UNIT VI

CURRENT TOPICS RELATED TO COMPUTER NETWORK

Software Defined Networking(SDN)
SDN stands for Software Defined Network which is a networking architecture
approach. It enables the control and management of the network using software
applications. Through Software Defined Network (SDN) networking behavior of
the entire network and its devices are programmed in a centrally controlled
manner through software applications using open APIs.
To understand software-defined networks, we need to understand the various
planes involved in networking.
1. Data Plane
2. Control Plane
Data plane: All the activities involving as well as resulting from data packets
sent by the end-user belong to this plane. This includes:
 Forwarding of packets.
 Segmentation and reassembly of data.
 Replication of packets for multicasting.
Control plane: All activities necessary to perform data plane activities but do not
involve end-user data packets belong to this plane. In other words, this is the
brain of the network. The activities of the control plane include:
 Making routing tables.
 Setting packet handling policies.
 Software Defined Networking

Why SDN is Important?

 Better Network Connectivity: SDN provides very better network connectivity for
sales, services, and internal communications. SDN also helps in faster data
sharing.
 Better Deployment of Applications: Deployment of new applications, services,
and many business models can be speed up using Software Defined
Networking.
 Better Security: Software-defined network provides better visibility throughout
the network. Operators can create separate zones for devices that require
different levels of security. SDN networks give more freedom to operators.
 Better Control with High Speed: Software-defined networking provides better
speed than other networking types by applying an open standard software-
based controller.
In short, it can be said that- SDN acts as a “Bigger Umbrella or a HUB” where
the rest of other networking technologies come and sit under that umbrella and
get merged with another platform to bring out the best of the best outcome by
decreasing the traffic rate and by increasing the efficiency of data flow.
Where is SDN Used?
 Enterprises use SDN, the most widely used method for application
deployment, to deploy applications faster while lowering overall deployment
and operating costs. SDN allows IT administrators to manage and provision
network services from a single location.
 Cloud networking software-defined uses white-box systems. Cloud providers
often use generic hardware so that the Cloud data center can be changed
and the cost of CAPEX and OPEX saved.
Components of Software Defining Networking (SDN)
The three main components that make the SDN are:
1. SDN Applications: SDN Applications relay requests or networks through SDN
Controller using API.
2. SDN controller: SDN Controller collects network information from hardware
and sends this information to applications.
3. SDN networking devices: SDN Network devices help in forwarding and data
processing tasks.
SDN Architecture
In a traditional network, each switch has its own data plane as well as the
control plane. The control plane of various switches
exchange topology information and hence construct a forwarding table that
decides where an incoming data packet has to be forwarded via the data plane.
Software-defined networking (SDN) is an approach via which we take the
control plane away from the switch and assign it to a centralized unit called the
SDN controller. Hence, a network administrator can shape traffic via a
centralized console without having to touch the individual switches. The data
plane still resides in the switch and when a packet enters a switch, its
forwarding activity is decided based on the entries of flow tables, which are pre-
assigned by the controller. A flow table consists of match fields (like input port
number and packet header) and instructions. The packet is first matched
against the match fields of the flow table entries. Then the instructions of the
corresponding flow entry are executed. The instructions can be forwarding the
packet via one or multiple ports, dropping the packet, or adding headers to the
packet. If a packet doesn’t find a corresponding match in the flow table, the
switch queries the controller which sends a new flow entry to the switch. The
switch forwards or drops the packet based on this flow entry.
A typical SDN architecture consists of three layers.
 Application layer: It contains the typical network applications like intrusion
detection, firewall, and load balancing
 Control layer: It consists of the SDN controller which acts as the brain of the
network. It also allows hardware abstraction to the applications written on
top of it.
 Infrastructure layer: This consists of physical switches which form the data
plane and carries out the actual movement of data packets.
The layers communicate via a set of interfaces called the north-bound
APIs(between the application and control layer) and southbound APIs(between
the control and infrastructure layer).

