Download the full version of the ebook at ebookfinal.

com

Traditions Warriner s Handbook 0 Introductory

Course Teachers Edition Grade 6 Holt [Holt]

https://ebookfinal.com/download/traditions-warriner-s-
handbook-0-introductory-course-teachers-edition-
grade-6-holt-holt/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Download more ebook instantly today at https://ebookfinal.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Holt Tradition Warriner s handbook first course grammar

usage mechanics sentences Teacher s Edition John E.
Warriner
https://ebookfinal.com/download/holt-tradition-warriner-s-handbook-
first-course-grammar-usage-mechanics-sentences-teacher-s-edition-john-
e-warriner/
ebookfinal.com

Let s Study Urdu An Introductory Course Ali S. Asani

https://ebookfinal.com/download/let-s-study-urdu-an-introductory-
course-ali-s-asani/

ebookfinal.com

Math Challenge Workbook Teachers Edition Grade 2 Harcourt

https://ebookfinal.com/download/math-challenge-workbook-teachers-
edition-grade-2-harcourt/

ebookfinal.com

Grammar for Writing Grade 6 Harcourt School

https://ebookfinal.com/download/grammar-for-writing-grade-6-harcourt-
school/

ebookfinal.com
Spectrum Reading Grade 6 School Specialty Publishing

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spectrum-reading-grade-6-school-
specialty-publishing/

ebookfinal.com

Wie Geht s An Introductory German Course 8th Edition

Dieter Sevin

https://ebookfinal.com/download/wie-geht-s-an-introductory-german-
course-8th-edition-dieter-sevin/

ebookfinal.com

Challenge Workbook Grade K Teachers Edition Harcourt Math

[Math

https://ebookfinal.com/download/challenge-workbook-grade-k-teachers-
edition-harcourt-math-math/

ebookfinal.com

Holt Elements of Language First Course 1st Edition Renee

Hobbs

https://ebookfinal.com/download/holt-elements-of-language-first-
course-1st-edition-renee-hobbs/

ebookfinal.com

PSYCH 6 Introductory Psychology 6th Edition Spencer A.

Rathus

https://ebookfinal.com/download/psych-6-introductory-psychology-6th-
edition-spencer-a-rathus/

ebookfinal.com
 Introductory Course

Grammar • Usage • Mechanics • Sentences

TEACHER’S EDITION
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 3/30/07 11:13 AM Page T2

AUUT
THHO
ORR JOHN E. WARRINER pioneered by Mr. Warriner was distinctive, and the editorial staff of
A
taught for thirty-two years in junior and Holt, Rinehart and Winston have worked diligently to retain the
senior high schools and in college. He was a high school English unique qualities of his pedagogy in the Holt Handbook. John
teacher when he developed the original organizational structure for Warriner also co-authored the English Workshop series and edited
his classic English Grammar and Composition series. The approach Short Stories: Characters in Conflict.

Copyright © 2008 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to the following address:
Permissions Department, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 10801 N. MoPac Expressway, Building 3, Austin,
Texas 78759.

Acknowledgments and other credits appear on pages 479 and 480, which are an extension of the copyright page.

HOLT and the “Owl Design” are trademarks licensed to Holt, Rinehart and Winston, registered in the
United States of America and/or other jurisdictions.

WARRINER’S HANDBOOK is a trademark of Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Printed in the United States of America

If you have received these materials as examination copies free of charge, Holt, Rinehart and Winston retains
title to the materials and they may not be resold. Resale of examination copies is strictly prohibited.

Possession of this publication in print format does not entitle users to convert this publication, or any portion
of it, into electronic format.

ISBN 978-0-03-099035-9
ISBN 0-03-099035-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 043 11 10 09 08 07

T2
 CONTENTS IN BRIEF
About This Book
T E AC H I N G
RESOURCES John Warriner: In His Own Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T16
To Our Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T19
Teaching Strands: Connecting Grammar and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T22
Essays on Teaching Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T24
Overview of the Holt Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T46
Instructional Resources: Chapter by Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T58

Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics

PART 1
Grammar 1 The Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Parts of Speech Overview: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Parts of Speech Overview: Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction,
Interjection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 The Phrase and the Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5 Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Usage 6 Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7 Using Verbs Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8 Using Pronouns Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9 Using Modifiers Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10 A Glossary of Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Mechanics 11 Capital Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12 Punctuation: End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, Colons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
13 Punctuation: Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, Hyphens . . . 288
14 Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
15 Correcting Common Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Sentences
PART 2
16 Writing Effective Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
17 Sentence Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

Resources
PART 3
▲▲▲

The History of English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

Test Smarts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Grammar at a Glance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Photo and Illustration Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Contents T3
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/13/01 3:51 PM Page T4

CONTENTS

Teaching About This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T16

Resources John Warriner: In His Own Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T16
To Our Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T19
Teaching Strands: Connecting Grammar and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T22
Essays on Teaching Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T24
Dispelling the Myths About Grammar Instruction, by Amy Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . T24
Grammar: Why Teach It?, by Brock Haussamen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T32
Getting Down to Basics: Using What Students Already Know, by Rei Noguchi . . . . T37
Raising Expectations: The Importance of Teaching Grammar to ESL Students,
by Billy Boyar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T41
Overview of the Holt Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T46
Instructional Resources: Chapter by Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T58

PART 1 Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The Parts of a Sentence

CHAPTER
Subject and Predicate, Kinds of Sentences ......................2

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Identifying Sentences
B. Identifying Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates
C. Punctuating and Classifying Sentences by Purpose

SENTENCE OR SENTENCE FRAGMENT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Finding the Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Compound Subject and Compound Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

KINDS OF SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A. Identifying Sentences
B. Identifying the Complete Subject and the Complete Predicate
C. Identifying Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates
D. Punctuating and Classifying Sentences by Purpose
Writing Application: Using Sentence Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

T4 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:00 PM Page T5

Parts of Speech Overview

CHAPTER Noun, Pronoun, Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

THE NOUN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Proper Nouns and Common Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

THE PRONOUN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Interrogative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

THE ADJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Proper Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Demonstrative Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
A. Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives
B. Identifying Common and Proper Nouns
C. Identifying Pronouns
D. Identifying Proper and Demonstrative Adjectives
E. Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives
Writing Application: Using Pronouns in a Plot Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Parts of Speech Overview

CHAPTER
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection . . . . . . . . 48

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Identifying Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions,

Conjunctions, and Interjections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

THE VERB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Main Verbs and Helping Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Action Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Linking Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

THE ADVERB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Position of Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

THE PREPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prepositional Phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Preposition or Adverb? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Contents T5
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:00 PM Page T6

THE CONJUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

THE INTERJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

DETERMINING PARTS OF SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A. Identifying Verb Phrases and Helping Verbs
B. Identifying Action and Linking Verbs
C. Identifying Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
D. Identifying Adverbs and the Words They Modify
E. Identifying Prepositions and Their Objects
F. Identifying Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
G. Determining Parts of Speech
Writing Application: Using Verbs in a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

The Phrase and the Clause

Prepositional Phrases, Independent and Subordinate
CHAPTER Clauses, Sentence Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A. Identifying Adjective Phrases and Adverb Phrases
B. Identifying Independent Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
C. Identifying Types of Sentences

THE PHRASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Adjective Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Adverb Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

THE CLAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Independent Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Subordinate Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

SENTENCE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Simple Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Compound Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Complex Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Compound-Complex Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

A. Identifying Adjective and Adverb Phrases
B. Identifying Independent and Subordinate Clauses
C. Identifying Clauses
D. Identifying Types of Sentences
Writing Application: Using Prepositional Phrases in a Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

T6 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:01 PM Page T7

Complements
CHAPTER
Direct and Indirect Objects, Subject Complements . . . . . . . . . .104

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Identifying Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

RECOGNIZING COMPLEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

OBJECTS OF VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Direct Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Indirect Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Predicate Nominatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Predicate Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

A. Identifying Direct and Indirect Objects
B. Identifying Subject Complements
C. Identifying Complements
Writing Application: Using Complements in a Paragraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Agreement
CHAPTER
Subject and Verb, Pronoun and Antecedent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

A. Choosing Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects
B. Choosing Pronouns That Agree with Their Antecedents

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

PROBLEMS IN AGREEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Phrases Between Subject and Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Compound Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Subject After the Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
The Contractions Don’t and Doesn’t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

A. Choosing Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects
B. Changing the Number of Subjects and Verbs
C. Proofreading for Errors in Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Writing Application: Using Agreement in Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Contents T7
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:01 PM Page T8

Using Verbs Correctly

CHAPTER
Principal Parts, Regular and Irregular Verbs, Tense ......... 146

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Revising Incorrect Verb Forms in Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Regular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

TENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Progressive Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The Verb Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Consistency of Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

SIX CONFUSING VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Sit and Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Rise and Raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Lie and Lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

A. Using Correct Forms of Irregular Verbs
B. Writing the Past and Past Participle Forms of Irregular Verbs
C. Proofreading for Correct Verb Forms
Writing Application: Using Verbs in a Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Using Pronouns Correctly

CHAPTER
Subject and Object Forms ....................................... 176

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Revising Incorrect Pronoun Forms in Sentences . . . . . . . . . 176

THE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

The Subject Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
The Object Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

SPECIAL PRONOUN PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Who and Whom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Pronouns with Appositives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

A. Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms
B. Identifying Pronouns Used as Predicate Nominatives
C. Identifying the Correct Forms of Pronouns Used as Subjects, Direct
Objects, Indirect Objects, and Objects of Prepositions
Writing Application: Using Correct Pronoun Forms in Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

T8 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:01 PM Page T9

Using Modifiers Correctly

CHAPTER
Comparison and Placement .................................... 196

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Correcting Errors in the Form, Use, and

Placement of Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

WHAT IS A MODIFIER? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

One-Word Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Phrases Used as Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Clauses Used as Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Regular Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Irregular Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN USING MODIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

DOUBLE NEGATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Prepositional Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Adjective Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

A. Identifying the Correct Forms of Modifiers
B. Correcting Double Negatives
C. Writing Comparative and Superlative Forms
D. Correcting Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
Writing Application: Using Negative Words in Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

A Glossary of Usage
CHAPTER
Common Usage Problems ....................................... 220

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Correcting Errors in Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

ABOUT THE GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

A. Revising Sentences by Correcting Errors in Usage
B. Revising Sentences by Correcting Errors in Usage
Writing Application: Using Formal English in a Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Contents T9
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:01 PM Page T10

Capital Letters
CHAPTER
Rules for Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Correcting Sentences by Capitalizing Words . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

USING CAPITAL LETTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

A. Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization
B. Correcting Sentences by Using Capital Letters Correctly
C. Correcting Errors in Capitalization
Writing Application: Using Capital Letters in an Essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Punctuation
CHAPTER
End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, Colons .................... 262

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: Using Periods, Question Marks, Exclamation Points,

Commas, Semicolons, and Colons Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

END MARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

COMMAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Items in a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Compound Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Interrupters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Conventional Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Unnecessary Commas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

SEMICOLONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

COLONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

A. Using Punctuation Correctly
B. Using Punctuation Correctly
Writing Application: Using End Marks in a Screenplay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

T10 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:02 PM Page T11

Punctuation
Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes,
CHAPTER
Hyphens, Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

A. Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Underlining (Italics) and
Quotation Marks
B. Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Apostrophes, Hyphens,
and Parentheses

UNDERLINING (ITALICS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

QUOTATION MARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

APOSTROPHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Possessive Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Plurals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

HYPHENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

PARENTHESES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

A. Using Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, Hyphens,
and Parentheses
B. Revising Indirect Quotations to Create Direct Quotations
C. Punctuating a Dialogue
Writing Application: Using Apostrophes in a Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Contents T11
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:02 PM Page T12

Spelling
CHAPTER
Improving Your Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

A. Proofreading Sentences for Correct Spelling
B. Proofreading Sentences to Correct Spelling Errors

GOOD SPELLING HABITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

SPELLING RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

ie and ei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Prefixes and Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Forming the Plurals of Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

A. Proofreading Sentences for Correct Spelling
B. Choosing Between Words Often Confused
C. Proofreading a Paragraph to Correct Spelling Errors
Writing Application: Using Correct Spelling in a Personal Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

SPELLING WORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Correcting Common Errors

CHAPTER
Key Language Skills Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

GRAMMAR AND USAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Grammar and Usage Test: Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Grammar and Usage Test: Section 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Mechanics Test: Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Mechanics Test: Section 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

T12 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:02 PM Page T13

PART 2 Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

CHAPTER
Writing Effective Sentences ............. 384

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

A. Identifying Sentences, Sentence Fragments, and Run-on Sentences
B. Combining Sentences
C. Revising Stringy Sentences and Sentences with Passive Voice
D. Using Transitions

WRITING CLEAR SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Sentence Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Run-on Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Stringy Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Active and Passive Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Using the Passive Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

COMBINING SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Inserting Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Inserting Groups of Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Using Connecting Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Using Transitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

CHAPTER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

A. Identifying Sentences, Sentence Fragments, and Run-on Sentences
B. Combining Sentences
C. Revising a Passage to Improve Sentence Style

Contents T13
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:02 PM Page T14

CHAPTER
Sentence Diagramming ..................... 412

THE SENTENCE DIAGRAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

Subjects and Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Prepositional Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Direct and Indirect Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Subject Complements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Subordinate Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

THE KINDS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

T14 Contents
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T02-T15 12/7/01 7:03 PM Page T15

PART 3 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Origins and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

TEST SMARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

Becoming “Test-Smart” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

GRAMMAR AT A GLANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Photo and Illustration Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Contents T15
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T16-T18 4/14/08 9:23 AM Page T16

J o h n Wa r r i n e r : In Hi s O w n Wo r d s

John Warriner:
In His Own Words
In the 1940s and ,50s, John Warriner
The name of John Warriner has long
been associated with a rather formal
(1907–1987) published his first grammar
style of teaching traditional school and composition textbooks. Mr. Warriner's
grammar. Interestingly, however, goal as a teacher and as a writer was to help
John Warriner did not consider him- students learn to use English effectively in
self primarily a grammarian but
rather an English teacher. Also, he
order to be successful in school and in life.
did not consider his books primarily Throughout the years that followed, Mr.
grammar textbooks but rather refer- Warriner revised his original books and
ence handbooks for students and wrote others, creating the series on which
teachers of composition.
this textbook is based. Included in Mr.
In his prefaces to Handbook of Warriner’s books were a number of short
English: Book One and Handbook of essays to his students. In these essays, Mr.
English: Book Two (published in 1948
and 1951, respectively), Warriner Warriner explored the role of language in
articulated his vision of what his text- human life, the importance of studying
books were intended to do and how English, and the value of mastering the
they might best be used. What he conventions of standard English.
had to say might surprise you.

