomic scale, issues such as heat dissipation, quantum effects, and
rising fabrication costs threaten the continuation of the trend. The industry is now exploring
alternatives, including 3D chip architectures, new materials like graphene, and advanced
technologies such as quantum computing, to sustain the pace of innovation.

In summary, Moore's Law has been a cornerstone of technological progress, enabling the
rapid evolution of computing capabilities and shaping modern society. While its traditional
trajectory may be slowing, the pursuit of innovation inspired by Moore's Law continues to
drive the development of cutting-edge technologies
HOW DOES MOORE’S LAW WORK?

Moore's Law describes the observation that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles
approximately every two years. This increase in transistor density is achieved through
advances in semiconductor manufacturing technology, particularly in photolithography,
which enables the production of smaller and more intricate features on silicon wafers. As
transistors shrink in size, more of them can fit within the same area, allowing for increased
computational power and functionality without a corresponding increase in chip size or cost.

The process begins with advancements in materials science and engineering to refine the
physical properties of semiconductors. Silicon wafers are used as a base, onto which layers
of materials are deposited and etched using photolithographic techniques. Innovations such
as extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography have made it possible to etch features on a
nanometre scale, enabling the creation of chips with billions of transistors. This
miniaturization allows for higher-speed processing, lower power consumption, and enhanced
efficiency, all of which are critical for modern computing systems.

Moore's Law also relies on breakthroughs in transistor design. Over the years, designs have
evolved from the traditional planar transistors to more advanced architectures like Fin-FET
(Fin Field-Effect Transistors) and gate-all-around (GAA) transistors. These designs improve
electrical control over the transistor channel, reducing leakage currents and increasing
performance. Such innovations have allowed the industry to sustain Moore’s prediction even
as physical and material limits are approached.

Furthermore, economic and industrial scaling are central to Moore's Law. Semiconductor
companies invest heavily in research and development (R&D) to push the boundaries of
manufacturing processes. Foundries and fabrication plants adopt cutting-edge equipment and
techniques to produce chips at a commercial scale. This economic scaling ensures that the
cost per transistor decreases, maintaining affordability despite the increasing complexity of
chip designs.

In essence, Moore's Law works through a combination of scientific innovation, engineering

ingenuity, and economic investment. It drives a virtuous cycle where smaller, faster, and
cheaper transistors enable new technologies, creating demand for even more advanced chips.
This cycle has propelled the exponential growth of computing power and has had
transformative impacts on industries worldwide. However, as transistors approach their
physical limits, alternative approaches such as 3D chip stacking, neuromorphic computing,
and quantum technologies are being explored to sustain the benefits of Moore's Law in the
future.
A straight-line plot of the logarithm of a function indicates an exponential growth of that
function. The figure is courtesy of Intel Corporation, see Moore's Law

Figure 3.2 Moore’s law

 CHAPTER - 4
INTENSHIP DISCUSSION

4.1 Design Methodology

Design methodologies are necessary for successfully designing complex digital

hardware. Such design methods can be classified into following two broad categories:
• Top-down Design.

• Bottom-up Design.

4.1.1 Top-Down Design Methodology

➢ Description:
A top-down approach is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its
compositional sub-systems in a reverse engineering fashion. In a top-down approach an
overview of the system is formulated, specifying, but not detailing, any first-level
subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many
additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A
top- down model is often specified with the assistance of "black boxes", which makes it
easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail to clarify elementary mechanisms or
be detailed enough to realistically validate the model. Top-down approach starts with the
big picture. It breaks down from there into smaller segments.
➢ Applications: Large and complex designs, including SoCs (System-on-Chips).
➢ Advantages:
• Better organization and error detection at early stages.
• Easier to manage design complexity.
➢ Challenges:
Requires robust tools for modelling and simulation.
 Figure 4.1 Top-Down

4.1.2 Bottom-Up Design Methodology

➢ Description:
A bottom-up approach is the piecing together of systems to give rise to more
complex systems, thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent
system. Bottom-up processing is a type of information processing based on
incoming data from the environment to form a perception. From a cognitive
psychology perspective, information enters the eyes in one direction and is then
turned into an image by the brain that can be interpreted and recognized as a
perception. In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system
are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form
larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until
a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed"
model, by which the beginnings are small but eventually grow in complexity
and completeness.
➢ Applications: Systems with reusable components.
➢ Advantages:
• Reusability of modules.
• Good for modular designs.
➢ Challenges:
• Integration complexity.

Figure 4.2 Bottom up

4.2 Module

A module is the basic building block in Verilog HDL. In general, many elements are
grouped to form a module, to provide a common functionality, which can be used at
many places in the design. Port interface (using input and output ports) helps in
providing the necessary functionality to the higher-level blocks. The module
representation is shown below. Here module is declared be a keyword module and
corresponding end module is used at end of the module. Module terminal list is list of
input and output used.

Verilog language has the capability of designing a module in several coding styles.
Depending on the needs of a design, internals of each module can be defined at four
level of abstractions.
Irrespective of the internal abstraction level, the module would behave exactly in the similar
way to the external environment. Following are the four different levels of abstraction which
can be described by four different coding styles of Verilog language

module modulename (module_terminal_list);

..