SDN Architecture

Different Models of SDN

There are several models, which are used in SDN:
1. Open SDN
2. SDN via APIs
3. SDN via Hypervisor-based Overlay Network
4. Hybrid SDN
1. Open SDN: Open SDN is implemented using the OpenFlow switch. It is a
straightforward implementation of SDN. In Open SDN, the controller
communicates with the switches using south-bound API with the help of
OpenFlow protocol.

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network
that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that
is used to monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and
monitors the environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base
Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.

WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Applications of WSN:

1. Internet of Things (IoT)

2. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
3. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
4. Noise Level of the surrounding
5. Medical applications like patient monitoring
6. Agriculture
7. Landslide Detection
Challenges of WSN:

1. Quality of Service
2. Security Issue
3. Energy Efficiency
4. Network Throughput
5. Performance
6. Ability to cope with node failure
7. Cross layer optimisation
8. Scalability to large scale of deployment
A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges,
including:
 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-
powered sensors that have limited energy resources. This makes it
challenging to ensure that the network can function for
long periods of time without the need for frequent battery replacements.
 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are
typically small and have limited processing and storage capabilities. This
makes it difficult to perform complex tasks or store large amounts of data.
 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types
and nodes with different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure
that the network can function effectively and
efficiently.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as
eavesdropping, jamming, and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network
and the data it collects is a major challenge.
 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of
sensor nodes and handle large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network
can scale to meet these demands is a significant
challenge.
 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot
of interference from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to
ensure reliable communication between sensor nodes.
 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring
the environment or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the
network is reliable and able to function correctly
in all conditions is a major challenge.
Components of WSN:
1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which
is used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical
signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the
WLAN access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external
memory, and power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally
through the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software
 called as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for
further processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis,
storage, and mining of the data.
Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy,
making them a cost-effective solution for many applications.
Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections,
which can be costly and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables
flexible deployment and reconfiguration of the network.
Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve
energy, enabling long-term operation without the need for frequent battery
replacements.
Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing
sensors, making them suitable for a range of applications and environments.
Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical
phenomena in the environment, providing timely information for decision
making and control.
Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which
can be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with
obstacles that obstruct radio signals.
Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have
limited processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex
computations or support advanced applications.
Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as
eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can
compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to
interference from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the
quality of data transmission.
Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need
for proper sensor placement, power management, and network configuration,
which can require significant time and resources.
while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges that
must be considered when deploying and using them in real-world applications.
INTERNET
 Open SDN

2. SDN via APIs: In SDN via API, the functions in remote devices like switches
are invoked using conventional methods like SNMP or CLI or through newer
methods like Rest API. Here, the devices are provided with control points
enabling the controller to manipulate the remote devices using APIs.
3. SDN via Hypervisor-based Overlay Network: In SDN via the hypervisor, the
configuration of physical devices is unchanged. Instead, Hypervisor based
overlay networks are created over the physical network. Only the devices at the
edge of the physical network are connected to the virtualized networks, thereby
concealing the information of other devices in the physical network.
 SDN via Hypervisor-based Overlay Network

4. Hybrid SDN: Hybrid Networking is a combination of Traditional Networking

with software-defined networking in one network to support different types of
functions on a network.
Difference between SDN and Traditional Networking
Software Defined Networking Traditional Networking

Software Defined Network is a virtual A traditional network is the old

networking approach. conventional networking approach.

Software Defined Network is centralized

Traditional Network is distributed control.
control.
 Software Defined Networking Traditional Networking

This network is programmable. This network is nonprogrammable.

Software Defined Network is the open

A traditional network is a closed interface.
interface.

In Software Defined Network data plane In a traditional network data plane and
and control, the plane is decoupled by control plane are mounted on the same
software. plane.