First, Warriner’s goal in prepar-

ing these books was to create “a enables them to communicate
completely flexible teaching tool We could tell you what their thoughts to others in
adaptable to . . . any individual class- John Warriner thought about words, and which they can
room.” He did not design his books the study of English, but we’d record in writing for others to
to be teaching texts in which the rather let you read what he read. Other creatures, dogs, for
class moves sequentially from chap- himself had to say.
ter to chapter, every student doing example, have ways of commu-
all the exercises along the way. In nicating their feelings, but they
fact, he asserted just the opposite: are very simple ways and very
“[A] book of this kind is not intended Language Is Human simple feelings. Without words,
they must resort to mere nois-
for methodical coverage from cover
to cover. The book contains more “Have you ever thought
about how important es, like barking, and to physical
material than any one class can han- language is? Can you imagine actions, like tail wagging. The
dle in a single year. Teachers will what living would be like with- point is that one very impor-
teach those chapters that a particular out it? tant difference between human
class needs and will assign exercises Warriner’s first grammar and
“Of all creatures on earth, beings and other creatures is
composition textbooks, published
in proportion to the need.” in the 1940s and ‘50s. human beings alone have a the way human beings can
fully developed language, which communicate with one another

xvi John Warriner

T16 John Warriner

NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T16-T18 12/8/01 8:33 AM Page T17

Warriner was also attuned to the

by means of this remarkable they will not be very useful if needs of individual students within a
thing called language. When you cannot express them clearly class, acknowledging that “students
you stop to think about it, you and convincingly. Language is arrive with greatly varying degrees
realize that language is involved the means by which people of mastery of language essentials.
to some extent in almost every- communicate. By learning how One student may be weak in sen-
thing you do.
”
(from English Grammar and Composition:
your language functions and by
practicing language skills, you
tence sense, another in pronoun
usage. But each student requires for
First Course, 1986) his [or her] special weakness a full
can acquire the competence
necessary to express adequately text explanation, a wealth of exam-
Why Study English? ples, and practice material,” which
what you know and what you
Warriner endeavored to provide.
“Therequired
reason English is a
subject in
think.
”
(from English Grammar and Composition: To organize his material,
almost all schools is that noth- Fourth Course, 1977) Warriner’s English Warriner separated language instruc-
ing in your education is more Grammar and Composition:
Third Course, 1982 tion into sections, choosing to pre-
important than learning Why Study Grammar? sent grammar before usage. His
how to express yourself well. rationale for doing so was that a
rammar is a description
You may know a vast amount
about a subject, but if you are
“G of the way a language
works. It explains many things.
use this order without think-
working understanding of grammar
terms and concepts would provide
unable to communicate what ing. But the rule would be very students and teachers a common
For example, grammar tells us helpful to people who are
you know, you are severely vocabulary for discussing usage con-
the order in which sentence learning English as a second
handicapped. No matter how cepts. However, Warriner was not
parts must be arranged. It language. However, the rule
valuable your ideas may be, comfortable with the implications of
explains the work done by the that subjects and verbs ‘agree’ such a separation: “This is not to
various kinds of words—the (when the subject is plural, the imply that grammar can be sepa-
work done by a noun is differ- verb is plural), and the rule that rated from usage in practice. The
ent from the work done by a some pronouns (I, he, she, we, only valid reason for teaching gram-
verb. It explains how words they) are used as subjects while mar at all is to apply it to specific
change their form according usage problems [emphasis added].”
others (me, him, her, us, them)
to the way they are used. are used as objects—these are Finally, in spite of his reputation
Grammar is useful because it helpful rules even for native as a grammar curmudgeon, John
enables us to make statements speakers of English. Warriner had some rather modern
about how to use our language. “Such rules could not be ideas about language. He believed
These statements we usually understood—in fact, they that English was an evolving lan-
call rules. could not be formed—without guage and that appropriate usage
“The grammar rule that the the vocabulary of grammar. varied according to the situation. In
normal order of an English Grammar, then, helps us to fact, Warriner was adamant that a
sentence is subject-verb-object language arts textbook “must make
state how English is used and
may not seem very important clear to students that correctness in
Warriner’s English
Grammar and Composition:
to us, because English is our
how we should use it.
”
(from English Grammar and Composition:
English is not fixed, but variable, that
there are levels of usage, and that
Fourth Course, 1977 native tongue and we naturally Third Course, 1982)
any living language suffers change.”
John Warriner xvii

John Warriner T17

NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T16-T18 12/8/01 8:33 AM Page T18

Why Is Punctuation the table shows stronger feeling events often tell us something
Important? than an exclamation point. about the speaker himself.
“In written English, howev- The extra, unintended mes-
“Thetuation
sole purpose of punc-
is to make clear
er, where there are none of
these hints to meaning, simple
sage conveyed by ‘George
don’t know the answer’ is that
the meaning of what you write.
courtesy requires the writer to the speaker does not know or
When you speak, the actu-
make up for the lack by careful does not use one verb form
al sound of your voice, the
rhythmic rise and fall of your
inflections, your pauses and hes-
punctuation.
”
(from English Grammar and Composition:
that is universally preferred by
educated users of English.
Fourth Course, 1973)
itations, your stops to take “Perhaps it is not fair to
breath—all supply a kind of judge people by how they say
‘punctuation’ that serves to Why Learn Standard things rather than by what
they say, but to some extent
group your words and to indi- English?
cate to your listener precisely everyone does it. It’s hard to
what you mean. Indeed, even the “Consider the following
pair of sentences:
know what is in a person’s
head, but the language he uses
body takes part in this unwritten 1. George don’t know the
punctuation. A raised eyebrow is always open to inspection,
answer. and people draw conclusions
may express interrogation more 2. George doesn’t know the
eloquently than any question from it. The people who give
answer. marks and recommendations,
mark, and a knuckle rapped on “Is one sentence clearer or who hire employees or judge
more meaningful than the college applications, these and
other? It’s hard to see how. The others who may be important
speaker of sentence 1 and the in your life are speakers of
speaker of sentence 2 both con- educated English. You may not
vey the same message about be able to impress them mere-
George and his lack of knowl- ly by speaking their language,
edge. If language only conveyed but you are likely to impress
information about the people them unfavorably if you don’t.
and events that a speaker is dis- The language you use tells a lot
cussing, we would have to say about you. It is worth the
that one sentence is just as good trouble to make sure that it
as the other. However, language tells the story you want people
often carries messages the
English Grammar and
Composition: Fourth
speaker does not intend. The
to hear.
”
(from English Grammar and Composition:
Course, 1973 words he uses to tell us about Fourth Course, 1973)

xviii John Warriner

T18 John Warriner

NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T19-T21 12/8/01 8:35 AM Page T19

TO OUR
STUDENTS

What is grammar?
That seems like a simple ques-
tion, doesn’t it? Most of us have
a sense of what grammar is even though we are seldom asked
to define the term. Many people use the term grammar to mean “the
rules of language.” In this book, however, grammar has a more specific
meaning. Here, grammar refers to the structure of language—to the
words, phrases, and clauses that are the building blocks of sentences.
Grammar gives us the labels we use to talk about language.
What about the rules that govern how language is used in various
social situations? In this book, these rules are called usage. Unlike
grammar, usage determines what is considered standard (“isn’t”) or
nonstandard (“ain’t”) and what is considered formal (“why”) or
informal (“how come”). Usage is a social convention, a behavior or
rule that is customary for members of a group. As a result, what is
considered acceptable usage can vary from group to group and from
situation to situation.
To speak standard English requires a knowledge of grammar and
of standard usage. To write standard English requires something
more—a knowledge of mechanics. Mechanics refers to the rules for
written, rather than spoken, language. Spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation are concepts we don’t even think about when we are
speaking, but they are vital to writing effectively.

Why should I study grammar, usage,

and mechanics?
Many people would say that you should study grammar to learn
to root out errors in your speech and writing. Certainly, the Holt
Handbook can help you learn to avoid making errors and to correct
the errors you do make. More importantly, though, studying gram-
mar, usage, and mechanics gives you the skills you need to take
To Our Students xix

To Our Students T19

NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T19-T21 12/8/01 8:35 AM Page T20

sentences and passages apart and to put them together, to learn which
parts go together and which don’t. Instead of writing sentences and
passages that you hope sound good, you can craft your sentences to
create just the meaning and style you want.
Knowing grammar, usage, and mechanics gives you the tools to
understand and discuss your own language, to communicate clearly the
things you want to communicate, and to develop your own communi-
cation style. Further, mastery of language skills can help you succeed in
your other classes, in future classes, on standardized tests, and in the
larger world—including, eventually, the workplace.

How do I use the Holt Handbook?

The skills taught in the Holt Handbook are important to your success in
reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Not only can you use this book as a complete grammar, usage, and
mechanics textbook, but you can also use it as a reference guide when
you work on any piece of writing. Whether you are writing a personal
letter, a report for your social studies class, or some other piece of wri-
ting, you can use the Holt Handbook to answer your questions about
grammar, usage, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

How is the Holt Handbook organized?

The Holt Handbook is divided into three main parts:
PART 1 The Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics chapters provide
instruction on and practice using the building blocks of language—
words, phrases, clauses, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.
Use these chapters to discover how to take sentences apart and ana-
lyze them. The last chapter, Correcting Common Errors, provides
additional practice on key language skills as well as standardized
test practice in grammar, usage, and mechanics.
PART 2 The Sentences chapters include Writing
Effective Sentences and Sentence Diagramming.
Writing Effective Sentences provides instruction on
and practice with writing correct, clear, and interesting
sentences. Sentence Diagramming teaches you to ana-
lyze and diagram sentences so you can see how the
parts of a sentence relate to each other.
xx To Our Students

T20 To Our Students

 PART 3 The Resources section includes The History of English, a
concise history of the English language; Test Smarts, a handy guide
to taking standardized tests in grammar, usage, and mechanics; and
Grammar at a Glance, a glossary of grammatical terms.

How are the chapters organized?

Each chapter begins with a Diagnostic Preview, a short test that covers
the whole chapter and alerts you to skills that need improvement, and
ends with a Chapter Review, another short test that tells you how well
you have mastered that chapter. In between, you’ll see rules, which are
basic statements of grammar, usage, and mechanics principles. The
rules are illustrated with examples and followed by exercises and
reviews that help you practice what you have learned.

What are some other features of this textbook?

■ Oral Practice—spoken practice and reinforcement of rules and
concepts
■ Writing Applications—activities that let you apply grammar,
usage, and mechanics concepts in your writing
■ Tips & Tricks—easy-to-use hints about grammar, usage, and
mechanics
■ Meeting the Challenge—questions or short activities that ask
you to approach a concept from a new angle
■ Style Tips—information about formal and informal uses
of language
■ Help—pointers to help you understand either key rules and
concepts or exercise directions

Holt Handbook on the Internet

As you move through the Holt Handbook, you
will find the best online resources at go.hrw.com.

To Our Students xxi

To Our Students T21

NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T22-T23 12/7/01 7:50 PM Page T22

Writing Rationale
Assignments

Teaching Strands Narrative writing calls for using pronouns

correctly, which requires understanding case,
pronoun-antecedent agreement, and subject-
Connecting Grammar and Writing NARRATION verb agreement. Using quotations and contrac-
This teaching-strand chart shows you tions in dialogue to show informal speech
some ways to connect grammar patterns is common. Consistent verb tense and
clue words advance the story coherently.
instruction and writing instruction.

