What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

I. Illustrate the limit of a function using table of values and the graph of the function.

What I Know
Learning Task 1: Let us check your prior knowledge about functions by answering the problems below.
1. Write an equation to represent the function from the following table of values.

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 −4 −2 0 2 4
a. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 b. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 c. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2

2. Write an equation to represent the function from the following table of values.

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑦 1 2 3 4 5
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 b. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 c. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3

3. Which one of the following is not a function?

a. (1,1), (2,4), (3,9) b. (1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (2,4) c. (1,1), (2,4), (3,9), (4,9) d. (2,4), (3,9), (4,9)

4. Given: 𝐴 = {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3}

𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 to the set of whole number as defined in the following table:
𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑦 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
What is the domain of 𝑓?
a. The set of integers c. {−3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3}
b. The set of Whole number d. {0, 1,4,9}
5. Which of these graphs does not illustrate a funtion?
a. b. c. d.

6. Which one of the following is not a function?

a. b. c. d.

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7. Which one of the following is not a function?
a. b. c. d.

8. Which relation is not a function?

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = −√𝑥 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = ±√𝑥 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1

9. The function 𝑓 is defined on the real numbers by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 . What is the value of 𝑓(−3)?
a. −10 b. −4 c. 8 d. 14

4
10. If 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3√(𝑥 − 1), what if (𝑔 o 𝑓)(𝑥)?
𝑥

4 1 3 4 3 4
a. 3 b. c. √ d. √ − 1
√(𝑥−1) 4 3√(𝑥−1) (𝑥−1) 𝑥

Lesson Limits of a Function

What’s in
One important aspect of the study of calculus is the analysis of how function values (outputs)
change as input values change. Basic to this study is the notion of a limit. Suppose a function f is given and
suppose the x-values (the inputs) get closer and closer to some number a. If the corresponding outputs—
the values of —get closer and closer to another number, then that number is called the limit of as x
approaches a.
For example, let and select x-values that get closer and closer to 4. In the table and graph below,
we see that as the input values approach 4 from the left (that is, are less than 4), the output values approach
11, and as the input values approach 4 from the right (that is, are greater than 4), the output values also
approach 11. Thus, we say: As approaches 4 from either side, the function approaches 11.
An arrow →, is often used to stand for the words “approaches from either side.” Thus, the statement
above can be written: As 𝑥 → 4, 2𝑥 + 3 → 11.
The number 11 is said to be the limit of as approaches 4 from either side. We can abbreviate this
statement as follows: lim 2𝑥 + 3 = 11
𝑥→4

30
 Limit Numerically Limit Graphically

𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→4
2 7
These inputs 3.6 10.2
These outputs
approach 4 from 3.9 10.8 approach 11
the left 3.99 10.98
3.999 10.998
4 … … 11
4.001 11.002
These inputs 4.01 11.02
These outputs
approach 4 from 4.1 11.2 approach 11
the right 4.8 12.6
5 13

When we write lim 𝑓(𝑥), we are indicating the 𝑥 is approaching 𝑎 from both sides. If we want to
𝑥→𝑎
be specific about the side from which the 𝑥 – values approach the value 𝑎, we use the notation
lim 𝑓(𝑥) to indicate the limit from the left (that is, where 𝑥 < 𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎−

or

lim 𝑓(𝑥) to indicate the limit from the right (that is, where 𝑥 > 𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎+

These are called left-hand and right-hand limits, respectively. For a limit to exist, both the left-hand
and right-hand limits must exist and be the same.

What’s New
The idea of the limit of a function is basic in the Calculus. It is needed in finding the derivative of
given functions by the method called Three-step rule. This rule is the basis of the differentiation formulas.
Limit of a Function
Given a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we define the limit of the function to be the value approached by the
dependent variable as the independent variable 𝑥 approaches the given value 𝑎. In symbols,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂

Read as “The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L”.

Example 1. lim 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→4
The arrow pointing at 4 indicates that x is approaching 4 from the left side and from the right side of
4.

This means that x can take on value less than 4 and values greater than 4. It cannot take 4 as a value
because it is just approaching 4.

The first thing to do to find the limit of the given function is to construct table of values.

Table 1 Table 2
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
X 𝑥→4 X 𝑥→4

3 5 4.9 6.9
3.1 5.1 4.7 6.7

31
 3.3 5.3 4.5 6.5
3.5 5.5 4.3 6.3
3.7 5.7 4.1 6.1
3.9 5.9 4.01 6.01
3.999 5.999 4.001 6.001

In table 1, let x take on some values of x that are less than 4. These values of x get closer and closer
to 4.
In table 2, let x take on some values of x that are greater than 4. These values of x get closer and
closer to 4.
As the value of x gets closer to 4 from the left or as x approaches 4 from the left, the value of f(x)
approaches 6. As the value of x gets closer to 4 from right or as x approaches 4 from the right, f(x) approaches
6.

This can be written as follows 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟔. This means that the limit of 𝑥 + 2 is 6 as x
𝒙→𝟒
approaches 4 from either side.

Example 2: lim 1 + 3𝑥
𝑥→2

Construct the following table of values.

𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥) X lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+
1 4 3 10
1.25 4.75 2.75 9.25
1.50 5.5 2.50 8.5

1.75 6.25 2.25 7.75

1.99 6.97 2.1 7.3

Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 + 𝟑𝒙 = 𝟕
𝒙→𝟐

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3
Example 3: lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
0
Notice that f(x) is not defined at x = 3. If x is 3, then f(x) = which is undefined or indeterminate.
0
Simplify the equation by factoring.
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3 (𝑥−3)(𝑥−1)
lim >>> lim >>> lim 𝑥 − 1
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3

Construct the following table of values

𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥) X lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+
2 1 4 3
2.1 1.1 3.9 2.9
2.3 1.3 3.7 2.7
2.5 1.5 3.5 2.5
2.7 1.7 3.3 2.3
2.9 1.9 3.1 2.1
2.99 1.99 3.01 2.01
2.999 1.999 3.001 2.001

Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒙→𝟑

32
 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4
Example 4: lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥−1

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4 (𝑥−1)(𝑥−4)
lim >>> lim >>> 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 − 𝟒
𝑥→−1 𝑥−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥−1 𝒙→−𝟏

Construct the following table of values.

X lim 𝑓(𝑥) X lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−1− 𝑥→−1+
-2 -6 0 -4
-1.99 -5.99 -0.25 -4.25
-1.75 -5.75 -0.50 -4.5
-1.50 -5.5 -0.75 -4.75
-1.25 -5.25 -0.99 -4.99

Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 − 𝟒 = −𝟓
𝒙→−𝟏

Example 5: Let f be defined by the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2.

a. Evaluate lim− √𝑥 − 2
𝑥→2
b. The lim− √𝑥 − 2 does not exist because √𝑥 − 2 is not a real number if 𝑥 < 2.
𝑥→2
c. Evaluate lim+ √𝑥 − 2
𝑥→2
𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
3 1
2.7 0.8367
2.5 0.7071
2.3 0.5477
2.1 0.3162
2.01 0.1
2.001 0.3162
2.0001 0.01

Hence, this is one sided limit from the right. The independent variable x approaches 2 from the
right. lim+ √𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥→2

2𝑥 2 −𝑎𝑥−14
Example 6: Find the value of a such that lim exist. What is the value of the limit?
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

Solution: We observe that lim 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 1 + 2 − 3 = 0, so in order for this limit to exist,

𝑥→−1
we need the limit of the numerator as 𝑥 → −1 to be 0 as well. Since
lim 2𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 − 14 = 2 + 𝑎 − 14 = 𝑎 − 12,
𝑥→−1

𝑎 − 12 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐. Then, away from 𝑥 = −1,

2𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 − 14 2(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 + 1) 2(𝑥 − 7)
= = .
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥−3
2(−8)
As 𝑥 → −1, we see by evaluation that the limit is =𝟒
−4

Illustrate the limit of a function using table of values.