<moduleinternals>

..

..

endmodule

• Behavioural or Algorithmic level

• Dataflow level
• Gate level or Structural level
• Switch level

4.2.1 Behavioral or Algorithmic level

This is the highest level of abstraction provided by Verilog HDL. A module can be
implemented in terms of the desired design algorithm without concern for the
hardware implementation details. It specifies the circuit in terms of its expected
behaviourist is the closest to a natural language description of the circuit
functionality, but also the most difficult to synthesize.
Behavioural level can be explained by using 4:1 MUX

Fig.No. 4.3:- Behavioural level of 4:1 mux

Module mux4to1(
input[3:0]I;
input[1:2]s;
output reg y);
always@(s or i)
begin
case(s)
2’b00:y=i[0];
2’b01:y=i[1];
2’b00:y=i[2];
default :y =1’bx;
endcase
end
The output port is declared as data type <reg=. Combination of <always= block and
<case= procedural statement is used to implement the multiplexer. All inputs are added
as part of the sensitivity list.
Select signal <s= is used as condition here. Based on value of select signal <s=, any one
of the input signals will be selected. Here we are implementing the functionality
of multiplexer at higher-level of abstraction without looking into internal details of the
design as in <Structural Modelling=
4.2.2 Dataflow Level
The module is implemented in terms of logic gates and interconnections between these
gates. It resembles a schematic drawing with components connected with signals. A
change in the value of any input signal of a component activates the component. If two
or more components are activated concurrently, they will perform their actions
concurrently as well. A structural system representation is closer to the physical
implementation than behavioural one but it is more involved because of large number
of details. Since logic gate is most popular component, Verilog has a predefined set of
logic gates known as primitives.

Fig.No. 4.4:- Gate level of 4:1 MUX

module mux4to1(
input [3:0]I,
input [1:0]s, output reg o);
wire NS0, NS1;
wire YO,Y1,Y2,Y3;
not N1(NS0,S[0]);
not N2(NS1,S[1]);
and A1(Y0, NS1, NS0);
and A2(Y1, i[1] NS1, s[0]);
and A3(Y2, i[2] , s[1],NS0);
and A4(Y3, i[3] S[0], s[1]);
or o1(O, Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3);
endmodule
4.2.3 Switch Level
The switch level of modeling provides a level of abstraction between the logic and
analog-transistor levels of abstraction. It describes the interconnection of transmission
gates, which are abstractions of individual MOS and CMOS transistors. The switch
level transistors are modeled as being either on or off, conducting or not conducting.
The values carried by the interconnections are abstracted from the whole range of
analog voltages or currents to a small number of discrete values. These values are
referred to as signal strengths. Verilog also provides support for transistor level
modeling. However, designers rarely use these days as the complexity of circuits has
required them to move to higher levels of abstractions rather than use switch level
modeling. Verilog uses a 4-value logic value system, so Verilog switch input and
output signals can take any of the four 0, 1, Z, and X logic values. Considering an

example of CMOS Inverter

Fig.No. 4.5:-: CMOS Inverter

module inv_sw(out,in);
output out;
input in;
supply1 power;
supply2 ground;
pmos (out, power, in);
nmos (out, ground, in);
endmodule
 CHAPTER – 5
VIVADO COMPONENTS

5.1 Start-up Window

➢ Top level directory - .xpr Vivado Project File(xml file),log file.

• .srcs – Project source Files, IP Integrator files.

• .sim – Simulation related files.
• .runs – Synthesis,Implementation runs.
• .sdk – SDK Export Ditrectory, Hardware Platform.
• .cache – Temporary files.

Fig.No. 5.1:- Startup Window

 Fig.No. 5.2:- Editing Window

5.2 PS-PL Configuration

Fig.No. 5.3:- PS-PL Configaration

5.3 I/O Peripherals

Fig.No.5.4:- I/O peripharals

5.4 IP Integrator

Fig.No.5.5:- Creating IP Integrator

 Fig.No.5.6:- IP Integrator

5.5 Configuration

Fig.No.5.7:- Configuring the Project

5.6 Exporting the Project

Fig.No.5.8:- Exporting the Project

 CHAPTER – 6
CONCLUSION

The industrial training on VLSI provided a robust understanding of the fundamental and
advanced concepts of integrated circuit design. The report highlights the evolution of VLSI
technology from small-scale integration to today’s complex systems incorporating billions of
transistors on a single chip. It showcases the importance of methodologies like top-down and
bottom-up design in managing complexity, as well as the utility of tools like Xilinx Vivado
in streamlining the design process.
Additionally, the training emphasized practical knowledge of hardware description
languages, FPGA configurations, and project workflows, bridging the gap between
theoretical concepts and real-world applications. This experience underscored the
transformative role of VLSI in driving innovations across industries, from computing and
telecommunications to automotive and aerospace.
Overall, the training has laid a strong foundation for further exploration and contribution to
the rapidly evolving field of VLSI design and technology.