The Holt Handbook is designed to be “How-to” instructions create images through

a flexible teaching tool that accom- precise adjectives and adverbs, while words
or phrases indicating location complete the
modates many teaching philosophies EXPOSITION mental picture. Transitional words can indicate
and styles. For example, some teach- the order of steps. Commas separate a series
ers will prefer to use the handbook of steps or parts of a list; a colon may precede
the list.
as a reference source, having stu-
dents refer to it only as the need for To describe a plot and offer an opinion when
explicit grammar instruction arises. writing a short story interpretation, writers
Others will use the handbook as a rely on carefully chosen positive and negative
RESPONSE TO
LITERATURE words, fresh descriptions, and words signaling
teaching text, having their classes order of events. Correct pronoun case must
work through the instruction, be used to show the author’s point of view.
examples, and exercises in a more Appositives can provide additional information.
methodical fashion. Your personal
Because research reports require a sophisticated
teaching style and the needs of your writing style, students need to use correctly
students will determine the best way spelled, formal language to incorporate infor-
for you to teach this material. mation and quotations from many sources.
RESEARCH
Writing a report demands attention to sentence
structure, capitalization, and punctuation.
Phrases and clauses create sentence variety, but
GO TO: go.hrw.com sentence fragments should be avoided.

Strong, clear action verbs and their objects help

a writer to emphasize points and to build a case
in a persuasive essay. Challenging questions and
PERSUASION exclamations help clarify the writer’s stance.
Careful capitalization, clearly punctuated sen-
tences, and correctly used words help to elimi-
nate ambiguity and confusing points.

T22
NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T22-T23 12/7/01 7:51 PM Page T23

Links to Links to Links to

Grammar Usage Mechanics

 personal and possessive  pronoun-antecedent agreement

pronouns (Ch. 2) (Ch. 6); pronoun case (Ch. 8)

 verbs, adverbs (Ch. 3)  agreement (Ch. 6); tense (Ch. 7)  punctuating contractions (Ch. 13)

 sentences classified by purpose  punctuating quotations (Ch. 13)

(Ch. 1)

 adjectives (Ch. 2); adverbs and  comparison of modifiers  using commas to separate two or
prepositions (Ch. 3) (Ch. 9); between, among; more adjectives (Ch. 12); using
good,well; than, then (Ch. 10) colons with a list (Ch. 12)

 adjective and adverb phrases  using modifiers (Ch. 9)  commas with interrupters (Ch. 12)
(Ch. 4)

 adjectives (Ch. 2); adverbs  comparison of modifiers, double

(Ch. 3) negatives (Ch. 9)

 pronouns (Ch. 2); complements  pronoun-antecedent agreement  apostrophes with contractions and
(Ch. 5) (Ch. 6); pronoun case (Ch. 8) possessives (Ch. 13)

 clauses and phrases (Ch. 4)  commas with interrupters (Ch. 12)

 independent and subordinate  formal, standard usage (Ch. 10)  punctuating compound and
clauses, sentence structure (Ch. 4) complex sentences (Ch. 12);
spelling (Ch. 14)

 sentences, fragments, subjects,  subject-verb agreement with  capitalization of titles (Ch. 11);
predicates (Ch. 1); adverb and intervening phrases, with punctuation of direct quotations
adjective phrases (Ch. 4) indefinite pronouns, with (Ch. 12 & Ch. 13); capitalizing and
compound subjects, and with punctuating sources (Ch. 11–13)
subjects after verbs (Ch. 6)

 transitive and intransitive verbs  principal parts of verbs (Ch. 7)  apostrophes with contractions
(Ch. 3); direct and indirect objects, (Ch. 13); words often confused
subject complements (Ch. 5) (Ch. 14); capitalizing the first word
in a sentence (Ch. 11)

 kinds of sentences (Ch. 1)  pronouns, including whom, as  end marks (Ch. 12)
objects; nominative case
pronouns (Ch. 8)

T23
CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:22 PM Page T24

E S S AY S O N T E A C H I N G G R A M M A R

By Amy Benjamin

Dispelling the Myths about

Grammar Instruction
because those lessons in syntax, place-
ment, word classification, and the
subtleties of style helped them to be
better writers, more efficient readers,
clearer thinkers.

I t is not uncommon for

English teachers as well
as their trainers and
supervisors to hold that
the teaching of grammar
is quaint and unnecessary
at best, prejudicial and
exclusionary at worst.

I know an excellent English teacher about composition? expression? cre-

whose students, many years after ativity? Why just grammar? I don’t How lamentable it is that teaching
graduation, remember her for her even teach grammar anymore. I teach writing through a process approach
grammar lessons. Unfortunately, the writing process.” has become an orthodoxy in which
instead of being proud of this, she is Perhaps these students remem- the grammatical strand of English
chagrined. . . . “Grammar!? Of all bered their grammar lessons because language arts is pitted against the
things in my class to remember! Why of the usefulness of those lessons or literary strand, as if the two are not
grammar? Why can’t they remember because of the satisfaction that they intertwined. Who set up this false
me for all the wonderful literature I derived from learning challenging dichotomy? The notion that gram-
taught them? for what I taught them material. Perhaps they remembered mar instruction is antithetical to the

T24 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:23 PM Page T25

writing process is specious. My stand a complicated system we need to fix the sentence, but we haven’t given
purpose in this essay is to debunk know the names of its parts, their them the generality that will allow
some of the myths about grammar forms and functions, how the parts them to apply what they’ve learned to
instruction and to refurbish its relate to the whole, and where these similar circumstances.
tarnished reputation. parts belong if the system is to operate On the other hand, I can know the
It is not uncommon for English at maximum efficiency. That said, names of all the tools in my toolbox,
teachers as well as their trainers and here’s what some people say about what each is for, and how they
supervisors to hold that the teaching grammar instruction, and why I dis- relate to one another; but if I
of grammar is quaint and unnecessary agree with them. don’t use them to facilitate an actual
at best, prejudicial and exclusionary at job in progress, then my knowledge
worst. The problem begins with does not fulfill its intended purpose.
muddy terminology. Some people Myth #1: For many of us, the grammar lessons
conflate the terms grammar, usage, The explicit teaching that we learned in school were about
and mechanics, as well as the terms of grammar does not “picking out.” We’d “pick out” all kinds
correct/incorrect and standard/ non- improve writing ability, of structures: the parts of speech,
standard. Before I turn my fire so time spent on grammar subjects and predicates, simple
extinguisher on the grammar myths, is time not spent on more subjects, helping verbs. Later, we’d
let me clarify my terms: By grammar, I worthy pursuits in the hunt down adverbial clauses, sub-
refer to the rules which govern how English classroom. ject complements, infinitives. We’d
words function in a sentence to make underline and double underline.
meaning. That man bites dog means Think about it. Suppose my car is We’d diagram. The trouble with our
something different from dog bites making a funny noise. Suppose I have instruction was not that it was
man is a function of grammar. By no better understanding of what is misguided, but that it was unfinished.
usage, I refer to the social conventions going on under the hood than that. I Having learned to spot prepositional
that determine what is considered take it to my mechanic, trusting his phrases, we may not have learned
standard. By standard, I do not mean knowledge, integrity, and skill. He’ll why doing so could improve our
correct. I mean that style of the English figure out what’s wrong with my car discourse.
language which most educated people and fix the problem. I’ll pay the bill, How can we use our ability to iden-
accept in formal circumstances. By and if all is not well, I’ll get either tify grammatical structures such as
mechanics, I refer to physical manifes- another mechanic or another car. That prepositional phrases in our own
tations of language such as spelling, is how many car owners (myself reading and writing? We may have
punctuation, capitalization and other included) operate. We don’t have the learned that the object of a preposi-
conventions. In the case of mechanics, time or the inclination to learn the tion must be in the objective case, and
the terms correct and incorrect are taxonomy, nomenclature, and anato- that the object of a preposition is
more appropriate than they are when my of our cars. never the subject of the sentence. This
we are talking about matters of usage, When we don’t speak explicitly to knowledge helps us solve some usage
but even spelling is not without gray students about grammar, syntax, dic- problems, but that is not its main
areas. tion, and coherence, we have to resort value. Knowing how to discern the
Reasonable people can disagree to the “funny noise” method: We have subject and verb can help us read
over matters of content and meth- to say “This part just doesn’t sound dense prose. When reading dense
odology in teaching. However, I think right here,” or “You’re not saying this prose, the reader needs strategies. One
everyone would agree that to under- clearly.” We may be able to help writers such strategy is to reduce the sentence

Essays on Teaching Grammar T25

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:24 PM Page T26

to its subject and verb. That done, the Recognition of a grammatical carpenter. He doesn’t just blindly
reader sees prepositional phrases for structure is only the beginning. If we reach into his toolbox, pull out a
what they are: details. Beyond that, think of grammar instruction as screwdriver, try to make it do the work
knowing about prepositions helps building an awareness of language of a wrench, and figure he’ll just sand
writers add sentence variety, as they choices available to the careful writer, down the rough spots later. We can
learn not to begin sentence after sen- then we view such instruction in two make our students better writers if we
tence with the subject. Beginning a phases: recognition and application. teach them to use grammatical knowl-
sentence with a prepositional phrase Too often, the application phase does edge consciously as they match their
can set the stage for the action, but we not happen. When it does not, the syntax to their intentions.
have to be judicious: Sometimes, recognition phase seems to lack prac- We understand the power of graph-
that prepositional phrase can be dis- ticality. Thus does grammar instruc- ic organizers in both reading and
tracting or redundant. As modifiers, tion fall out of favor. writing for many learners. We teach
prepositional phrases can be movable, students to map their ideas as
and their placement affects meaning, a prewriting strategy. We teach them
rhythm, and emphasis. Prepositional Myth #2: to make Venn diagrams to show simi-
phrases, “time and place words,” add Grammar instruction larities and differences, and flowcharts
detail and dimension. The novice applies only to the editing to express sequence. Sentence struc-
writer who has difficulty fleshing out a phase of the writing tures are patterns. We can think in
topic can do well to consciously add process. terms of certain grammatical tem-
more prepositional phrases. It is plates, containers, that work well for
knowing what prepositional phrases When people operate under this myth, certain types of ideas. Parallel struc-
can and can’t do for you that makes they are confusing grammar with ture and compound sentences or
being able to identify them worth- usage and mechanics. Usage and simple sentences with compound
while. Selecting standard pronoun mechanics may be seen as “touch- constituents are good containers for
case, creating purposeful variety in ups,” part of the finishing-off of a like elements bearing equal impor-
sentence structure, adding detail and written piece. As such, they are not tance. Complex sentences are good
dimension, and eliminating redun- essential to the real intellectual work containers to use when we need to
dancy are some good reasons for of the process, although no one should show the backgrounding and fore-
being able to recognize prepositional minimize their importance. Usage and grounding of elements that do not
phrases. mechanics can determine the first and bear equal importance. Sentence
last impressions that the reader gets of structure selections occur in the draft-
the writer’s work. The point is that we ing and revision stages of the writing

I t is knowing what should not limit our understanding of process, as the writer searches for the
grammar to the surface features of clearest, most efficient way to express
prepositional phrases usage and mechanics. thoughts.
can and can’t do for Along with diction and rhetoric, Many writers have an intuitive
grammar (unlike usage and mechan- sense of what kinds of containers
you that makes being ics) is organic to the crafting of work best with what kinds of ideas.
able to identify them sentences and text. Writers with an When we bring this underlying aware-
awareness of grammar can make ness of grammar to the conscious
worthwhile. informed choices about how word level, we help students manage
order affects meaning. Picture a inchoate ideas in the same way