2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 14 2(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 7) 2(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 + 1)

lim 2 ≫> lim ≫> lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥→−1 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→−1 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1)

33
 2(𝑥 − 7)
lim
𝑥→−1 (𝑥 − 3)

x lim 𝑓(𝑥) X lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−1− 𝑥→−1+
-2 0
-1.99 -0.25
-1.75 -0.50
-1.50 -0.75
-1.25 -0.99

Learning Task 2: Find the limit of a function using table of values.

1. lim 2𝑥 − 6 2. lim 3𝑥 − 5
𝑥→4 𝑥→3

Table 1 Table 2 Table 1 Table 2

x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→4− 𝑥→4+ 𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+
3 5 2 4
3.1 4.9 2.1 3.9
3.3 4.7 2.3 3.7
3.5 4.5 2.5 3.5
3.7 4.3 2.7 3.3
3.9 4.1 2.9 3.1
3.99 4.01 2.99 3.01
3.999 4.001 2.999 3.001
Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 = ______ Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓 = _____
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟑

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8 𝑥 2 −11𝑥+24
3. lim 4. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→8 𝑥−8

Table 1 Table 2 Table 1 Table 2

x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+ 𝑥→8− 𝑥→8+
1 3 7.1 9
1.1 2.9 7.2 8.9
1.3 2.7 7.3 8.7
1.5 2.5 7.5 8.5
1.7 2.3 7.7 8.3
1.9 2.1 7.9 8.1
1.99 2.01 7.99 8.01
1.999 2.001 7.999 8.001

Hence 𝐥𝐢𝐦 _______ = _____ Hence lim _______ = ____

𝒙→𝟐 𝑥→8

What is It
Now, consider the following graph of function.

Example 1. Below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥). For each of the given points, determine the value of 𝑓(𝑎) and
lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎

a. 𝑎 = −3 b. 𝑎 = −1 c. 𝑎 = 2 d. 𝑎 = 4

34
a. 𝑎 = −3
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟑) = 𝟒 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 4. We
can also see that as we approach 𝑥 = −3 from both sides, the graph is approaching the different values (4
from the left and −2 from the right). Because of this we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭.
𝒙→−𝟑

Always recall that the value of a limit does not actually depend upon the value of the function at
the point in question. The value of a limit only depends on the values of the function around the point in
question. Often the two will be different.
b. 𝑎 = −1
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟏) = 𝟑 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 3. We
can also see that as we approach 𝑥 = −1 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 1, and
so we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏.
𝒙→−𝟏

c. 𝑎 = 2
Because there is no closed dot for 𝑥 = 2, we can see that, 𝒇(𝟐) does not exist. We can also see
that as we approach 𝑥 = 2 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 1, and so we get,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏.
𝒙→𝟐

Always recall that the value of a limit does not actually depend upon the value of the function at
the point in question. The value of a limit only depends on the values of the function around the point in
question. Therefore, even though the function doesn’t exist at this point, the limit can still have a value.

d. 𝑎 = 4
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝟓 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 5. We can
also see that as we approach 𝑥 = 4 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 5, and so we
get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓.
𝒙→𝟒

Example 2. Below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥). For each of the given points, determine the value of 𝑓(𝑎) and
lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎

a. 𝑎 = −8 b. 𝑎 = −2 c. 𝑎 = 6 d. 𝑎 = 10

35
a. 𝑎 = −8
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟖) = −𝟑 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = −3. We
can also see that as we approach 𝑥 = −8 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, −6, and
so we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟔.
𝒙→−𝟖

b. 𝑎 = −2
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟐) = 𝟑 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 3. We
can also see that as we approach 𝑥 = −2 from both sides, the graph is approaching different values, (3 from
the left and doesn’t approach any value from the right). Because of this, we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭.
𝒙→−𝟐

c. 𝑎 = 6
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(𝟔) = 𝟓 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 5. We can
also see that as we approach 𝑥 = 6 from both sides, the graph is approaching different values, (2 from the
left and 5 from the right). Because of this, we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭.
𝒙→𝟔

d. 𝑎 = 10
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 0. We can
also see that as we approach 𝑥 = 10 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 0, so we get,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎.
𝒙→𝟏𝟎

Example 3. Below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥). For each of the given points, determine the value of 𝑓(𝑎),
lim− 𝑓(𝑥). and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

a. 𝑎 = −4 b. 𝑎 = −1 c. 𝑎 = 2 d. 𝑎 = 4

a. 𝑎 = −4
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟒) = 𝟑 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 3. We can also
see that as we approach 𝑥 = −4 from the left, the graph is approaching a value of 3 and as we approach
from the right, the graph is approaching a value of −2. Therefore, we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑 and
𝒙→−𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟐. Now, because the two one-sided limits are different, we know that,
𝒙→−𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭.
𝒙→−𝟒

b. 𝑎 = −1
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(−𝟏) = 𝟒 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = 4. We can also
see that as we approach 𝑥 = −1 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 4, and so we
get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒. The two one-sided limits are the same, so we know,
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙→−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒.
𝒙→−𝟏

c. 𝑎 = 2
From the graph, we can see that 𝒇(𝟐) = −𝟏 because the closed dot is at the value of 𝑦 = −1. We can also
see that as we approach 𝑥 = 2 from the left, the graph is approaching a value of −1 and as we approach

36
from the right, the graph is approaching a value of 5. Therefore, we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟏 and
𝒙→𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓. Now, because the two one-sided limits are different, we know that,
𝒙→𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭.
𝒙→𝟐

d. 𝑎 = 4
Because there is no closed dot for 𝑥 = 4, we can see that, 𝒇(4) does not exist. We can also see that as we
approach 𝑥 = 4 from both sides, the graph is approaching the same value, 2, and so we get, 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐
𝒙→𝟒
and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐. The two one-sided limits are the same, so we know, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐.
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟒

What’s More

Learning Task 3: Below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥). For each of the given points, determine the value of 𝑓(𝑎)
and lim 𝑓(𝑥). If any of the quantities do not exist, clearly explain why.
𝑥→𝑎

a. 𝑎 = −2 b. 𝑎 = −1 c. 𝑎 = 1 d. 𝑎 = 3

What I Have Learned

(Write your personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.)
I understand that _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.

I realize that _________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Learning Task 4: Below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥). For each of the given points, determine the value of
𝑓(𝑎), lim− 𝑓(𝑥). and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥). If any of the quantities do not exist, clearly explain why.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

37
 a. 𝑎 = −2 b. 𝑎 = 1 c. 𝑎 = 3 d. 𝑎 = 5

Assessment
Exercise
I. Illustrate the limit of a function using table of values.
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕 2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙→𝟐

𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥)

X lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+ 1 3
1 3
1.1 2.9
1.1 2.9
1.3 2.7
1.3 2.7
1.5 2.5
1.5 2.5
1.7 2.3
1.7 2.3
1.9 2.1
1.9 2.1
1.99 2.01
1.99 2.01
1.999 2.001
1.999 2.001

𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙+𝟐 𝒙𝟑 +𝒙𝟐 −𝒙−𝟏

3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏

x lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥)

X lim 𝑓(𝑥) x lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→1− 𝑥→1+
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1+
0 2
0 2
0.1 1.9
0.1 1.9
0.3 1.7
0.3 1.7
0.5 1.5
0.5 1.5
0.7 1.3
0.7 1.3
0.9 1.1
0.9 1.1
0.99 1.01
0.99 1.01
0.999 1.001
0.999 1.001

x 𝑓(𝑥)
0
5. Let f be defined by the equation 2.3
𝑓(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥 2.5
a. Evaluate lim− √3 − 𝑥 2.7
𝑥→3
2.9
2.99
b. Evaluate lim+ √3 − 𝑥 2.999
𝑥→3

38
II. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by
Determine the value of the
following:

a. 𝑓(3)
b. 𝑓(−1)
c. lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3

d. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3

e. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−1

39
 What I Need to Know
After going through this module, you are expected to:
II. Illustrate the limit laws / apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions
(polynomial, rational, and radical).