For more details you can refer differences between SDN and Traditional
Networking article.
 Difference between SDN and Traditional Networking

Advantages of SDN
 The network is programmable and hence can easily be modified via the
controller rather than individual switches.
 Switch hardware becomes cheaper since each switch only needs a data
plane.
 Hardware is abstracted, hence applications can be written on top of the
controller independent of the switch vendor.
 Provides better security since the controller can monitor traffic and deploy
security policies. For example, if the controller detects suspicious activity in
network traffic, it can reroute or drop the packets.
Disadvantages of SDN
 The central dependency of the network means a single point of failure, i.e. if
the controller gets corrupted, the entire network will be affected.
 The use of SDN on large scale is not properly defined and explored.
 Internet of Things (IoT)
IoT systems allow users to achieve deeper automation, analysis, and
integration within a system. They improve the reach of these areas
and their accuracy. IoT utilizes existing and emerging technology for
sensing, networking, and robotics.

IoT exploits recent advances in software, falling hardware prices,

and modern attitudes towards technology. Its new and advanced
elements bring major changes in the delivery of products, goods,
and services; and the social, economic, and political impact of those
changes.

IoT − Key Features

The most important features of IoT include artificial intelligence,

connectivity, sensors, active engagement, and small device use. A
brief review of these features is given below −

 AI − IoT essentially makes virtually anything “smart”, meaning

it enhances every aspect of life with the power of data
collection, artificial intelligence algorithms, and networks. This
can mean something as simple as enhancing your refrigerator
and cabinets to detect when milk and your favorite cereal run
low, and to then place an order with your preferred grocer.
 Connectivity − New enabling technologies for networking,
and specifically IoT networking, mean networks are no longer
exclusively tied to major providers. Networks can exist on a
much smaller and cheaper scale while still being practical. IoT
creates these small networks between its system devices.
 Sensors − IoT loses its distinction without sensors. They act
as defining instruments which transform IoT from a standard
passive network of devices into an active system capable of
real-world integration.
 Active Engagement − Much of today's interaction with
connected technology happens through passive engagement.
IoT introduces a new paradigm for active content, product, or
service engagement.
 Small Devices − Devices, as predicted, have become smaller,
cheaper, and more powerful over time. IoT exploits purpose-
 built small devices to deliver its precision, scalability, and
versatility.
IoT − Advantages

The advantages of IoT span across every area of lifestyle and

business. Here is a list of some of the advantages that IoT has to
offer −

 Improved Customer Engagement − Current analytics suffer

from blind-spots and significant flaws in accuracy; and as
noted, engagement remains passive. IoT completely
transforms this to achieve richer and more effective
engagement with audiences.
 Technology Optimization − The same technologies and data
which improve the customer experience also improve device
use, and aid in more potent improvements to technology. IoT
unlocks a world of critical functional and field data.
 Reduced Waste − IoT makes areas of improvement clear.
Current analytics give us superficial insight, but IoT provides
real-world information leading to more effective management
of resources.
 Enhanced Data Collection − Modern data collection suffers
from its limitations and its design for passive use. IoT breaks it
out of those spaces, and places it exactly where humans really
want to go to analyze our world. It allows an accurate picture
of everything.
IoT − Disadvantages

Though IoT delivers an impressive set of benefits, it also presents a

significant set of challenges. Here is a list of some its major issues −

 Security − IoT creates an ecosystem of constantly connected

devices communicating over networks. The system offers little
control despite any security measures. This leaves users
exposed to various kinds of attackers.
 Privacy − The sophistication of IoT provides substantial
personal data in extreme detail without the user's active
participation.
 Complexity − Some find IoT systems complicated in terms of
design, deployment, and maintenance given their use of
 multiple technologies and a large set of new enabling
technologies.
 Flexibility − Many are concerned about the flexibility of an
IoT system to integrate easily with another. They worry about
finding themselves with several conflicting or locked systems.
 Compliance − IoT, like any other technology in the realm of
business, must comply with regulations. Its complexity makes
the issue of compliance seem incredibly challenging when
many consider standard software compliance a battle.

The hardware utilized in IoT systems includes devices for a remote

dashboard, devices for control, servers, a routing or bridge device,
and sensors. These devices manage key tasks and functions such as
system activation, action specifications, security, communication,
and detection to support-specific goals and actions.

IoT − Sensors

The most important hardware in IoT might be its sensors. These

devices consist of energy modules, power management modules, RF
modules, and sensing modules. RF modules manage
communications through their signal processing, WiFi, ZigBee,
Bluetooth, radio transceiver, duplexer, and BAW.