T26 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:24 PM Page T27

that a graphic organizer, such as discussion” subject. We can isolate the detached from the fundamentals?
a Venn diagram, might. Indeed, there study of grammar, treat it as some- Knowledge of structure is not a hin-
is much to be said for using one of thing we “have to get through” before drance, but a guide that enables, rather
the many versions of graphic organiz- moving on to literature. We can fail to than impedes, creativity.
ers along with sentence structure make any connection between gram- Sometimes, grammar instruction is
templates. The writer can then look at mar and journalism, grammar and thought of as “drill and kill.” This
a branch diagram or a cluster, decide advertising, grammar and novels, pejorative implies that the instruction
how the ideas are related, and then grammar and drama, grammar and will consist of lower level thinking
consider an array of syntactical music, grammar and poetry. These are skills, mindless repetition, and lack of
containers to suit them. ways to make grammar boring. application to authentic language. We
What I’ve described is a way of picture fill-in-the-blank workbook-
understanding the role of grammar in type questions in which there is one
the writing process that is deeper than
what is commonly thought, i.e., that
grammatical thinking enters the pic-
ture only as the cleanup man. In fact,
I ’ve heard teachers claim
that grammar instruction
interferes with creativity.
right answer. The book that you have
in your hands is an extremely useful,
in fact indispensable, tool for the
teaching of language. However, any
we already make intuitive grammati- grammar text is most effective when
cal choices as we compose our used along with, not in place of, litera-
thoughts. Those intuitive choices may I’ve heard teachers claim that ture and student writing. It might
or may not be the best ones for the grammar instruction interferes with seem that students would naturally
purpose. By building awareness of creativity. “Grammar is boring,” they make the crossover from what they
sentence and textual structure, we can say. “And writing should be fun and learn in grammar exercises to their
increase our chances that our message interesting.” This is a misguided own language use, but such is not nec-
is clear, efficient, and graceful. notion, because creativity thrives essarily the case. As teachers, we have
within structure. The sonneteer works to make that crossover happen very
within a strictly prescribed structure, deliberately, pointing out structures
Myth #3: choosing that structure because it is that students have learned and how
Grammar is boring. the best container for particular ideas. those structures are used to make
The sonnet form is not constraining meaning in authentic contexts. Thus
There are many ways to make our but liberating: The format frees the does grammar instruction transcend
classrooms boring. We can “cover writer from decisions about rhythm the practice exercises that illustrate
material” in a perfunctory way, “going and rhyme scheme. Because of the targeted concepts.
over” the exercises done for home- structure, half the work is done. I can’t Everybody loves language; children
work or as seatwork. We can convey to think of any creative pursuit—music, and teenagers love it especially,
students that their language is fine arts, dance, photography, drama, because they are in the process of
“wrong” and ours is “right.” We can be writing—that does not demand mas- defining their own culture by laying
language prudes, fainting and blanch- tery of technique. I can’t think of any claim to words and expressions all
ing at every double negative or creative pursuit in which there is no their own. When we invite students to
misplaced modifier that dares to show terminology, no anatomy, no struc- analyze their own neologisms, gram-
its face in our presence. We can insist ture, no tradition, no rules. Why matical idiosyncrasies, and dialectical
that the answer key is always the would learning any kind of writing, styles, we enliven grammar lessons
authority and that grammar is a “no much less creative writing, be immeasurably. As English teachers, we

Essays on Teaching Grammar T27

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:25 PM Page T28

embrace all forms of the English lan- areas.” Aside from the obvious expec- into the professional conversation of
guage even while we recognize that tation that we use standard English in our subject areas.
mastery of standard English is essen- school, how can students apply gram-
tial for success in certain precincts of mar to their content area classes?

T eachers want to give

society. Every teacher wants students to be
Another way to make grammar better readers. A law student told me
instruction interesting is to let stu- recently that she was glad that she away the words of
dents discover how language changes knew something about grammar, their subject areas the
right before our eyes. Movies and because she needed it to read complex
novels set in various pockets of the materials in her courses. She found way grandmothers want
English-speaking world are museums that by mentally pulling out the sub- to give away food.
of linguistic anthropology. Compare ject and verb, she could follow the
the idioms of To Kill A Mockingbird to lines of technical text.
those of The Color Purple. Analyze the Needless to say, grammatical As English teachers, we love words
language of a movie set in New knowledge of the English language about words, language about lan-
Orleans and compare it to the lan- is essential for learning another lan- guage. To us, there is a vast difference
guage of a movie set in Los Angeles. guage. Just as grammar has fallen out between an action verb and a linking
There are many ways to make our of favor in many English classes, verb, a predicate nominative and a
classrooms interesting. Our love of the it has suffered a similar blow in direct object, a transitive verb and an
subject is contagious. Grammar is the pedagogy of learning other lan- intransitive verb. In teaching students
exciting and rewarding to learn not guages as well, where grammar to talk the talk, we turn them into
because we get the answers right, but instruction has been supplanted by licensed operators, not just amateurs.
because we’ve applied logic and found “conversation.” The predictable conse- A licensed operator can make the
patterns, and because there may be quence has been much confusion and machinery run more efficiently, can
more than one answer, depending on frustration for both teachers, who feel anticipate potential problems, and can
the circumstances, audience, and pur- that their hands are tied, and students, fix what is wrong. An amateur hopes
pose. Contrary to myth, a good gram- many of whom are bewildered by the that the sentence “sounds good.”
mar lesson can invite a lively gymnastics of the French verb when Grammar should be the permeable
discussion about ambiguities in they don’t even know how English membrane that allows knowledge
meaning and the best way to express verbs behave. learned in English class to transform
thought in a particular context. It can What about science, math, social into skill in the content area classes.
even ignite a discussion about social studies, the arts? All teachers love Active voice may be preferable in Eng-
power structures, prejudices, and words. The biology teacher is fussy lish classes where the subject is often
immigration. This is not boring stuff. about the difference between osmosis people doing things (S-V-O). In com-
and diffusion. Getting students to posing a lab report, however, passive
make fine distinctions is an important voice may be the better choice. The
Myth #4:
part of teaching students to think like difference in pressure was recorded
Grammar applies only scientists. Teachers want to give away might sound more scientific than I
to English classes. the words of their subject areas the recorded the difference in pressure. In
For lack of a better term, we refer to way grandmothers want to give away the language of lab reports, the fact
subjects other than English as “content food. We want to invite our students that the technician did the action is

T28 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:26 PM Page T29

irrelevant. A radiologist writes her The social studies teacher and the indeed, those for whom a chosen field
report in the passive voice: No abnor- science teacher may not know it, but is an option in the first place, know
malities were found, rather than I the benefits of grammar instruction how to control the impression that
found no abnormalities. In English are carried through the student’s others have of them. People judge our
class, we show students the difference entire day. status and education levels not only
in tone between active and passive through language, but also through
voice. dress, manners, and gesture.
Myth #5:
It is important to learn to think in Once we acknowledge that stand-
action verbs in all subject areas. A stu- Grammar instruction ard English is just another form of
dent who is writing about the Refor- is ethnocentric and English that is appropriate for certain
mation needs to focus on who did prejudicial. situations but not for all, then we are
what: Martin Luther translated the As English teachers, we need to avoid free to enjoy the dialects of English
Bible into the German vernacular. His giving the impression that we are the that we find in authentic literature,
translation enabled more people to designated Keepers of the Language. regional speech, song lyrics, and casu-
read the Bible. The action verbs tell the We can teach the etiquette of standard al conversation. We can look at new
story. They give students a starting English without denying a student the coinages, popular metaphors, slang,
point when writing and a focus when right to his or her own dialect. and jargon with the interest of a lin-
reading. All subject areas use this An educated person has that social guist rather than the arrogance of a
concept; it is we English teachers who thermostat that linguists call code- pedant.
actually teach it in our grammar switching. The metaphor of table
lessons. manners is apt: What we are expected
to do at an outdoor barbecue differs
from what we’re expected to do at
Thanksgiving dinner. Those of us who
W e can teach the
etiquette of
Standard English without
can’t tell the difference, who can’t
code-switch, are socially awkward. denying a student the
This is not to say that standard English
is better than any particular dialect. right to his or her own
Standard English is not more expres- dialect.
sive, more poetic, or even more accu-
rate. It is simply the expected currency
of mainstream society in formal situa- That language is a changing social
tions. We don’t have to use it all of the contract is evidenced by grammar
time, but if we can’t use it when it is books of yore. Even in one generation,
expected, then we are at a cultural dis- the who/whom distinction has attenu-
advantage that our education should ated, as has the use of the past perfect
remedy. tense of verbs. Certain usages, such as
We are constantly making impres- the nominative case after a linking
sions that indicate our understanding verb, sound stuffy. We have yet to solve
of our social context. Those who are the problem that exists because we
successful in their chosen fields, lack a generic singular pronoun: He,

Essays on Teaching Grammar T29

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:27 PM Page T30

once preferred, is thought to be sexist; guage, that is, the language of lan- tives, nouns, and verbs,” one teacher
one sounds stilted and British; they is a guage. Absent that, we can’t explain said. “Why do they have to know the
grammatical mismatch. That leaves he what we mean about what we are try- names of these things?” “That just isn’t
or she, which can seem awfully con- ing to say, and others are at a loss to the way we teach anymore,” said
spicuous. It’s interesting to have stu- help us. another with a wave of her hand. “We
dents compare the style guides of don’t want to interfere with the
various publications on sensitive children’s creativity. Teaching them
points such as this.

Myth #6:
T erminology is powerful.
grammar would interrupt their flow.”
A fourth-grade teacher added, “But
that isn’t on the state test, and we
really don’t have time for anything
As native speakers, we that doesn’t get the scores up.” Here’s
Recently, I worked with a group of
don’t have to learn what I would answer:
elementary school teachers who were
grammar. Terminology is powerful. We can’t
looking for teaching strategies that
It is true that we already know gram- would improve their students’ writing improve our sentences until we under-
mar intuitively. Native speakers learn, skills. When I suggested that they stand the crucial role played by verbs.
quite naturally, how to put words develop a scope and sequence in We certainly can’t understand that
together to make meaning. What we grammar skills, they were skeptical. role until we know how to identify
don’t learn naturally is the metalan- “They already know how to use adjec- verbs in context and that verbs come
in various flavors: finite verbs, infini-
tives, participles, gerunds.
Further, creativity and “flow” are
enhanced, not impeded, by knowledge
of language structure and what certain
kinds of phrases and sentences can
and can’t do. When the reader has to
stumble over and re-read awkward,
redundant, convoluted, or misplaced
structures within sentences, does it
matter how creative the writer was?
Doesn’t the logic of grammar improve
the flow of prose?
To answer the last objection, the
statewide tests may or may not have
explicit questions regarding grammar.
Some do; some don’t, and the nature
of those tests can and will change.
What will not change is that a writer
who knows where commas belong
makes the job easier on the reader, as
does the writer who understands sub-
ordination, agreement, and overall

T30 Essays on Teaching Grammar

sentence management. If we acknowl- structure, you can make your flow ship between grammar and the logical
edge that the whole purpose of of sentences more musical, more progression of ideas.
writing is to communicate, and that nuanced, less choppy. Knowing grammar is useful, but
communication is accomplished by even if it weren’t, learning it would
writing clearly, then we can see the • If you know the difference between
still be worthwhile because it is inter-
a phrase, a clause, and a sentence,
application of grammar to writing. Of esting. Like chess, grammar is about
you can guide your reader by using
course, if grammar instruction never how power and proximity govern
well-placed punctuation.
makes the leap from identification of a relationships and possibilities. Like
structure to its effective application, engineering, grammar is about struc-
then these teachers are right to reject it ture, balance, efficiency and strength.
as largely irrelevant.

What Knowing
L ike poetry, grammar is
about the beauty of
expressing exactly what
Like mathematics, grammar is about
patterns and forms. Like geology,
grammar is at once eternal and
dynamic. Like poetry, grammar is
Grammar Can Do about the beauty of expressing exactly
we mean by placing the what we mean by placing the words
for Writers
words just right. just right. ■
Finally, here is a list of what you can
do when you know a few things about
grammar:
Understanding how grammar Amy Benjamin is a writer of educa-
• If you know how to use parallel works puts the writer on the right tional materials and a national con-
structure, you can make your mes- path. When writers begin a definition sultant on the subjects of grammar,
sage smoother, clearer, easier on by saying “Osmosis is when . . .” they literacy, and differentiated instruc-
the reader, more logical, and more are failing to apply the concept that a tion. She is the recipient of awards for
memorable. subject complement, not an adverbial excellence in teaching from Tufts Uni-
clause, must follow a linking verb. The versity and Union College.
• If you know when to use active
“is when . . .” definition is going to fall
voice and when to use passive
voice, you can control the direct- on its face because the key term has
ness or indirectness of your not been handled properly in the
message. You control the power sentence. Definitions call for classifi-
and impact of your words. You can cation. First, we must place the term in
also avoid the trouble that comes its proper realm: “Osmosis is
from being too direct or accusatory. a . . . process? means? phenomenon?”
The writer must stop and think about
• If you know how to use verb tense
what kind of thing osmosis is. Such
consistently, you can guide your
categorical thinking is absolutely
reader through the tangle of time
essential to the scientist, but it does
in your narrative.
not happen with the ungrammati-
• If you know how to vary the gram- cal “. . . is when” structure. This
matical constructs in your sentence example demonstrates the relation-

Essays on Teaching Grammar T31

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:28 PM Page T32

By Brock Haussamen

Grammar: Why Teach It?

Why should students learn—and ability to talk about language is a
teachers teach—grammar? Simply fundamental educational goal. It is
memorizing the parts of speech difficult to discuss sentences without
doesn’t, by itself, make students better knowing basic grammar in the same
writers. Worrying about errors can way that it is difficult to talk about a
quickly dampen student enthusiasm sport or a science or politics without
for a writing project. Over the past knowing the names of its elements
three decades, grammar’s reputation and how they are organized. Knowing
has suffered. Is grammar useful? Why basic grammar is what enables
teach it? students to discuss the sentences in
I believe the central reason for a book they are reading or in a
teaching and learning grammar is that paper they are writing, and to discuss
it gives all of us a language for talking their native language or a second
about language, and certainly the language.

T hink of grammar as
having two faces. One
is its public face, which
can be quite formal. The
other face is private and
more friendly.