What I Know
Learning Task 1: Let us check your prior knowledge about operations of polynomials (Multiplication and
Division) by answering the problems below.
1. Which of the following is a polynomial?
1 1
a. 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 22 b. −7𝑥 3 𝑦 −1
2
c. 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 4 − 3 d.
𝑥−4

2. if 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two polynomials, which of the following may NOT be a polynomial
a. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) b. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) x 𝑔(𝑥) d.
𝑔(𝑥)

3. Multiply out (3𝑥 + 2)(4𝑥 − 5)

a. 12𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 10 b. 12𝑥 2 − 23𝑥 − 10

c. 12𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 10 d. 12𝑥 2 − 10
4. What is the product of (5𝑥 − 2) and (2𝑥 + 7)?

a. 10𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 + 14 b. 10𝑥 2 + 39𝑥 − 14

c. 7𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 − 14 d. 10𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 − 14

5. What is the product of (3𝑥 − 4𝑦) and (−2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 6)?
a. −6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 − 18𝑥 − 20𝑦 2 + 24𝑦 b. −6𝑥 2 + 23𝑥𝑦 − 18𝑥 − 20𝑦 2 + 24𝑦

c. 6𝑥 2 + 23𝑥𝑦 − 18𝑥 − 20𝑦 2 + 24𝑦 d. −6𝑥 2 + 23𝑥𝑦 − 18𝑥 + 20𝑦 − 24𝑦

6. Divide 8𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 3 by 4𝑥.

3 3
a. 2𝑥 + 3 + b. 2𝑥 + 3 −
4𝑥 4𝑥
3 3
c. 2𝑥 − 3 − d. 8𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 −
4𝑥 4𝑥

7. Divide (5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥) by 𝑥 − 2, where 𝑥 ≠ 2.

a. 5𝑥 b. 5𝑥 + 5
c. 5𝑥 − 5 d. 5𝑥 + 10

8. Divide −12𝑥 2 − 18𝑥) by (2𝑥 + 3).

a. 6𝑥 b. −12𝑥
−6𝑥(2𝑥−3)
c. d. −6𝑥
2𝑥+3

40
9. Factor completely the expression 5𝑦 2 + 15𝑦.

a. 5(𝑦 2 + 3𝑦) b. 𝑦(5𝑦 + 15)

c. 5𝑦(𝑦 + 3) d. 20𝑦 3

10. Factor completely the expression 𝑥 5 − 81𝑥.

a. 𝑥(𝑥 4 − 81) b. 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 9)(𝑥 2 − 9)

c. 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)3 (𝑥 − 3) d. 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 9)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)

Lesson The Properties on Limits

What’s in

Using numerical and graphical methods for finding limits can be time-consuming. In this
section, we develop methods to more quickly evaluate limits for a wide variety of functions.
The following list summarizes common limit properties that allow us to calculate limits much more
efficiently
1.1. Limit of a Constant
The limit of a constant is the same constant.

lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

1.2. Limits Obtained by Direct Substitution

In finding the limit of a given expression, the first step usually done is by substituting the
value of a. If the computed value is defined, then that is the limit. If not, then other property may
be tried.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

1.3. Limit of a Sum or Difference

The limit of a sum or difference is equal to the sum or difference of their limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1.4. Limit of a Product

The limit of a product is equal to the product of their limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] ∙ [lim 𝑔(𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1.5. Limit of a Quotient

The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of their limits provided the limit of the
denominator is not equal to zero.

41
 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
lim = ; 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

1.6. Limit of a Radical Expression

The limit of the nth root of a function is equal to the nth root of the limit.
𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1.7. Limit at Infinity

𝑃(𝑥)
The limit of Rational function of the form with deg(P) > deg(Q) as x approaches
𝐷(𝑥)
infinity is either positive infinity or negative infinity.
𝑃(𝑥)
The limit of Rational function of the form with deg(P) < deg(Q) as x approaches
𝐷(𝑥)
infinity is zero.
𝑃(𝑥)
To solve limit of Rational function of the form with deg(P) = deg(Q) as x approaches
𝐷(𝑥)
infinity, divide the coefficients of the terms with the largest exponents.

What’s New
1. Limit of a Constant
The limit of a constant is the same constant.

lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

a. lim 3 = 3
𝑥→2
b. lim 7 = 7
𝑥→4
c. lim 5 = 5
𝑥→0

2. Limits Obtained by Direct Substitution

In finding the limit of a given expression, the first step usually done is by substituting the value of
a. If the computed value is defined, then that is the limit. If not, then other property may be tried.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

a. lim 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥→1
= (12 ) + (3 ∙ 1) + 2
= 1+3+2
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟔
𝒙→𝟏

b. lim 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 5
𝑥→−2
= 2(−23 ) − (−2) + 5
= 2(−8) + 2 + 5
−16 + 2 + 5
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝟓 = −𝟗
𝒙→−𝟐

42
 3. Limit of a Sum or Difference
The limit of a sum or difference is equal to the sum or difference of their limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

a. lim 𝑥 + 5 = lim 𝑥 + lim 5

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
=2+5
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟕
𝒙→𝟐

b. lim 2𝑥 − 2 = lim 2𝑥 − lim 2

𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
= 2(3) − 2
= 6−2
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟒
𝒙→𝟑

c. lim 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 4 = lim 2𝑥 3 + lim 𝑥 − lim 4

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

= 2(13 ) + 1 − 4
= 2(1) + 1 − 4
= 2+1−4

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙 − 𝟒 = − 𝟏
𝒙→𝟏

Learning Task 2: Evaluate each of the following.

1. lim (3)
𝑥→0

2. lim (2𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→3

3. lim (−2𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→−12

4. lim (𝑥 3 − 5)
𝑥→4

5. lim (2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→5

What is It
4. Limit of a Product
The limit of a product is equal to the product of their limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] ∙ [lim 𝑔(𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

a. lim 2(𝑥 + 2) = lim 2 ∙ lim (𝑥 + 2)

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 2 ∙ (2 + 2)
= 2(4)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟐) = 𝟖
𝒙→𝟐

b. lim [(3𝑥 2 )(2𝑥 − 7)] = lim (3𝑥 2 ) ∙ lim (2𝑥 − 7)

𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4
= 3(42 ) ∙ [2(4) − 7]

43
 = 3(16) ∙ (8 − 7)
= 48 ∙ 1
𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦[(𝟑𝒙 )(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟕)] = 𝟒𝟖
𝒙→𝟒

5. Limit of a Quotient
The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of their limits provided the limit of the
denominator is not equal to zero.

lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
lim = ; 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
2𝑥+5
a. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥+3
2(2) + 5
=
2+3
4+5
=
5
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 𝟗
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝟓

5𝑥+4
b. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥+1
5(2) + 4
=
2+1
10 + 4
=
3
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 𝟏𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝟑

Limits of some INDETERMINATE FORMS

𝑓(𝑥) 0
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 then lim is called an indeterminate form of type " ".
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 0

𝑥 2 +7𝑥+10
c. lim
𝑥→−5 𝑥+5 Notice that f(x) is not defined at 𝑥 = −5. If x is
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2) 0
= −5, then f(x) = which is undefined or
0
𝑥+5
indeterminate. Simplify the equation by
= −5 + 2
factoring.
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −𝟑
𝒙→−𝟓 𝒙+𝟓

𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
d. lim d.
𝑥→3 𝑥+3
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
32 + 5(3) +6 lim
= 𝑥→3 𝑥+3
3+3
9 + 15 + 6 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
= =
6 𝑥+3
30
= = 3+2
6
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟓
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟓 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙+𝟑
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙+𝟑

44
 Learning Task 3: Using the Product and Quotient Properties on Limits, evaluate each of the
following.

1. lim [(2𝑥 4 )(5𝑥 − 4)]

𝑥→−3

2. lim [(7𝑥 3 + 1)(3𝑥 2 − 6)]

𝑥→4

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
3. lim ( )
𝑥→2 𝑥+2

𝑥 2 −11𝑥+28
4. lim ( )
𝑥→7 7−𝑥

6𝑥 2 −17𝑥+12
5. lim3 ( )
𝑥→ 2𝑥−3
2

What’s More
6. Limit of a Radical Expression
The limit of the nth root of a function is equal to the nth root of the limit.
𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

a. lim √3𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥→−2
= √3(−22 ) + 4
= √(3 ∙ 4) + 4
= √12 + 4
= √16
𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝟒
𝒙→−𝟐

7. Limit at Infinity

Compare the degree of the function (the highest exponent in the function)
a.
4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5
lim 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1

𝑃(𝑥)
This is a rational function of the form with deg(P) >deg(Q).
𝐷(𝑥)
Therefore, the limit is either positive infinity or negative infinity.
We need to look at the signs.
4𝑥 3 (the term with the largest exponent on the top), and
𝑥 2 (the term with the largest exponent on the bottom) are both positive.
4𝑥 3 +𝑥−5
Therefore lim = +∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −2+1
-----

−4𝑥 3 + 7
lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
𝑃(𝑥)
This is a rational function of the form with deg(P) >deg(Q).
𝐷(𝑥)
Therefore, the limit is either positive infinity or negative infinity.
We need to look at the signs.

45
 −4𝑥 3 (the term with the largest exponent on the top) is negative and
2𝑥 2 (the term with the largest exponent on the bottom) is positive.

Negative divided by positive is negative.

−4𝑥 3 +7
So lim = −∞
𝑥→∞ 2 −5𝑥+6
2𝑥

b.
3𝑥 + 1
lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
𝑃(𝑥)
This is rational function of the form with deg(P) < deg(Q).
𝑄(𝑋)
𝟑𝒙+𝟏
Therefore 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒙→∞ 𝒙𝟐
-----

5𝑥 2 − 7𝑥
lim
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 3 + 1
𝑃(𝑥)
This is rational function of the form with deg(P) < deg(Q)
𝑄(𝑋)
5𝑥 2 −7𝑥
So lim 3 =0
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 +1

c.
3𝑥 2 − 5
lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6

𝑃(𝑥)
This is rational function of the form with deg(P) = deg(Q).
𝑄(𝑋)

3𝑥 2 5 Divide each term by 𝑥 2

2 − 𝑥2
lim [ 2 𝑥 ] then simplify.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 6
+ −
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
3𝑥 2 5
2 − 𝑥2
lim [ 2 𝑥 ]
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 6
+ −
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
5
3− 2
lim [ 𝑥 ]
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 6
1+ 2− 2
𝑥 𝑥
3−0
=
1+0−0
3
=
1
𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟑
𝒙→∞ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟔
-----

5𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 1
lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 4
𝑃(𝑥)
This is rational function of the form with deg(P) = deg(Q).
𝑄(𝑋)

So, divide the coefficients of the terms with the largest exponents (4)
5 1
=−
−10 2

𝟓𝒙𝟒 −𝟕𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝟏
Then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =− .
𝒙→∞ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 −𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒 𝟐

46
 What I Have Learned
(Write your personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.)
I understand that _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.

I realize that _________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.

What I Can Do
Learning Task 4: Answer the following.

1. Give an example of a type of function 𝑓 whose limit, as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, is 𝑓(𝑎).

2. When direct substitution is used to evaluate the limit of a rational function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎
0
and the result is 𝑓(𝑎) = , does this mean that the limit of 𝑓 does not exist?
0

3. What does it mean to say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, is undefined?

Assessment
Exercise
Evaluate each limit.

1. lim (8 − 3𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 ) 2. lim

6+4𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 +1
3𝑥 7 −7𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 −25
3. lim 4. lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 +𝑥−3 𝑥→−5 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−15
3𝑥 4 −𝑥 3 +2 𝑥− 3√𝑥
5. lim 6. lim 2𝑥+10
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 +𝑥−3 𝑥→8
3𝑥+2
7. lim (𝑥 − 7)(2𝑥 − 3) 8. lim
𝑥→5 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −10𝑥+25 2𝑥 2 −17𝑥+8
9. lim 10. lim
𝑥→5 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−5 𝑥→8 8−𝑥
3−√𝑥 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
11. Determine lim 12. Evaluate. lim ( 𝑥−2
)
𝑥→4 𝑥−9 𝑥→2

13. lim (5𝑥 + 7)4 3 2𝑥

𝑥→−2 14. lim √7𝑥−1
𝑥→4

47
 𝑥 2 −3𝑥 𝑥
15. lim (2𝑥 2−5𝑥−3) 16. lim −7𝑥+1
𝑥→3 𝑥→4

3𝑥−1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4
17. lim1 (9𝑥2 −1) 18. lim (2𝑥 2 −𝑥−1)
𝑥→ 𝑥→∞
3
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+1
19. Show: lim ( 𝑥 3 +2
)= 0
𝑥→∞
(1 mark for dividing top and bottom by the highest power of x
in the DENOMINATOR)
(1 mark for simplifying both the numerator and denominator)
(1 mark for evaluating the limit)

48
 What I Need to Know
After going through this module, you are expected to:
III. Illustrate continuity of a function at a point;
Determine whether a function is continuous at a point or not;
Illustrate continuity of a function on an interval; and
Determine whether a function is continuous on an interval or not.

What I Know
Learning Task 1: We can use limits to study continuity, a concept of great importance in calculus. So, let
us check your prior knowledge about limits by completing each of the following statements below.
Complete each of the following statements.

1. As 𝑥 approaches 3, the value of 2𝑥 + 5 approaches _______.

2. As 𝑥 approaches −4, the value of 3𝑥 + 7 approaches _______.
3. As 𝑥 approaches_______, the value of −3𝑥 approaches 6.
4. As 𝑥 approaches_______, the value of 𝑥 − 2 approaches 5.
5. The notation lim 𝑓(𝑥) is read _______________________.
𝑥→4

6. The notation lim 𝑔(𝑥) is read _______________________.

𝑥→1

7. The notation lim− 𝐹(𝑥) is read _______________________.

𝑥→5

8. The notation lim+ 𝐺(𝑥) is read _______________________.

𝑥→4

9. The notation ___________ is read “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right.
10. The notation ___________ is read “the limit of 𝐻(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 3 from the left.

Lesson Continuity of a Function

What’s in
As we have observed in our discussion of limits, there are functions whose limits are not equal to
the function value at x = c, meaning, lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑐). This leads us to the study of continuity of functions.
𝑥→𝑐

49
 What’s New
LIMITS AND CONITNUITY AT A POINT

What does “continuity at a point” mean? Intuitively, this means that in drawing the graph of a
function, the point in question will be traversed. We start by graphically illustrating what it means to be
continuity at a point.

EXAMPLE 1: Consider the graph below.

Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 1?

To check if the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 1, use the given graph. Note that one is able to trace
the graph from the left side of the number 𝑥 = 1 going to the right side if 𝑥 = 1, without lifting one’s pen.
This is the case here. Hence, we can say that the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

EXAMPLE 2. Consider the graph of the function 𝑔(𝑥) below.

Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 1?

50
 We follow the process in the previous example. Tracing the graph from the left of 𝑥 = 1 going to
the right of 𝑥 = 1, one finds that she/he must lift her/his pen briefly upon reaching 𝑥 = 1, creating a hole
in a graph. Thus, the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1.

1
EXAMPLE 3. Consider the graph of function ℎ(𝑥) = .
𝑥

Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 0?

If we have to trace the graph from the left of 𝑥 = 0 going to the right of 𝑥 = 0, we have to lift our
pen since at the left of 𝑥 = 0, the function values will go downward indefinitely, while at the right of 𝑥 =
0, the function values will go upward indefinitely. In other words,

1 1
lim = −∞ and lim+ = ∞
𝑥→0− 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Thus, the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0.

EXAMPLE 4. The graph of a function 𝑘 is given below.

From the graph, we have

1. 𝑘(−2) = 3 = lim 𝑘(𝑥);

𝑥→−2

2. 𝑘(0) = 5 = lim 𝑘(𝑥);

𝑥→0

3. 𝑘(3) = 6 but lim DNE.

𝑥→3

51
 Thus, 𝑘(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = −2 and at 𝑥 = 0, but is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 3.

Suppose we are not given the graph of a function but just the function itself. How do we determine if the
function is continuous at a given number? In this case, we have to check three conditions.

THREE CONDITIONS OF CONTINUITY

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=c if the following three conditions are satisfied:

i. f(c) exists;
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
𝑥→𝑐
iii. f(c) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
If at least one of these conditions is not met, f is said to be discontinuous at x = c.

EXAMPLE 5: Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

a. 𝑓(1) = 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
= 4(1)2 + 1 − 2
=4+1−2
=3
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
𝑥→1
lim 4𝑥 2 + lim 𝑥 − lim 2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= 4(12 ) + 1 − 2
=4+1−2
=3

c. 𝑓(1) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→1
The three conditions are satisfied. The function is continuous at x = 1.

𝑥 2 −9
EXAMPLE 6: Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at x = 3.
𝑥−3

𝑥 2 −9
a. 𝑓(3) =
𝑥−3
32 − 9
=
3−3
0
=
0
= 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑥 2 −9
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥2 − 9
lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
=3+3
=6

c. 𝑓(3) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3
The three conditions are not satisfied. The function is discontinuous at x = 3.

52
Learning Task 2:
A. Consider the graph of functions below.
1. Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 0?

2. Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = 2?

3. Is the function continuous at 𝑥 = −2?

4. Determine is f is continuous at x = c.
a. 𝑥 = −4 b. 𝑥 = −1 c. 𝑥 = 1 d. 𝑥 = 3 d. 𝑥 = 5

53
 B. Determine if the function is continuous at a given point.
5. Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 10 is continuous at 𝑥 = −3
𝑥 2 −6𝑥
6. Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at x = 6.
𝑥−6
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−15
7. Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at x = 5.
𝑥−5

What is It

Here, we will analyze a piecewise function to determine if any real numbers exist where the
function is not continuous. A piecewise function may have discontinuities at the boundary points of the
function as well as within the functions that make it up.
To determine the real numbers for which a piecewise function composed of polynomial functions
is not continuous, recall that polynomial functions themselves are continuous on the set of real numbers.
Any discontinuity would be at the boundary points. So, we need to explore the three conditions of continuity
at the boundary points of the piecewise function.

HOW TO: GIVEN A PIECEWISE FUNCTION, DETERMINE WHETHER IT IS CONTINUOUS AT

THE BOUNDARY POINTS.
1. For each boundary points at 𝑎 of the piecewise function, determine the left- and right-hand limits
at 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, as well as the function value at 𝑎.
2. Check each condition for each value to determine if all three conditions are satisfied.
3. Determine whether each value satisfies condition 1: 𝑓(𝑎) exists.
4. Determine whether each value satisfies condition 2: lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

5. Determine whether each value satisfies condition 3: lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

6. If all three conditions are satisfied, the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎. If any one of the
conditions falls, the function is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

EXAMPLE 7: Investigate the continuity of the function at x = 3.

−2𝑥+4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≥3
𝑓 (𝑥) = {𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<3
At x = 3.
a. 𝑓(3) = −2𝑥 + 4
= −2(3) + 4
= −6 + 4
= −2

−2𝑥 + 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 3 One Sided Continuity

b. lim+𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 4
𝑥→3
A function f is said to be continuous from the
lim+ = −2𝑥 + 4
𝑥→3 right at x = c, if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
= −2(3) + 4
= −6 + 4
= −2

54
 𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3 One Sided Continuity
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
𝑥→3−
lim 𝑥 − 1 A function f is said to be continuous from the left
𝑥→3−
=3−1 at x = c, if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
=2

c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3
The second equation is not satisfied at x = 3. Hence the function is discontinuous at x = 3.

EXAMPLE 8: Determine if
𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<4
𝑓 (𝑥) = {(𝑥−4)2 +3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≥4 is continuous or not at x = 4.

At 𝑥 = 4
(𝑥 − 4)2 + 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 4
a. 𝑓(4) = (𝑥 − 4)2 + 3
= (4 − 4)2 + 3
=3

(𝑥 − 4)2 + 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 4 𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 4
b. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 4)2 + 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
𝑥→4 𝑥→4−
lim (𝑥 − 4)2 +3 lim 𝑥 + 1
𝑥→4+ 𝑥→4−
= (4 − 4)2 + 3 = 4+1
=5
=3
c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→4+ 𝑥→4

The function is discontinuous at x = 4.

EXAMPLE 9: Determine whether the functions 𝑓 is discontinuous for any real numbers.

𝑥 + 1, 𝑥<2
3, 2≤𝑥<4
𝑥 2 − 11, 𝑥≥4

The piecewise function is defined by three functions, which are all polynomial functions, 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 on 𝑥 < 2, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 on 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 4, and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 11 on 𝑥 ≥ 4. Polynomial functions are
continuous everywhere. Any discontinuities would be at the boundary points, 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 4.

At 𝑥 = 2

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 if 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 4
𝑓(2) = 3

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 if 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 4

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→2+

55
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 if 𝑥 < 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 1
𝑥→2−

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→2−

c. lim+𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

The function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 2.

At 𝑥 = 4

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 11 if 𝑥 ≥ 4
𝑓(4) = 42 − 11
𝑓(4) = 16 − 11
𝑓(4) = 5

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 11 if 𝑥 ≥ 4

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 42 − 11
𝑥→4+

= 16 − 11
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
𝑥→4+

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 if 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 4

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→4−

c. lim+𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→4 𝑥→4

lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE

𝑥→4

The function 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 4.

Learning Task 3: Given a piecewise function, determine whether it is continuous at the boundary points.
4𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≤3
1. Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {8+𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥>3 is continuous at 𝑥 = 3.

2.
3 + 2𝑥, 𝑥<1
5𝑥, 1≤𝑥<3
−𝑥 2 + 24, 𝑥≥3

What’s More
A function can be continuous on an interval. This simply means that it is continuous at every point
on the interval. Equivalently, if we are able to draw the entire graph of the function on an interval without
lifting our tracing pen, or without being interrupted by a hole in the middle of the graph, then we can

56
conclude that the function is continuous on that interval. We begin our discussion with two concepts which
are important in determining whether a function is continuous at the endpoints of closed intervals.

ONE- SIDED CONTINUITY

1. A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous from the left at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑐

2. A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous from the right at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑐

Here are known facts on continuities of functions on intervals:

1. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.
2. The absolute value function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous everywhere.
3. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.

4. the square root function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 is continuous on [0, ∞).

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL

We first look at graphs of functions to illustrate continuity on an interval.

EXAMPLE 1. Consider the graph of the function 𝑓 given below.