The sensing module manages sensing through assorted active and

passive measurement devices. Here is a list of some of the
measurement devices used in IoT −
 S.No Devices

1. accelerometers temperature sensors

2. magnetometers proximity sensors

3. gyroscopes image sensors

4. acoustic sensors light sensors

5. pressure sensors gas RFID sensors

6. humidity sensors micro flow sensors

Wearable Electronics

Wearable electronic devices are small devices worn on the head,

neck, arms, torso, and feet.
Smartwatches not only help us stay connected, but as a part of an
IoT system, they allow access needed for improved productivity.

Current smart wearable devices include −

 Head − Helmets, glasses

 Neck − Jewelry, collars
 Arm − Watches, wristbands, rings
 Torso − Clothing, backpacks
 Feet − Socks, shoes
Smart glasses help us enjoy more of the media and services we
value, and when part of an IoT system, they allow a new approach
to productivity.
Standard Devices

The desktop, tablet, and cellphone remain integral parts of IoT as

the command center and remotes.

 The desktop provides the user with the highest level of control
over the system and its settings.
 The tablet provides access to the key features of the system
in a way resembling the desktop, and also acts as a remote.
 The cellphone allows some essential settings modification and
also provides remote functionality.
Other key connected devices include standard network devices
like routers and switches.

Cyber-Physical System
A Cyber-Physical System (CPS) is a system that integrates physical and
computational components to monitor and control the physical processes
seamlessly.
In other words, A cyber-physical system is a collection of computing devices
communicating with one another and interacting with the physical world via
sensors and actuators in a feedback loop.
These systems combine the sensing, actuation, computation, and
communication capabilities, and leverage these to improve the physical
systems’ overall performance, safety, and reliability.
Examples: CPS includes self-driving cars, The STARMAC is a small quadrotor
aircraft.
Features of Cyber-Physical System
in terms of the cyber-physical system, there are some features that are
classified.
1. Reactive Computation: Reactive systems, on the other hand, continuously
interact with the environment through inputs and outputs. As a classic
example of reactive computation, consider a car cruise control program.
2. Network Connectivity: CPS systems must utilize the network connectivity
basis of communication between the cyber and physical world.
3. Robustness & Reliability: In order to ensure safe and effective operation in
dynamic environments, CPS must need efficient reliability.
4. Concurrency: In cyber-physical systems refers to the simultaneous
execution of multiple tasks or processes in a coordinated manner.
5. Real-Time Computation: CPS systems have real-time computation
capabilities that allow for dynamic decision-making based on physical real-
world data.
6. Safety-Critical Application: In terms of the CPS applications where the
safety of our systems higher priority over the performance and development
of the system.
Characteristics
 It is a combination of Physics with cyber Components networked which is
interconnected.
 CPS systems are to monitor and control physical processes in a seamless
manner.
 In CPS systems sensors and Actuators work in the feedback loop.
 In CPS systems devices are designed to interact with physical processes
and control them.
 The CPS systems are more complex compared then IoT devices.
Application of Cyber-Physical System
Cyber-Physical systems have the widest application in the real world with
technology, cps is mostly applied in many fields as you can see-
 Agriculture: Through the cps systems we can develop such kinds of
sensors and tractors or harvesters that provide information on soil type and
condition.
 Aeronautics: Aeronautics is one area that can benefit from CPS integration.
In Aeronautics, CPS can be used to improve aircraft control and safety and
improve performance and efficiency.
 Healthcare and Personalized Medicine: CPS systems have the technology
which involves the use of connected medical devices and wearables to
monitor patients’ health data.
 Civil Infrastructure: Cyber-physical systems are using infrastructure
improvement with some new efficiency technology. Advanced digital
technology like IoT and sensors etc.
 Manufacturing: In manufacturing CPS can monitor and control the
production process in real-time, improving quality and reducing scrap.
 Transportation: In transportation, CPS can improve safety and efficiency
through intelligent traffic management systems, vehicle-to-vehicle
communications, and self-driving vehicles.