T32 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:29 PM Page T33

The Two Faces of not master those conventions will they will be required to dress, to talk,
likely face obstacles at every turn. and to write in other ways. This
Grammar It is important for us to remember approach will less likely demean those
To teach grammar effectively, we need and to remind our students that pub- students who do not routinely hear
to show students how to put it to use. lic grammar is different from, not and use standard English. It also gives
The language of grammar—the inherently better than, the language grammatical correctness a practical
names for the parts of speech and students normally use. The do’s and value and encourages your students to
other sentence components that don’ts of public grammar create an see language differences as an example
appear in the grammar section of this illusion that they are rigorously logi- of social diversity and opportunity.
textbook—has two distinct kinds of cal, like the rules of mathematics, and
uses. Think of grammar as having two that they are permanent. Neither of
faces. One is its public face, which can these claims is true. The do’s and Private Grammar
be quite formal. The other face is pri- don’ts are sometimes illogical, and The other face of grammar is much
vate and more friendly. they change. Just a few decades ago, more personal. By “private grammar,”
grammar textbooks like this one I mean the language structure that all
would have insisted on the distinction of us already carry around in our
Public Grammar between will and shall; today that dis- heads and put to use when we com-
The public face of grammar consists tinction is all but gone. A few decades municate or think. In contrast to the
of all the rules we teach students to into the future, a book such as this will study of public grammar, which has
follow in their writing and all the probably simplify and may even omit evolved over centuries, the description
errors we tell them to avoid making. In the distinction between who and of our inherent language ability has
this textbook it is the material in the whom, which is already fading in grown from the work of linguists over
sections on usage and mechanics. I informal English. the last several decades. Such gram-
call usage and mechanics “public mar is private in the sense that it
grammar” because they identify the operates inside our heads, so quickly
conventions of the standard American
dialect in which our society carries on
its formal writing and speaking. There
are many good reasons to teach these
T he “right” clothes, like
the “right” grammar,
depend on what is appro-
we are not even conscious of it. You
won’t find questions about private
grammar on standardized tests; it is
what students possess in order to read
conventions. Such a standard dialect the tests in the first place.
helps people from different places and
priate or expected in a If using public grammar can be
different backgrounds to communi- given situation. compared to wearing socially accept-
cate clearly. The conventions of public able formal clothes, private grammar
grammar help sustain the uniformity can be compared to doing what comes
of our writing system, on which our Try explaining to your students that naturally, to physical skills such as
society depends utterly. Finally, they their grammar is like the clothes they walking or running or throwing. Ask
reflect the language of economic wear. The “right” clothes, like the students to take a statement and turn
power. In general, people who can “right” grammar, depend on what is it into a question in their native lan-
write and speak according to the appropriate or expected in a given sit- guage. They can do it easily. They can
standard conventions have a better uation. Around their friends, students fit new slang words into sentences
chance at participating in the influen- talk and dress in particular ways. At fluidly. They know quickly when the
tial core of our society. People who do formal occasions or in the workplace, language they hear or read sounds

Essays on Teaching Grammar T33

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:29 PM Page T34

confusing or clear, choppy or smooth. fortable with; its vocabulary looks Another way to draw on students’
They do all this with their private large and forbidding; many of the private grammatical ability is to pro-
grammar. terms combine with each other in vide them with practical shortcuts for
ways that seem strange to students getting at the essential points of gram-
(“adjective clause”); and because it is a mar. Grammarians over the years have

P rivate grammar can language about language, it strains the assembled a number of these simple
verbal skills of many of its students, methods, and your students will love
be compared to doing both children and adults. So, like any you for telling them about these meth-
what comes naturally, language it must be practiced often ods. One good book on the subject is
and put to use in a variety of contexts. Rei Noguchi’s Grammar and the
to physical skills such as Here are some general suggestions. Teaching of Writing: Limits and Possi-
walking or running or bilities (NCTE). Students find the
shortcuts practical, and they also
throwing. Use Private Grammar appreciate the positive reinforcement
to Teach Public of their grammatical instincts.
Grammar
If they can do all this already, how As language users, we all have an
will studying grammar help them do intuitive sense that sentences are made
Use Grammar for
more? The answer is that any skill that up of sections. Give students a sen- Reading
already comes somewhat naturally, tence and ask them to divide it into Although grammar is most closely
like throwing a ball or making music, chunks and to group the words that go associated with writing, students can
will improve if we learn about it and together. This approach can remain put grammar to use when they read.
practice it. Students will be using the basic or can become more refined as Knowing grammatical terminology
language of grammar to some degree students divide and cluster clauses and gives students the tools they need to
when they revise and combine sen- phrases. discuss a difficult sentence in a story
tences in the section on “Writing This sort of activity easily leads or a poem. Ask students to pick out
Effective Sentences” in this textbook. to sentence diagramming. If you are the main verb and then the simple
They will do so to a greater degree not familiar with diagramming, see subject; finding these can help them
whenever you show them how to Chapter 17. I teach students not figure out the rest of the sentence.
improve the style of their writing by the whole of it but just the basic Poets bend sentences around a good
finding active verbs or expanding sen- components; even elementary dia- deal, but most poetry consists of
tences with participles or preposition- grams help many students see the recognizable sentences and sentence
al phrases. subject-predicate core of a sentence parts. Often you can help students
more clearly. If you choose to teach move beyond their perplexity about
diagramming more thoroughly, stu- a poem by reminding them to look
Putting Grammar dents will be able to analyze difficult for the sentences and their basic
to Use sentences that they encounter in parts.
As you can see from these descriptions reading and will build their com- In discussing with students what
of public and private faces, the lan- prehension. Many students enjoy they enjoy or don’t enjoy about a
guage of basic grammar has many constructing the diagrams; the activity writer’s style, look for the grammatical
uses. Nonetheless, it is a difficult taps students’ visual and spatial skills characteristics of the writer’s sen-
language for students to grow com- in addition to their verbal ones. tences. What parts of speech stand out

T34 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:30 PM Page T35

in the sentences? Some writers special- highlight the main nouns and verbs. as an active verb, half as an adjective)
ize in strong, active verbs, with few Some start a sentence with long intro- and also by adding appositives. “A spi-
forms of the verb be. In other writers’ ductory word groups; others go right der, a repulsive, hairy creature, no
texts, is and are abound, but the nouns to the subject. bigger than a tarantula, crawled into
stand out. In still others’, the adjec- Bring grammar into the reading of the room. . . . Hands trembling, sweat
tives and adverbs catch the reader’s advertisements, political language, dripping from his face, he flung the
attention. and the World Wide Web. Advertise- magazine left and right, trying to kill
Another approach is to ask students ments provide good examples of the spiders, but there were too many.”
how long a writer’s sentences are, on sentence fragments, imperative verbs, That example of an eighth-grader’s
average. What characteristic sentence and words that look like nouns but act work is from Harry Noden’s Image
lengths do students notice among like adjectives (“a Labor Day sofa Grammar: Using Grammatical Struc-
types of writers, or the writers of sale”). Political speeches and slogans tures to Teach Writing, an excellent
different periods? This approach can make interesting use of we and other source for these and other techniques.
lead to a discussion of the different personal pronouns. E-mail seems to Students can also add phrases,
structures that make up a writer’s encourage sentences that are variously especially prepositional phrases, and
sentences. Some writers like to add clipped, casual, funny, skillful, and clauses to a sentence, expanding the
modifiers, phrases, and clauses; other careless. Ask students to bring in information about their main point,
writers keep sentences short to examples for discussion. giving more details in order to paint a
picture, building, and penetrating fur-
ther into their topic. (The sentence
Use Grammar that you just read is one example; you
for Revision can find more—and better ones—in
When students write, help the work of most accomplished writ-
them use grammar not just ers.) Students may think at first that
in the final editing stage, they are merely making sentences
when they hunt out their longer, but they will quickly find that
violations of public gram- they are also saying more.
mar, but in the revising stage
as well, when they can exper-
iment with private grammar Conclusion
to develop their style as The suggestions in this essay are only a
writers. sample of the good ideas for using the
This textbook shows language of grammar to help students
students how to combine become better readers and writers.
sentences by inserting words The books I have mentioned will lead
or using conjunctions. Stu- you to other ideas. And your
dents can use some of the colleagues in language arts can pro-
same methods to build a sin- vide you with many other suggestions
gle sentence. They can build for using grammar in the classroom.
their sentences by adding If you think of grammar as a lan-
participles (especially –ing guage for talking about language and
participles that function half you keep in mind the differences

Essays on Teaching Grammar T35

 Weaver, Constance. Teaching Gram-
mar in Context. Portsmouth:
Boynton/Cook, 1996.
William, Joseph M. Style: The Lessons
in Clarity and Grace. 6th ed.
New York: Longman, 2000. ■

Brock Haussamen taught at Raritan

Valley Community College in New
Jersey from 1968 to 2006. He is
the author of Revising the Rules:
Traditional Grammar and Modern
Linguistics (Kendall/Hunt), NCTE’s
Grammar Alive: A Guide for Teachers
(2003), and also of a book on the
history of the local New Jersey rail-
roads. He served as president of the
Assembly for the Teaching of English
Grammar from 2000 to 2006.

between public and private grammar, Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar:

you can make grammar a valuable Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical
part of your students’ language Effect. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and
education. Bacon, 1998.
Kolln, Martha, and Robert Funk
(contributor). Understanding Eng-
For Further Reading lish Grammar. 5th ed. Needham:
Assembly for the Teaching of English Allyn and Bacon, 1998.
Grammar. www.ateg.org. Noden, Harry R. Image Grammar:
Berk, Lynn M. English Syntax: From Using Grammatical Structures to
Word to Discourse. New York: Teach Writing. Portsmouth: Heine-
Oxford UP, 1999. mann/Boynton Cook, 1999.
Haussamen, Brock. Revising the Rules: Noguchi, Rei. Grammar and the
Traditional Grammar and Modern Teaching of Writing: Limits and
Linguistics. 2nd ed. Dubuque: Possibilities. Urbana: NCTE, 1991.
Kendall/Hunt, 2000.

T36 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:32 PM Page T37

By Rei R. Noguchi

Getting Down to Basics:

Using What Students Already Know
Too often we struggle in teaching basic unconscious knowledge, we can help

L ike sentences, subjects grammar to our students. Yet what students identify more easily the three
really are the basics and how should basic elements, and, more important,
and verbs are among we teach them? The most basic— help them better understand subse-
the most basic elements the rock-bottom minimum—are sen- quent instruction in grammar, usage,
tence, verb, and subject. Surprisingly, and mechanics.
of grammar and writing we can teach these three basic ele- Why are the sentence, verb, and
instruction. ments by taking advantage of the subject the very basics of grammar
unconscious linguistic knowledge that instruction? Take the notion of
students already possess, their private sentence. The sentence constitutes the
grammar, so to speak. By tapping this most important unit in written texts,
particularly in writing for school. A
shaky grasp of what counts as a
written sentence inevitably and
unintentionally leads to distracting
sentence fragments, fused sentences,
and comma splices. Clearly, to master
formal written English, students need
to differentiate between a genuine
sentence and an inappropriate
nonsentence. Like sentences, subjects
and verbs are among the most basic
elements of grammar and writing
instruction. Besides helping to define
a sentence, subjects and verbs
constitute elements on which a great
deal of grammar and writing
instruction builds. Without a reliable
way of identifying subject and verb,
students can almost certainly expect
rough going.

Essays on Teaching Grammar T37

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:32 PM Page T38

How can we teach the concepts of sentence is, students must understand at this stage. If students can perform
subject, verb, and sentence so that such terms as subject, predicate, and the simple test given here, they already
students can identify them easily? I independent clause. Each of these unconsciously know what a sentence
would suggest that, rather than relying terms may require further definitions is, and with that knowledge they can
solely on semantic definitions, we take yet. easily identify fragments, which are
fuller advantage of what we often just parts of sentences. With a bit of
ignore or downplay in our teaching of guidance and exploration, students
grammar, namely, the tremendous
unconscious knowledge that all fluent
or near-fluent speakers of English
bring to the classroom every day. Put
E xploiting the
unconscious linguistic
knowledge of students is
will discover that fused sentences and
comma splices won’t fit in the empty
slot either.

more bluntly, our students know a

great deal more about grammar than the key to teaching the Identifying Verbs
many of us think. This grammar is not very basics of grammar. If we tap the private grammar of our
school grammar but their “private students, we can also help them iden-
grammar,” the system of rules uncon- tify specific and important parts of the
sciously learned and unconsciously sentence. Below are two frames that
To avoid the chain of seemingly
used by all fluent speakers of English will help students identify words that
endless definitions to identify sen-
in everyday conversation. We cannot can serve as main verbs.
tences and fragments, teachers can
teach this personal underlying take advantage of their students’ Main-Verb Frame 1:
grammar for the simple reason that unconscious knowledge of what con- They might _____ (it) now.
our students already know it. All stitutes a complete sentence. Teachers
we can do is bring this knowledge Main-Verb Frame 2:
can, for example, use the following
to the surface and exploit it to They aren’t _____-ing (it) now.
frame to help students tap what they
the fullest. already know. Any word that fits in the empty
slots above will be the base form
Sentence Frame:
(infinitive) of the main verb, the form
Identifying the They liked the idea that
listed in the dictionary (e.g., eat, col-
Sentence ___________________.
lect, finish, sleep). There is no need
Exploiting the unconscious linguistic Many word groups will fit in the here to define main verb. If the word
knowledge of students is the key to frame, but whatever they are, they will fits in the empty slot, it’s a word that
teaching the very basics of grammar. all be genuine declarative sentences. English speakers and writers can and
For students unaccustomed or Students can try out fragments you do use as a main verb in sentences.
resistant to working with abstract provide, such as Thinking of joining the Because verbs don’t always occur in
definitions, identifying sentences and team or Because he joined the team, as the base form in actual sentences,
fragments may prove difficult. To well as any suspicious word groups students need other strategies to
identify fragments, students must, they themselves may write. If students identify verbs, especially in the
at minimum, understand that a discover a fragment, they can add or sentences they compose. Here again,
fragment is an “incomplete sentence”; delete words to make it fit into the we can take advantage of the
to apply this definition, however, frame and thereby change the frag- unconscious linguistic knowledge of
students must understand what a ment into a genuine sentence. There is students, this time their uncanny
sentence is. To understand what a no need to define a sentence formally ability to produce negative sentences

T38 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:33 PM Page T39

and yes-no questions, to assist stu-

dents in identifying helping verbs.
If we examine the following sen-
tences, we see that a helping verb is a
word that immediately precedes the
negative element (–n’t or not) in
negated sentences or the word that
gets fronted in yes-no questions.