Using the given graph, determine if the function f is continuous on the following intervals:
1. (−1, 1) 2. (−∞, 0) 3. (0, +∞)
Solution. Remember that when we say, “trace from the right side of 𝑥 = 𝑐”, we are tracing not

from 𝑥 = 𝑐 on the x-axis, but from the point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐))along the graph.

1. We can trace the graph from the right side of 𝑥 = −1 to the left side of 𝑥 = 1 without lifting the pen we
are using. Hence, we can say that the function 𝑓 is continuous on the interval (−1, 1).

2. If we trace the graph from any negatively large number up to the left side of 0, we will not lift our pen
and so, 𝑓 is continuous on (−∞, 0).

3. For the interval (0, +∞), we trace the graph from the right side of 0 to any large number and find that we
will not lift our pen. Thus, the function 𝑓 is continuous on (0, +∞).

EXAMPLE 2. Consider the graph of the function ℎ below.

57
 Determine using the given graph if the function f is continuous on the following intervals:
a. (−1, 1) b. [0.5, 2]

Solution. Because we are already given the graph of ℎ, we characterize the continuity of ℎ by the
possibility of tracing the graph without lifting the pen.
1. If we trace the graph of the function ℎ from the right side of 𝑥 = −1 to the left side of 𝑥 = 1, we will be
interrupted by a hole when we reach 𝑥 = 0. We are forced to lift our pen just before we reach 𝑥 = 0 to
indicate that h is not defined at 𝑥 = 0 and continue tracing again starting from the right of 𝑥 = 0. Therefore,
we are not able to trace the graph of h on (−1, 1) without lifting our pen. Thus, the function ℎ is not
continuous on (−1, 1).

2. For the interval [0.5, 2], if we trace the graph from 𝑥 = 0.5 to 𝑥 = 2, we do not have to lift the pen at all.
Thus, the function 𝑥 is continuous on [0.5, 2].

EXAMPLE 3. Determine the largest interval in which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 1 is continuous.

Solution. Since 𝑓 is a polynomial function, then it is continuous everywhere. Hence 𝑓 is continuous on ℝ.

𝑥 2 −4
EXAMPLE 4. Determine the largest interval where 𝑔(𝑥) = is continuous.
𝑥−2

Solution. Note that 𝑔(𝑥) is undefined at 𝑥 = 2. Thus, if 𝑥 ≠ 2, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2, which is a polynomial

𝑥 2 −4
function. Therefore, 𝑔(𝑥) = is continuous for all 𝓍 ∈ ℝ {2}.
𝑥−2

EXAMPLE 5. Consider the function

Is 𝑔 continuous on (0,1]? on (4, ∞)?

Solution. Since 𝑔 is a piecewise function, we just look at the ‘piece’ of the function corresponding
to the interval specified.
1. On the interval (0, 1], 𝑔(𝑥) takes the constant value 3. Also, for all c ∈ (0, 1], lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 = 𝑔(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐
Thus, 𝑔 is continuous on (0, 1].
2. For all 𝑥 > 4, the corresponding ‘piece’ of 𝑔 is 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3, a polynomial function. Recall
that a polynomial function is continuous everywhere in ℝ. Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3 is surely
continuous for all 𝑥 ∈ (4, +∞)

58
EXAMPLE 6. Consider the function given by

Solution. We have the following:

1. For 𝑥 < 4, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 is a polynomial function and therefore, continuous everywhere. Thus, 𝑓 is
continuous on (−∞, 4).

2. For 𝑥 > 4, 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1 is always defined. Moreover, 𝑓(𝑎) = √𝑎 + 1 = lim 𝑓(𝑥), for any 𝑎 > 4.
𝑥→𝑎
Thus, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous for all 𝑥 > 4.

EXAMPLE 7. Consider the function given by

Solution. We have the following:

1
1. Note that for x < 0, 𝑔(𝑥) = is undefined at 𝑥 = −1. Thus, 𝑔 is discontinuous on (−∞, 0).
𝑥−1

2. For 𝑥 ∈ (0, 2), 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial function, which is continuous on ℝ. Therefore, 𝑔 is continuous on
(0, 2).
3. Since 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 is a constant function for any 𝑥 > 2, 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous for all 𝑥 ∈ (2, +∞).

Learning Task 4: Consider the function given by

Determine if the following functions are continuous on the interval I.

a. 𝐼 = (−∞, −1)
b. 𝐼 = [−1,0]
c. 𝐼 = (0,1)
d. 𝐼 = (−, +∞)

59
 What I Have Learned
(Write your personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.)
I understand that _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

I realize that _________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Learning Task 5:
State in your own words what it means for a function 𝑓 to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Assessment
Exercise
A. Determine if each function is continuous at a point or not.

1. Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

2. Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 1 is continuous at 𝑥 = −1.
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
3. Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous = at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −9
4. Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at 𝑥 = −3.
𝑥+3
√𝑥−1
5. Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥+1
2𝑥−3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≤4
6. Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {𝑥 2 −𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥>4 is continuous at x = 4.
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<0
7. Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=0 is continuous at x = 0.
−𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<1
8. Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=1 is continuous at x = 1.
3+𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≤2
9. Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {𝑥 2 +1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥>2 is continuous at x = 2.
𝑥 2 −4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≤0
10. Determine if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {3𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥>0 is continuous at x = 0.

60
 What I Need to Know
After going through this module, you are expected to:
IV. Illustrate Different Types of Discontinuity.

What I Know
Learning Task 1: Let us check your prior knowledge about Limits and Continuity. Read each statement
below carefully. Place T on the line if you think a statement is TRUE or F if you think the statement is
FALSE.

_________1. If the function 𝑓 has a limit at 𝑎, then it is continuous there.

3𝑥 2 −𝑥
_________2. lim = 3.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +10𝑥
𝑥
_________3. lim 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
0
_________4. is a determinate form.
0

−4𝑥 4 −𝑥 2
_________5. lim = −2
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 +10𝑥

3𝑥 2 −𝑥
_________6. lim 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +10𝑥

_________7. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist, then 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑥→𝑎

_________8. If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

𝑥 2 −4
_________9. lim is undefined.
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
3
_________10. lim (𝑥−1)2 = +∞
𝑥→1

Lesson Types of Discontinuity

What’s in

The following are the graphs of functions that are continuous over the whole real number line, that
is, over (−∞, ∞).

61
 Note that there are no “jumps” or “holes” in the graphs. We say that a function is continuous over,
or on, some interval of the real number line if its graph can be traced without lifting the pencil from the
paper. If there is any point in an interval where a “jump” or a “hole” occurs, then we say that the function
is not continuous over that interval. The graphs of functions F, G, and H, which follow, show that these
functions are not continuous over the whole real line.

In each case, the graph cannot be traced without lifting the pencil from the paper. However, each
case represents a different situation:

• F is not continuous over (−∞, ∞) because the point 𝑥 = 0 is not part of the domain. Thus, there is no
point to trace at 𝑥 = 0. Note that F is continuous over the intervals(−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).

• G is not continuous over (−∞, ∞) because it is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2. To see this, trace the graph of G
starting to the left of 𝑥 = 2. As 𝑥 approaches 2 from either side, 𝐺(𝑥) approaches 3. However, at 𝑥 = 2,
𝐺(𝑥) jumps up to 5. Note that 𝐺 is continuous over (−∞, 2) and (2, ∞).

• H is not continuous over (−∞, ∞) because it is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1. To see this, trace the graph of H
starting to the left of 𝑥 = 1. As 𝑥 approaches 1 from the left, 𝐻(𝑥) approaches 4. However, as 𝑥 approaches
1 from the right, 𝐻(𝑥) is close to 0. Note that 𝐻 is continuous over (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞).

Each of the above graphs has a point of discontinuity. The graph of F is discontinuous at 0, because 𝐹(0)
does not exist; the graph of G is discontinuous at 2, because lim 𝐺(𝑥) ≠ 𝐺(2); and the graph of H is
𝑥→2
discontinuous at 1, because lim 𝐻(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→1

What’s New
We learned that when lim 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑐)are equal, 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at c. Otherwise,
𝑥→𝑐
it is said to be discontinuous at c.

Consider the function 𝑔(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥), and 𝑗(𝑥) where

3𝑥2−4𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≠1,
𝑔(𝑥 ) = { 𝑥−1
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥= 1.

62
 𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<4,
ℎ (𝑥 ) = {(𝑥−4)2 +3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≥4.
and
1
𝑗(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑥
We examine these for continuity at the respective values 1, 4, and 0.
1. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 but 𝑔(1) = 1.
𝑥→1

2. lim ℎ(𝑥) = DNE but ℎ(4) = 3.

𝑥→4

3. lim 𝑗(𝑥) = DNE and 𝑓(0) = DNE.

𝑥→0

All the functions are discontinuous at the given values. A closer study shows that they exhibit different
types of discontinuity.

Types of Discontinuity
Removable Discontinuity
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if
1. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
𝑥→𝑐

2. either 𝑓(𝑐) does not exist or 𝑓(𝑐) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐

It is said to be removable because the discontinuity may be removed by redefining 𝑓(𝑐) so that it
will equal lim 𝑓(𝑥). In other words, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, a removable discontinuity is remedied by the
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
redefinition: Let 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝐿
Recall 𝑔(𝑥) above and how it is discontinuous at 1. In this case, 𝑔(1) exists. Its graph is as follow.

The discontinuity of 𝑔 at the point 𝑥 = 1 is manifested by the hole in the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) at
the point (1, 2). Since 𝑔(1) is equal to 1 and not 2, while lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2. We now demonstrate how this kind
𝑥→1
of a discontinuity may be removed:

Let 𝑔(1) = 2
This is called a redefinition of 𝑔 at 𝑥 = 1. The redefinition results in a “transfer” of the point (1, 1)
to the hole at (1, 2). In effect, the hole is filled, and the discontinuity is removed. Therefore, the discontinuity
is called a removable one. This is also why, sometimes, it is called a hole discontinuity.

63
 We go back to the graph of 𝑔(𝑥)and see how redefining 𝑓(1) to be 2 removes the discontinuity:

and revises the function to its continuous counterpart,

ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→𝑐

Case 1. If for a function 𝑓(𝑥), lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE because the limits from the left and right of 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

both exist but are not equal, that is, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀, where 𝐿 ≠ 𝑀, then 𝑓 is said to
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
have a jump essential discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Recall the function ℎ(𝑥) where

Its graph is as follows:

We know that lim ℎ(𝑥) DNE because lim− ℎ(𝑥) = 5 and lim+ ℎ(𝑥) = 3.
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

The graph confirms that the discontinuity of ℎ(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 4 is certainly not removable. See,

64
the discontinuity is not just a matter of having one point missing from the graph and putting it in; if ever, it
is a matter of having a part of the graph entirely out of place. If we force to remove this kind of discontinuity,
we need to connect the two parts by a vertical line from (4, 5) to (4, 3). However, the resulting graph will
fail the Vertical Line Test and will not be a graph of a function anymore. Hence, this case has no remedy.
From the graph, it is clear why this essential discontinuity is also called a jump discontinuity.

Case 2. If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE because either
𝑥→𝑐

i. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞, or

𝑥→𝑐

ii. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, or

𝑥→𝑐

iii. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞, or

𝑥→𝑐

iv. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞,

𝑥→𝑐

then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have an infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

1
Recall 𝑗(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, as mentioned earlier. Its graph is as follows:
𝑥

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞,

𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

Because the limits are infinite, the limits from both the left and the right of 𝑥 = 0 do not exist, and
the discontinuity cannot be removed. Also, the absence of a left-hand (or right-hand) limit from which to
“jump” to the other part of the graph means the discontinuity is permanent. As the graph indicates, the two
ends of the function that approach 𝑥 = 0 continuously move away from each other: one end goes upward
without bound, the other end goes downward without bound. This translates to an asymptotic behavior as
𝑥-values approach 0; in fact, we say that 𝑥 = 0is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥). Thus, this discontinuity is
called an infinite essential discontinuity.

Learning Task 2: Determine if the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐. If not, identify their types.
1.

Determine if 𝑔 is continuous at x = 0.

65
 2.

Determine if 𝑓 is continuous at x = 4.

3.

Determine if ℎ is continuous at x = 0.

What is It
Now, consider the following graph of function.
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given below. Based on this graph, enumerate all discontinuities of 𝑓(𝑥) and
identify their types.
Example 1.

To answer the question for each point, we’ll need to get both the limit at the point and the
function value at the point. If they are equal, the function is continuous at the point and if they aren’t
equal, the function isn’t continuous at the point.

66
First 𝑥 = −2.
𝑓(−2) = 2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→−2

The function value and the limit aren’t the same and so the function is not continuous at this
point. This kind of discontinuity in a graph is called a jump discontinuity. Jump discontinuities occur
where the graph has a break in it as this graph does and the values of the function to either side of the
break are finite (i.e. the function doesn’t go to infinity).

Now 𝑥 = 0.
𝑓(0) = 1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1.
𝑥→0

The function is continuous at this point since the function and limit have the same value.
Finally, 𝑥 = 3.
𝑓(3) = −1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→3

The function is not continuous at this point. This kind of discontinuity is called a removable
discontinuity.
Removable discontinuities are those where there is a hole in the graph as there is in this case.
_______________________________________________________________________________
If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎+

Example 2.

For a function to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 both 𝑓(𝑎) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) must exist and we must have,
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). Using this idea, it should be fairly clear where the function is not continuous.
𝑥→𝑎

First notice that at 𝑥 = −4 e have, lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 ≠ −2 = lim + 𝑓(𝑥) and therefore, we also
𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4
know that lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE. We can therefore conclude that 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = −4 because the
𝑥→−4
limit does not exist. This kind of discontinuity in a graph is called jump discontinuity.
Likewise, at 𝑥 = 2 we have, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 ≠ 5 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) and therefore, we also know that
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE. So again, because the limit DNE, we can see that 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2. This kind
𝑥→2
of discontinuity in a graph is called jump discontinuity.
Finally, let’s look at 𝑥 = 4. Here, we can see that, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) and therefore, we
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
also know that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. However, we can also see that 𝑓(4) DNE and so once again 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑥→4
discontinuous at 𝑥 = 4. This kind of discontinuity is called removable discontinuity.
All other points on this graph will have both the function and limit exist and we’ll have
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and so will be continuous.
𝑥→𝑎

67
Learning Task 3: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given below. Based on this graph, enumerate all discontinuities of
𝑓(𝑥) and identify their types.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) Type of

𝑥=𝑎 𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎 Discontinuity

What’s More

Intermediate Value Theorem

When
▪ The curve is the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
▪ which is continuous on the interval [a, b],
▪ and M is a number between 𝑓(𝑎)and 𝑓(𝑏).

Then
▪ there must be at least one value c within [a, b] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑀

Example 1. Is there a solution to 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 − 2 = 0 between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2?