EXAMPLES
1. Jim should go to the football game.
[Transform this into a negative sen-
tence or a question.]
Jim shouldn’t go to the football
game.
Should Jim go to the football game?
2. Jim went to the football game.
Jim didn’t go to the football game.
Did Jim go to the football game?
take advantage of this knowledge in main verb be. Teaching students to use
If we have students transform teaching the basics of grammar. the main-verb frames and the helping-
declarative sentences into either verb transformations can reduce
negative sentences or yes-no confusion over the function of be in a
questions, we can help them identify Main Verb Be sentence. Further, having students
helping verbs. Again, there is no need The main verb be (as in They were memorize the main-verb forms of be
to define helping verb formally. friends) is especially tricky because, can reduce the confusion even more.
Though students may have never unlike other main verbs, it moves to
heard of the term helping verb (or the front in yes-no questions (Were
auxiliary verb) before, they already they friends?). It also takes the negative Identifying Subjects
unconsciously know what it is if they element in negative sentences (They Once students have identified the verb
can produce a corresponding negative weren’t friends). The main verb be can of a sentence, they can easily identify
sentence or a corresponding yes-no thus masquerade as the helping verb the subject. To identify the latter, they
question from a declarative sentence. be (compare They were friends to They can insert the verb in the question
Making such transformations requires were running). To make matters worse, frame below and then answer the
complex linguistic knowledge. Yet, the main verb be appears frequently in question.
remarkably, we don’t have to teach student writing. Indeed, when we
Simple-Subject Frame:
students how to do this. If students complain that our students write with
Who or what __________?
are fluent or near-fluent in spoken too many be verbs, we really mean the
English, they already know it, as amply main verb be, not the helping verb be. In most cases, the answer to the
demonstrated in their daily speech. This gives all the more reason for question will be the subject of the
What we need to do, however, is to students to be able to identify the sentence.

Essays on Teaching Grammar T39

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 4/14/08 9:12 AM Page T40

non-native, bring to the language arts

classroom every day.

Further References
DeBeaugrande, Robert. “Forward to
the Basics: Getting Down to
Grammar.” College Composition
and Communication 35 (1984):
358–67.
Noguchi, Rei R. Grammar and the
Teaching of Writing: Limits and
Possibilities. Urbana, IL: National
Council of Teachers of English.
1991. ■

Rei R. Noguchi, Professor of English

and Linguistics at California State
Applying Knowledge passive voice and can help students University, Northridge, has taught
choose the correct case of personal courses in linguistics to practicing and
of Subjects and Verbs pronouns. In short, knowing how prospective language arts teachers for
Being able to identify subjects and to identify subjects and verbs leads to over twenty years. He is the author
verbs brings considerable payoffs. It an understanding of a host of other of Grammar and the Teaching of
will help students understand clause, concepts. Writing: Limits and Possibilities
which, in turn, will help them under- (NCTE). When not teaching or writ-
stand independent (or main) clause ing, he enjoys reading, bicycling, and
and subordinate (or dependent) clause. Conclusion
following various kinds of sports, par-
Understanding these terms will help For many language arts teachers, ticularly baseball.
them better understand the notion of teaching grammar is both a labor of
sentence, which, in turn, will help love and a love of labor. Many of us
them better understand and correct like the notion of grammar as a sys-
any unintentional fragment or run-on tem, the wholes and parts fitting into
sentence. (Think also of all the punc- place. Yet too often we struggle with
tuation rules that directly or indirectly difficult concepts and often with
refer to these structures.) Being able to indifferent students. We can make the
identify subjects and verbs will cer- labor of teaching grammar less—and,
tainly help students identify errors in hopefully, the love of grammar more
subject-verb agreement, errors in for both teacher and student—if we
verb-tense consistency, and even the take advantage of the prodigious pri-
overuse of main verb be. This skill can vate linguistic knowledge that all flu-
also help students identify verbs in the ent speakers of English, native and

T40 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:35 PM Page T41

By Billy
By Author
T. Boyar,
Name,
Ph.D.
Ph.D.

Raising Expectations:
The Importance of Teaching Grammar
to ESL Students
In the sixth grade, my class was taught words and charted their relationships.
sentence diagramming. Trying to Words and phrases depended on other
superimpose our simple schoolbook words like moons held to planets by
diagrams on the infinity of language gravity, and verbs sparkled like stars. I
felt mysterious. Studying grammar in was not surprised, years later, to learn
such a systematic way was like map- that the word grammar is etymologi-
ping the stars: We named unidentified cally related to glamour and gramarye,

S tudying grammar in
such a systematic
way was like mapping
the stars: We named
unidentified words and
charted their relationships.

Essays on Teaching Grammar T41

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:35 PM Page T42

suggesting magic. To me, the study of avoid developing English language that the party turned out well, but she
grammar has always been interesting habits based on false analogies with was basing her English usage on a false
and provocative in its own right. the rules for their primary language. analogy with Spanish usage.
There are, however, important practi- A comparative study of different Not only does the ESL student tend
cal reasons for studying grammar and languages shows that the basic to base English grammar rules on such
even more important practical reasons patterns of grammar, conventions false analogies, but also he or she often
for ESL students to study it. such as punctuation and capitaliza- hears nonstandard usage repeated by
In the past, some people have tion, and the special uses of words can friends and family. Being continually
disparaged the formal, systematic be vastly different. For example, a reinforced, the false analogy becomes
teaching of grammar to the ESL Spanish sentence doesn’t necessarily an ingrained habit. Without the for-
student. When people emphasize the need a subject (the subject can be mal, systematic study of English
importance of the natural way of implied by the verb); Spanish uses the grammar, usage, and mechanics, the
learning language, beginning with present tense where English would ESL student may always have difficul-
hearing and mimicking, I agree with sometimes use the past tense; question ty with standard English.
them. When they stress the necessity marks and exclamation points are
of creating a relaxed noncritical envi- placed both at the beginning and
ronment in which the ESL student at the end of sentences; and a double
Promoting Academic
feels free to practice speaking his or negative is considered standard Success
her new language, I agree with them. I usage. English is even further from Teaching grammar to ESL students
agree that the study of literature and the grammatical expectations of will help them succeed academically,
written composition is crucial. I even Chinese and other non-Western ESL especially if they plan to attend col-
agree that grammar, if taught to young students. lege. I have taught ESL and English at
children or to ESL beginners of any both high school and college. In com-
age, should be fun and games, or position classes, which also often
should not be taught at all. How-
ever, when people advocate such
approaches to the exclusion of a
formal program of grammar for ESL
I n the past, some people
have disparaged the
formal, systematic
contain ESL students, I frequently
need to explain a point of grammar in
order to help students understand why
I am asking them to revise their
students who are at least on an papers. I want them to understand the
intermediate level and at least in the teaching of grammar principle so that they can avoid com-
sixth grade, their argument is extreme, to the ESL student. mitting the same error over and over
and I disagree with them. in future essays. For example, I ask
Why is the study of grammar, them not to separate the subject and
usage, and mechanics important for In my composition class, a Mexican verb with only one comma (as in Sara,
appropriately mature and advanced American student submitted an essay who lives nearby is on my soccer team.).
ESL students? that contained this sentence: “The This comment inevitably requires a
Christmas party resulted well.” The further explanation: “Here you have
cognates to result (English) and resultar inserted a nonessential clause between
Avoiding False (Spanish) have confusingly similar the subject and verb.”
Analogies meanings, yet their usage is distinctly “But Mister,” asks one ESL stu-
A study of English grammar, usage, different. Here, resultar could be trans- dent, “what do you mean . . . non-
and mechanics helps ESL students to lated to turn out. My student meant essential?”

T42 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:36 PM Page T43

“A nonessential clause is a clause to stop the composition

that can be removed. . . .” class in order to devote
“But what’s a clause?” the rest of the course to
the basics of grammar.
“A clause contains a subject and The result is that the ESL
a verb—it can be independent or student who knows no
subordinate. There are three kinds formal English grammar
of subordinate . . .” is poorly served because
“What do you mean he or she cannot take full
subordinate?” advantage of the instruc-
tor’s explanations.
“I mean that they have a subject
Like many a native
and verb but that they cannot
English speaker’s, the ESL
stand . . .”
student’s grammar and
“So what’s a subject?” usage may never be per-
“A subject is the noun or pro- fect. Rather than perfec-
noun doing the . . .” tion, the goal is a
workable compromise. If
“Noun?”
students can communi-
cate effectively in English, does it mat- the job, he was required to improve
ter that they speak with an accent? The his English grammar, usage, and

T he problem is that
trying to teach a little
bit of grammar is like
lives of ESL students will not be
destroyed, for example, if they do not
master the subjunctive mood. As
mechanics.
The reality is that proficiency in
standard English is a badge required
teachers, we must demand excellence, for acceptance in many careers and
trying to paint a little bit but at the same time, we should care- professions in the United States.
fully consider what exactly we want Teachers, lawyers, doctors, and so
of a wall: It doesn’t work. students to master. forth may not be given the respect and
trust they deserve if their use of lan-
guage departs too far from the stan-
I encounter situations like this all
Supporting Career dard. Beyond this country, English has
the time—and of course, ESL students Success become the foremost international
aren’t the only ones who don’t know Studying grammar will help ESL language. The dialect of the neighbor-
formal English grammar. The prob- students succeed professionally. hood, rightly cherished, will not suc-
lem is that trying to teach a little bit of Recently, a city employee asked me to ceed very well in commerce on the
grammar is like trying to paint a little tutor him in English. He had started World Wide Web. The formal, system-
bit of a wall: It doesn’t work. In a col- out as a garbage collector, but after a atic study of grammar, usage, and
lege composition class, instructors few years his bosses recognized his mechanics helps the ESL student sepa-
typically explain points of grammar, ability and promoted him, then pro- rate neighborhood dialect from public
usage, and mechanics as they are relat- moted him again. He suddenly found language, in order to develop that
ed to essays submitted by students. himself having to write memos and public language in a clear and con-
However, it would not be appropriate job descriptions. Now, in order to keep scious way. Being truly bilingual, of

Essays on Teaching Grammar T43

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:37 PM Page T44

countless others, a refined bilin-

gualism can open doors to wider
possibilities.

Increasing Language
Ownership
ESL students will benefit from the
formal study of English because a
better understanding of language
patterns, a confidence in punctuation,
and a command of the special uses
of words will help them internalize
English as a language of their own.
Language ownership is an important
topic. Language is a huge part of per-
sonal identity. It is a major reference
point in our understanding of who we
are. However, it should be emphasized
that we can own more than one
language; we can have two or more
languages and dialects as expressions
of our identity. It is helpful, healing,
and sane for ESL students whose
home is the United States to adopt
English and care for it as their own.
The problem is that immigrants have
not always been welcomed with open
arms, which is ironic in a land of
immigrants. Our ESL students may
course, is more than merely owning therefore feel somewhat alien and

T he reality is that a badge. Coupling a career or sense that the English language is the
professional training with authentic language of others. One category of
proficiency in standard bilingualism will broaden opportuni- ESL students speaks English most of
English is a badge required ties in ways that are numerous the time. They speak English in
and unforeseen: as a police officer, school; they speak it in their after-
for acceptance in many nurse, doctor, lawyer, salesperson, school jobs; and they even speak it
careers and professions in diplomat, translator, flight attendant, most of the time at home: with broth-
psychotherapist, teacher, construction ers and sisters nearly all of the time,
the United States. supervisor, municipal work supervi- with parents some of the time, but
sor, governor, or president. In any of with grandparents not at all. Even
these careers and professions and though these students speak English

T44 Essays on Teaching Grammar

CA_NAT_GUM_Hbk_ATE06_FM_T24-T45 12/7/01 7:37 PM Page T45

most of the time, they paradoxically Conclusion students to accomplish as much as

still consider English their second other students. They can aspire to the
Finally, ESL students are in the advan-
language. In addition, since they use same— or better—careers and profes-
tageous position of having a head start
their “primary” (home) language less sions and can partake richly of the
on bilingualism. If they continue
and less, it does not grow. larger culture. Beyond these avenues,
to grow in their first language and
however, from the point of view of
if we give them the tools that they
those of us who love language, ESL
need for their second language, they

T he knowledge of
grammar, usage, and
mechanics is one tool in
will become truly bilingual. They need
many tools in their language tool
kits: the training to hear English
students will be able to look at
language from a higher vantage point.
From this aerial view, perhaps some
will even rediscover the old meaning
phonemes, so that they can be good
of grammar: magic. ■
many, but we should not listeners; the skill of pronunciation,
so that they can speak clearly; the
underestimate its knowledge of literature, so that
Billy Boyar has taught composition,
they can contemplate the values of
importance. literature, and ESL in high schools and
English-language cultures and the
community colleges for twenty years.
cultures of the rest of the world; and
Billy lives in Austin, Texas, where he
the art of writing compositions, so
These ESL students can be left in a teaches at Austin Community College.
that they can express their own truths.
world of little language indeed. A sys- He has worked with juvenile offenders,
The knowledge of grammar, usage,
tematic study of grammar, usage, and volunteered with Hospice, and medi-
and mechanics is one tool in many,
mechanics in a friendly environment ated as an ombudsman in nursing
but we should not underestimate its
will tend to cut through the cycle of homes. In his free time, he enjoys
importance. For ESL students, gram-
alienation. In the same way that we studying Spanish and reading philoso-
matical knowledge is a sine qua non of
may feel better about our own cars phy and finds his garden rewarding
becoming bilingual on a professional
when we learn how they work and can and a great way to unwind. He believes
level. On this level of bilingualism, the
repair them ourselves, ESL students that a formal, systematic study of
advantages are many, but it seems we
can learn how English works and can grammar is an important part of an
and our students sometimes set our
feel the pride of ownership. ESL program.
sights too low. Perhaps we have been
guilty of not expecting our ESL

Essays on Teaching Grammar T45

HH_FM_Market_GR06TE_NAT 12/7/01 9:03 PM Page T48

Your Road Map to

Grammar, Usage, and
Mechanics Mastery
Now more than ever before, there is a demand for students at
all grade levels to develop competence in the language arts and
facility with the English language. Students need to be able to
access information with ease, to appreciate the literary arts, and
perhaps most importantly, to apply their language skills at levels
demanded in the twenty-first century.

GIVING ALL STUDENTS ACCESS

TO LANGUAGE SKILLS
Students in each classroom—including those at grade level, special
education students, students with learning difficulties, advanced learners,
and English-language learners—are at varying levels of preparation and
have different strengths and needs. Giving these students all the tools
they need to succeed is no easy task. That’s where the Holt Handbook
comes in.

The motivating force behind this program’s organization and instructional

delivery is the desire to offer teachers and students a method of focusing
on written and oral language conventions and to provide a compelling
and effective way to teach and learn grammar, usage, and mechanics
skills. Based on John Warriner’s time-tested model for instruction, the
Holt Handbook can be an integral part of any balanced language arts
program, or it can stand alone as a powerful tool for giving students
access to the language skills they need most.

T46
HH_FM_Market_GR06TE_NAT 12/12/01 10:53 AM Page T49

Covering All Your

Students Need to 01

Know About Grammar,

10/31/
Opener
Part
k_G7
GUM_Hb

e,
, Us a g
Usage, and Mechanics PA R T
m a r
G ra m c h a n i c s
and M
e

THREE MAIN PARTS

COVER THE BASICS
PART I: GRAMMAR, USAGE, AND
MECHANICS chapters help students use and practice
using the building blocks of language—words, phrases,
clauses, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling. The
PM

last chapter, Correcting Common Errors, gives k_G7

Part
Opener
10/31/
01 2:20

GUM_Hb

students more practice building key language skills

and taking tests in standardized formats. nces
PA R T Sente
PART II: The SENTENCES section covers the
building blocks of constructing sentences, such as
writing complete sentences, writing effective sentences,
diagramming sentences, and improving sentence style.

PART III: The RESOURCES chapters include

The History of English, a concise history of the English
language; Test Smarts, a guide to taking standardized
10/31/
ener

tests in grammar, usage, and mechanics; and Grammar UM_Hbk

_G7 Pa
rt Op

at a Glance, a glossary of grammatical terms. In addition,

grades 9–12 include Manuscript Form, a section that ur ces
PA R T Reso
covers basic guidelines for preparing and presenting
manuscripts and offers a sample research paper as a model.

T47
HH_FM_Market_GR06TE_NAT 3/29/07 2:31 PM Page T48

Instructional Delivery
That Keeps Students on Track
Each chapter in the Holt Handbook is carefully sequenced so that
students are introduced to and taught new rules and skills at the right
time. Each chapter includes an entry-level diagnostic preview; direct
instruction of the rules followed immediately by examples and
exercises; ongoing assessment; and application of new knowledge
through writing. This direct and practical instructional approach
allows you to keep track of your students' pace and progress.

CHAPTER

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW
Parts of Speech offers a short test that covers the whole
chapter and lets you pretest for the
Overview most essential knowledge and skills.
Noun, Pronoun, Adjective

The Independent Clause

6b. An independent (or main) clause expresses a
RULE, EXAMPLE,
complete thought and can stand by itself as a complete
sentence.
EXERCISE sequence
S V
introduces a new rule and
Diagnostic Preview EXAMPLES The sun set an hour ago. [This entire sentence is
an independent clause.]
follows it immediately with
A. Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives
S V examples and exercises.
Tell whether each italicized word or word group in the following Jean Merrill wrote The Pushcart War, and
sentences is used as a noun, a [pronoun,] or an adjective. S V
EXAMPLE 1. Each student is required to take a foreign Ronni Solbert illustrated the book. [This sentence
language. contains two independent clauses.]
1. Each—adjective; language—noun S V
Exercise
After I finish studying, I will go to the movies. [This 1 Identifying Subjects and Verbs in
1. That drummer is the best performer. sentence contains one subordinate clause and one Independent Clauses
2. That German shepherd puppy is a sweet-natured and lively independent clause.] Identify the subject and verb in each italicized independent
rascal.
clause in the following sentences.
3. [Everybody]says that high school will be more work but more
fun, too. EXAMPLE 1. Before she left for college, my sister read the comics in
the newspaper every day.
4. [This]is the greatest year the junior varsity volleyball team has
ever had. 1. sister—subject; read—verb
5. [Who]can tell me whose bicycle [this] is? 1. She told me that Jump
6. Jenna prepared a special breakfast for her parents and [herself ] Start was her favorite.
this morning. 2. Since she liked it so much,
Jump Start reprinted by permission of United Feature Syndicate, Inc.

7. This is their fault because [they] ignored all the danger signals. I made a point of reading
8. [We]received word that they aren’t in danger. it, too.
9. [Each]of these clubs decorated a float for the Cinco de Mayo 3. The comic strip was cre-
parade. ated by this young man,
10. The runner Carl Lewis won several Olympic medals. Robb Armstrong, who
lives and works in
Philadelphia.
4. Jump Start features a
police officer named Joe
and his wife, Marcy, who
is a nurse.
T48
HH_FM_Market_GR06TE_NAT 12/7/01 9:08 PM Page T51

Review B Proofreading for Words Often Confused

Identify and correct each error in words often confused in the
following sentences.
EXAMPLE 1. Anne Shirley, here portrayed by actress Megan
Follows, found a pieceful life and a loving family
on Prince Edward Island.
1. pieceful—peaceful
1. Does the scenery shone in the picture on this page appeal
to you?
2. My family enjoyed the green hillsides and rugged seashore
during our two-weak vacation there last summer.
3. Prince Edward Island is quite a beautiful spot, and its REVIEW EXERCISES offer
Canada’s smallest province. both reinforcement of newly learned
4. Everyone who lives there calls the island PEI, and now I do, to.
5. During our visit, the weather was quite pleasant, so I lead concepts and cumulative assessment.
my parents all over PEI on foot.
6. We walked to several places of interest in Charlottetown,
the capitol.
7. I got to chose our first stop, and I selected the farmhouse
that’s the setting for the novel Anne of Green Gables.
8. That novel’s main character, Anne Shirley, is someone
who’s ideas I admire.
9. Walking around “The Garden Province,” we passed many
farms; the principle crop is potatoes.
10. Take my advise and visit Prince Edward Island if you get
the chance.

Chapter Review
CHAPTER REVIEWS
A. Using Irregular Verbs
provide additional practice
Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized
irregular verb provided before each sentence. and opportunities for ongoing
1. break The thunder the silence. assessment.
2. ring Who the fire alarm so quickly?
3. shrink This shirt must have in the dryer.
4. throw You’ve the ball out of bounds!
5. lead Julio the parade last year, so now it’s my turn.
6. rise The sun over the pyramids of Giza in Egypt.
7. swim We have only three laps.
8. choose Vera was as captain of the volleyball team.
9. go I have to visit the Grand Canyon twice.
] 10. sit The tiny tree frog motionless.
11. write Joan has a story about aliens from the
Andromeda galaxy.
Writing Application
12. do During class, Jorge the first five problems of his
homework assignment. Using Verbs in a Story
13. steal Three runners bases during the firstVerb Forms and Tenses A local writers’ club is sponsoring a
inning.
contest for the best “cliffhanger” opening of an adventure story.
WRITING
14. break This summer’s heat wave has all records.
15. drink Have you all of the tomato juice? Write an exciting paragraph to enter in the contest. Your para- APPLICATIONS
graph should leave readers wondering “What happens next?” In
16. sink The log had slowly into the quicksand.
your paragraph, use at least five verbs from the lists of Common guide students in applying
17. lie The old postcards have in the box for years. Verbs in this chapter.
18. drive Have you ever
Irregular
across the state of Texas?
new grammar, usage, and
19. begin Our local PBS station
Prewriting First, you will need to imagine a suspenseful situ-
its fund-raising drive.
ation to describe. Jot down several ideas for your story opening.
mechanics skills with
20. set Have you
picnic table?
the paper plates and napkins onchoose
Then, the the one you like best. With that situation in mind, end-of-chapter writing
scan the lists of irregular verbs. Note at least ten verbs you can
21. throw Who the ball to first base? use. Include some lively action verbs like burst, swing, and throw.
activities.
22. know I have some of my classmates for six years.
Writing As you write your rough draft, think of your readers.
23. take Kadeem the role of Frederick Douglass. Choose words that create a suspenseful, believable scene.
24. tear My mother the paper to make confetti. Remember that you have only one paragraph to catch your
25. come We close to winning the tournament. readers’ interest.
Revising Ask a friend to read your paragraph. Does your
friend find it interesting? Can he or she picture the scene clearly?
If not, you may want to add, delete, or revise some details.
Publishing Check your spelling, usage, punctuation, and
grammar. Check to make sure the forms of verbs are correct and
the tenses are consistent. You may want to exchange your
cliffhanger with a partner, and complete each other’s stories.
With your teacher’s permission, you can then read the completed
stories aloud to the class.
T49
HH_FM_Market_GR06TE_NAT 12/13/01 6:16 PM Page T52

Instruction Based on
Warriner’s Model
An English teacher for thirty-two years, John Warriner developed the
original instructional approach used throughout the grammar, usage, and
mechanics chapters in the Holt Handbook Pupil’s Edition. His logical model
of instruction is based on a three-step process: Teach students the rule, show
examples of the rule in writing, and provide immediate practice to reinforce the
skill or concept. This model has been the authoritative standard for teaching
grammar, usage, and mechanics skills for over fifty years.

Regular Verbs
HELP 9b. A regular verb forms its past and past participle by
Most regular adding –d or –ed to the base form.
verbs that end in e drop
the e before adding –ing. Base Present Past
Some regular verbs double Form Participle Past Participle
the final consonant before
adding –ing or –ed. clean [is] cleaning cleaned [have] cleaned
RULE is always EXAMPLES hope [is] hoping hoped [have] hoped
clearly stated and shake—shaking inspect [is] inspecting inspected [have] inspected
hug—hugged
presented in red. slip [is] slipping slipped [have] slipped

Reference Note One common error in forming the past or the past participle
USAGE

For more about spelling of a regular verb is to leave off the –d or –ed ending.
rules, see Chapter 16.
NONSTANDARD Our street use to be quieter.
For information on stan-
dard and nonstandard STANDARD Our street used to be quieter.
English, see page 245.
Another common error is to add unnecessary letters.
NONSTANDARD The swimmer almost drownded in the riptide.
STANDARD The swimmer almost drowned in the riptide.

NONSTANDARD The kitten attackted that paper bag.

STANDARD The kitten attacked that paper bag.