At 𝑥 = 0
At 𝑥 = 0, the curve is below zero
𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 − 2
At 𝑥 = 2, the curve is above zero
5 3
0 − 2(0 ) − 2 = −2
And, being a polynomial, the curve will be continuous,
At 𝑥 = 2
So somewhere in between the curve must cross through 𝑦 = 0
5 3
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2
Yes, there is a solution to 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 − 2 = 0 in the interval [0,2]

68
25 − 2(23 ) − 2 = 14

Example 2. Between which of the following two values does the equation −2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 5 = 0 have a
solution?

a. Between −3 and − 2
b. Between −2 and − 1
c. Between −4 and − 3
d. Between −1 and 0

𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
𝑓(𝑥) 103 34 1 −8 −5

a. Between −3 and − 2 𝑓(−3) > 0; 𝑓(−2) > 0

b. Between −2 and − 1 𝑓(−2) > 0; 𝑓(−1) < 0
c. Between −4 and − 3 𝑓(−4) > 0; 𝑓(−3) > 0
d. Between −1 and 0 𝑓(−1) < 0; 𝑓(0) < 0
Since 𝑓(−2) > 0 and 𝑓(−1) < 0 and 𝑓 is a polynomial, the Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for some value 0f 𝑥 between −2 and −1.

Leaning Task 4: Answer the following.

1. Between which of the following two values does the equation 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 11 = 0 have a solution?
a. Between 1 and 2 b. Between −1 and 0
c. Between 0 and 1 d. Between −2 and − 1

2. Between which of the following two values does the equation −5𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 have one of its
solution?

a. Between −3 and − 2 b. Between 0 and 1

c. Between −2 and − 1 d. Between −1 and 0

3. Between which of the following two values does the equation −7𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0 have a
solution?

a. Between 2 and 3 b. Between 0 and 1

c. Between 1 and 2 d. Between −1 and 0

What I Have Learned

(Write your personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.)
I understand that _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

I realize that _________________________________________________________________

69
 __________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Learning Task 5: Complete the flowchart on how to evaluate whether a function is continuous or not at a
point.

Assessment

Exercise

For each function whose graph is given below, identify the type(s) of discontinuity(ies) exhibited.
Remedy any removable discontinuity with an appropriate redefinition.

70
 1. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 2. 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

3. 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥) 4. 𝑦 = 𝑗(𝑥)

5. Enumerate all discontinuities of 𝑓(𝑥) and identify their types. If a discontinuity is removable,
state the redefinition that will remove it.

6. Determine if the following functions are continuous at the point x = c. If not, classify the
discontinuity as to removable, jump essential or infinite essential.

𝑥 2 −4
a. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = at 𝑥 = 2
𝑥−2

−2𝑥+4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≥3
b. 𝑓 (𝑥){𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<3

𝑥 2 −3
c. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥+1
at 𝑥 = 1

3𝑥 2 −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≤0
d. 𝑓 (𝑥){𝑥−2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥>0 at 𝑥 = 0

71
 What I Need to Know
After going through this module, you are expected to:
V. Apply different notation representing the derivative of a function.
Finding Derivatives using the Limit Definition – The Three – Step Rule:

What I Know
Learning Task 1: Consider the given function 𝑓. Evaluate this function at a few values:

𝑓(2) 𝑓(0) 𝑓(−3) 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2
− 4𝑥
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥

Lesson The Derivative and Differentiation

What’s in
The Derivative; Symbols

Using the functional notation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the following are the usual symbols used to mean the
first derivative.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 ′ ; 𝑓 ′ (𝑥); ; (𝑦); [𝑓(𝑥)]; 𝐷𝑥 ; etc.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Considering a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we define

𝒇(𝒙 +△ 𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒚′ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
△𝒙→𝟎 △𝒙
the derivative of the function 𝑓 and, and the process used to find the derivative is called differentiation.
Note: The symbol △ 𝑥, read “delta x”, is a single entity which means increment or change in x.

What’s New
Limit – Definition of the Derivative: The Three – Step Rule
𝑓(𝑥 +△ 𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 ′ = lim
△𝑥→0 △𝑥

72
Steps in solving for this derivative. These are as follows;
Step 1: Write down the expression for 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) and simplify.
Step 2: Divide the result in Step 1 by ∆𝑥 , again simplify.
Step 3: Find the limit of the result in Step 2 as ∆𝑥 approaches zero. The obtained limit is the
derivative.

Example 1: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥, find the first derivative 𝑓′(𝑥) by the three – step rule.
Solution:

Step 1. 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 − 3(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥)

= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥

= 2𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 − 3∆𝑥

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) 2𝑥∆𝑥+ (∆𝑥)2 −3∆𝑥

Step 2. =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

∆𝑥(2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 3)
=
∆𝑥
= 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 3

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
Step 3. lim = lim (2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 3)
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0

= 2𝑥 + 0 − 3
= 2𝑥 − 3
𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑

Learning Task 2: Find the derivative of the following function using the limit definition.
1. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 − 3 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4

What is It
Example 2: Find the derivative using three – step rule.
3
Given: 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+7

Solution:
3 3
Step 1. 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = −
𝑥+∆𝑥+7 𝑥+7

3(𝑥+7)−3(𝑥+∆𝑥+7)
=
(𝑥+∆𝑥+7)(𝑥+7)

3𝑥 + 21 − 3𝑥 − 3∆𝑥 + 21
=
𝑥 2 + 𝑥∆𝑥 + 14𝑥 + 7∆𝑥 + 49
−3∆𝑥
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥∆𝑥 + 14𝑥 + 7∆𝑥 + 49

73
 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) −3∆𝑥
Step 2. =
∆𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑥∆𝑥+14𝑥+7∆𝑥+49

−3∆𝑥 1
= ∙
𝑥2 + 𝑥∆𝑥 + 14𝑥 + 7∆𝑥 + 49 ∆𝑥
−3
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥∆𝑥 + 14𝑥 + 7∆𝑥 + 49
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) −3
Step 3. lim = lim 2 +𝑥∆𝑥+14𝑥+7∆𝑥+49
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑥

−3
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥(0) + 14𝑥 + 7(0) + 49
−3
=
𝑥2 + 14𝑥 + 49
−𝟑
𝒇′ (𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒𝟗

Learning Task 3: Find the derivative of the following function using the limit definition.
3 1
1. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
2𝑥−5 2𝑥−7

What’s More

Example 3: Find the derivative using three – step rule.

Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = √4𝑥 − 5

Solution
Step 1. 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= √4(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 5 − √4𝑥 − 5

√4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5 + √4𝑥−5
= √4𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 − 5 − √4𝑥 − 5 ∙
√4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5

4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5 − (4𝑥−5)
=
√4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5
4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5 − 4𝑥+5
=
√4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
Step 2.
∆𝑥

4∆𝑥 1
= ∙
√4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5 ∆𝑥

4
=
√4𝑥 + 4∆𝑥 − 5 + √4𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) 4
Step 3. lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 √4𝑥+4∆𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5

4
=
√4𝑥+4(0)−5+ √4𝑥−5

4
=
√4𝑥−5+ √4𝑥−5

74
 4
=
2√4𝑥−5
𝟐
𝒇′(𝒙) =
√𝟒𝒙−𝟓

Learning Task 4: Find the derivative of the following function using the limit definition.

5. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √3𝑥 − 5 6. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √5𝑥 + 2

What I Have Learned

(Write your personal insights about the lesson using the prompts below.)
I understand that _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

I realize that ________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Learning Task 5: Find the derivative of each function using the limit definition.
1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

Assessment
Exercise
Find the indicated derivative of each using the limit definition.

1. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 5; 𝑓′(𝑥) 7. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √3𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑦′

2. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 2 − 1; 𝑦′ 𝑑
8. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √2𝑥 − 3 ; 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
3. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 3; 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
9. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √4𝑥 + 5 ;
4. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1; 𝐷𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3; 𝑓′(𝑥) 2
10. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ;𝐷
𝑑 3𝑥 − 1 𝑥
6. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 2; (𝑦) 3
𝑑𝑥 11. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ; 𝑓′(𝑥)
2𝑥 + 4
4
12. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ; 𝑦′
4𝑥 − 1

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