Oral Practice 1 Using Regular Verbs

EXAMPLES illustrate Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the
italicized verbs.
the language skill or con-
cept being taught in various 1. We are supposed to meet at the
track after school.
student-friendly sentences. 2. The twins happened to buy the
same shirt.
3. They have already called me about
the party.
4. Do you know who used to live in
this house?
© 1992 by Sidney Harris.

5. I had hoped they could go to the

concert with us.

T50 176 Chapter 9 Using Verbs Correctly

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 "Jos te vain käskette, herra kuningas, voidaan heidät tänä iltana
viedä Viborgin vankilatorniin, eikä teidän silloin tarvitse olla heidän
kanssaan saman katon alla eikä myöskään niin nopeaan langettaa
verituomiota. Heidän joukossaan on miehiä, jotka ovat syntyneet
parempaankin kuin lopettamaan elämänsä näin äkkiä ja julmasti."

"Ei suinkaan siihen ole kukaan syntynyt!" sanoi kuningas

ajatuksiinsa vaipuen. — "Jos joku tietäisi mitä hänen kehtonsa
ääressä on laulettu, ja jos sillä on jokin merkitys", lisäsi hän, "niin
minä haluaisin itse tietää mitä meille laulettiin, siitä voisi olla apua
näinä aikoina. Onko heidän joukossaan hienompaakin väkeä?"

"Heidän joukossaan on ainakin yksi, joka ei kuulu ihmiskunnan

roskajoukkoon, ja jossa vielä on jälellä hitunen kunniaa ja ylevyyttä.
Hänen sielunsa voisi ehkä vielä pelastaa. Hänen säätynsä ja
syntyperänsä ovat nyt kuitenkin hänen pahimmat syyttäjänsä: hän
on ylhäistä ja jaloa syntyperää. Herra kuningas, te olette itse kerran
kunnioittanut häntä ritarilyönnillä!"

"Se ei häntä auta — siinä te olette oikeassa! Hän kuolkoon:

jalosukuinen ritari olisi rangaistava kymmenen kertaa ankarammin,
kun hänet vangitaan ryövärien ja sissien parissa. Kuka hän on?"

"Ritari Lave Rimordson, teidän jalon kuningattarenne sukulainen ja

uskollisen Pentti Rimordsonin veli."

Kuningas säpsähti. Hän pysäytti hevosensa ja katseli drotsi Pietaria

terävällä katseella, jossa, kuvastui salainen epäluulo, silmänluomien
räpytellessä levottomasti. "Kuningattaren sukulainen. Niinkö te
sanoitte? Lainsuojaton Lave Rimordson, hänkö, joka on uskaltanut
uhmata minua ja kiihoittaa talonpoikia kapinaan? Samako, jonka te
itse julistitte lainsuojattomaksi?"
 "Hän juuri, herra kuningas!"

"Ja nyt te tahdotte puolustaa kapinoitsijaa ja rukoilla armoa

sellaiselle vaaralliselle rikoksentekijälle? Drotsi Hessel!"

"Herra kuningas, minä en ole tahtonut puolustaa häntä mutta

minä tohdin rukoilla syntisen puolesta. Vanhurskaimmalta tuomarilta
on suurin laupeus odotettavissa. Minä pyydän vain kuninkaani
muistamaan hänen veljensä ansioita isänmaan ja valtakunnan
palveluksessa, ja hänen suhdettaan teihin itseen ja
kuningashuoneeseen."

"Hm! Minä tahdon nyt näyttää teille ja uskollisille alamaisilleni" —

sanoi kuningas koettaen salata tyytyväisyyttään — "että minä
oikeutta käyttäessäni en ota lukuun minkäänlaisia sukulaisuus- tai
ystävyyssuhteita enkä katso arvoon tai syntyperään, en edes omaan
lankouteeni ja ruhtinaalliseen vereeni! Ritari Lave Rimordsonin minä
tahdon itse nähdä teloituspaikalla ennen auringon laskua. —
Eteenpäin!"

Kuningas kannusti hevostaan. Kaikki seurasivat häntä. Ne, jotka

olivat olleet kaivoksissa kiiruhtivat saavuttamaan häntä. Ritari Jon
ratsasti taas hänen vieressään. Vanha herra ei ollut kuullut äskeistä
keskustelua. Hän näki kuninkaan olevan levottoman ja kiihoittuneen,
ja hän seurasi vähän aikaa harvinaisen kiivaasti ratsastavien
mukana, tarkaten sillä välin huolestuneena kuninkaan vihaista
ilmettä ja huomaten drotsi Pietarin alakuloisuuden. "Miksi te
kiirehditte niin kovasti, herra kuningas?" kysyi vihdoinkin vanha ritari.
"Tuolla näkyy jo Harrestrupin linnantorni, ja aurinko on vielä
korkealla taivaalla."
 "Sitä parempi!" sanoi kuningas. "Missä teloitetaan rikoksentekijät
täällä? Missä asuu paikkakunnan pyöveli?"

"Daugbergin-harju on määrätty teloituspaikka, herra kuningas!"

vastasi Jon ritari, joka tunsi hyvin kaiken mikä kuului
oikeudenkäyttöön maassa. Teloituspaikka näkyi kalkkikaivosten yli.
"Sillä oikeudenpalvelijalla, jota te kysytte, on vapaa asunto
Daugbergissa."

"Hyvä, lähettäkää heti hakemaan hänet!" Vanha ritari säpsähti,

mutta totteli empimättä ja antoi heti erään metsästäjän ratsastaa
takaisin Daugbergiin pyöveliä hakemaan. Hän ratsasti sitten taas
ääneti kuninkaan vieressä kunnes uskoi hetkellisen kiivastuksen
asettuneen. "Ette suinkaan te, herra kuningas, tahdo äkkinäisellä
kuolemantuomiolla tehdä tuloanne tänne linnaan muistetuksi!" sanoi
nyt vanha, totinen valtaneuvos, ratsastaessaan hetken yksinään
kuninkaan vieressä kapealla tiellä. — "Minä en ole aikonut tehdä
esirukousta niin karkeiden rikoksentekijöiden puolesta: sillä ankaruus
on meidän päivinämme hyvin tarpeen. Mutta kun on olemassa
varmoja vankiloita eikä maassa ole kapinaa, silloin on minun
mielestäni näin kiireellinen oikeudenkäyttö tarpeeton."

Kuningas vaikeni ja räpytteli levottomana silmiään.

"Tuommoinen kiirehtiminen, herra kuningas!" jatkoi vanha Jon "voi

usein johtaa väärään tuomitsemiseen, tai pidetään sitä pelon
osoitteena, joka voi heikontaa luottamusta valtiomahtiin. Sankarin,
joka tuntee oman voimansa, ei tarvitse oman turvallisuutensa tähden
kiirehtiä ottamaan hengiltä pientä sidottua kääpiöjoukkoa.
Suurintakaan rikoksentekijää ei saa langettaa ilman laillista
tuomiota."
 "Mutta onhan rikos päivänselvä!" huudahti nyt kuningas
kiivastuneena. "Laki on kyllä tunnettu, ja minä langetan tuomion
heti: heidät teloitetaan! — Te saatatte rikokselliset teloituspaikalle,
ritari Jon! Ja te vastaatte minulle siitä että laki ja tuomio pannaan
täytäntöön kaikessa ankaruudessaan, vieläpä ennen auringonlaskua.
Ei mitään vastaväitteitä! Se on minun kuninkaallinen tahtoni."

Ritari Jon vaikeni, ja nyt ratsastettiin hitaasti ylös jyrkkää linnaan

johtavaa tietä. Siellä hyppäsi drotsi Pietari ratsunsa selästä ja astui
kuninkaan hevosen vieressä. Seurue oli pysähtynyt, ja heidän
takaansa kuului kiireellistä hevoskavioiden kapsetta ja vaunun
pyörien jyrinää. Metsästäjät ja haukkapojat katsoivat taakseen, sieltä
tuli se metsästäjä, jonka ritari Jon oli lähettänyt kuninkaan käskystä.
Hän ajoi täyttä nelistä leveäharteisen ratsastajan seuraamana, joka
istui laihan hevoskaakin selässä. Vieraalla oli päässään karvalakki ja
yllään lyhyt veripunainen vaippa; hänellä oli suuri, kiiltävä kirves
kädessään, ja satulan sivusta riippui tavattoman pitkä miekka.
Heidän jälestään tulivat pienet kärryt, joilla ajoi pari miestä, mukana
ketjuja, nuoria, pyöriä ja kaikenlaisia kidutuskapineita. Ja tämä
kamala joukko mukanaan lähestyi kuningas seurueineen
Harrestrupin linnaa. Drotsi Pietari oli ääneti ja hiljaa, eikä ritari Jon
myöskään puhunut mitään.

Vanha Dorthe oli herransa tietämättä saanut kohotetuksi

kunniaportin linnanportin ulkopuolelle. Se oli koristettu vihreillä
seppeleillä ja kaikilla niillä sen vuodenajan kukilla joita hän oli voinut
hankkia. Itse hän seisoi valkoisiin puettuna suuri kukkavihko
kädessään, kaikkien keittiöpalvelijattariensa ja karjapiikojensa edessä
kunniaportin vieressä vastaanottaakseen kuninkaan tavalla, joka
hänen mielestään hämmästyttäisi sekä kuninkaan että hänen
rakkaan, nuoren isäntänsä. Sen jälkeen kun kuningas oli armahtanut
hänet, silloin kun hänen naisellisen kunniansa tähden piti tulla
elävältä haudatuksi, ei hän voinut kyllin kiittää kuninkaan lempeyttä
ja armollisuutta. Näyttääkseen nyt hänelle tässä erinomaisessa
tilaisuudessa uskollisuutensa ja kiitoksensa, hän oli enemmän kuin
kahden kuukauden ajan harjoittanut linnan palvelijatarten kanssa
laulua, jota he eivät milloinkaan ennen olleet kuulleet, mutta joka
hätätilassa voitiin laulaa erään vanhan tunnetun kansanlaulun
säveleellä. Laulun hän oli saanut rippi-isältään; se oli vapaa käännös
schwabilaisen mestarilaulajan herra Reinmar von Zwetersin
kuninkaalle omistetusta kunnialaulusta, johon kuitenkin oli otettu
muutamia yksityisiä tosikuninkaallisia piirteitä. Kunniaportin
ulkopuolella, Dorthen ja hänen piikojensa vastapäätä seisoi
linnanvouti Tyko ja osa linnan miehistä varusväkeä. Dorthe oli
koristanut heidän kypäränsä silkkinauhoilla ja vihreillä oksilla, ja
kiilloitetut keihäät käsissään he seisoivat kunniaa tehden
liikkumattomina kuin kuvapatsaat. Kun drotsi Pietari näki nämä
juhlalliset valmistukset, jotka niin vähän soveltuivat hänen omaan
mielentilaansa, ja tämän saattueen kamalaan jälkijoukkueeseen,
valtasi hänet omituisen ahdistava tuskantunne. Tuo yksinkertaisesti
rakennettu kunniaportti oli melkein mestauslavan näköinen, ja
vanha, valkopukuinen imettäjä muistutti niinkutsuttuja itkijänaisia,
jotka tavallisesti kaupunkien hautajaisissa johtivat hautajaismenoja.
Naurettavasti koristeltujen karjapiikojen joukossa, jotka olivat
esittävinään hienoja ylimysnaisia, tunsi Dorthe itsensä
emännänarvossaan melkein kuningattaren veroiseksi. Vähemmin
vakavassa tilaisuudessa heidän näkeminen olisi saanut nuoren,
vilkkaan drotsin hymyilemään. Nyt se lisäsi vihlovasti ja melkein
tuskallisesti hänen synkkää mielialaansa. Kuningas ei näyttänyt
huomaavan näitä suosionosoitusten merkkejä, joihin hän pienissä
kauppakaupungeissa oli niin tottunut, senkin vuoksi, että tiesi
olevansa suurimman osan vihaama. Useimmiten olivat nämä tällaiset
teeskennellyt suosionosoitukset viekkaan kamariherra Raanen
toimeenpanemia, joka viisaasti laski, että jos ne eivät aina
saavuttaneet hyväksymistä, niin harvoin ne kuitenkin olivat
vastenmielisiä mielistelyä rakastavalle kuninkaalle.

Huolimatta tämän esityksen mauttomuudesta ja tilapäisleimasta,

hedelmä Dorthen pikkukaupunkisivistyksestä ilmeni niissä kuitenkin
tosikunnioitus kuningasta kohtaan, ja vanhan imettäjän
yksinkertainen hyväntahtoisuus, kun hän nyt kimakalla, värisevällä
äänellään, kirkuvien juutilaisten karjapiikojensa säestämänä näin
esitti kuninkaalle saksalaisen mestarilaulajan ylistyksen
tanskankielellä:

"Paras kansan ystävä kuningas on,

hänt' ilman on kruunukin loistoton.

Hätäturva on hyljätyn lesken hän,

ja ruokkija orvon leivättömän.

Hän suoja ja rauha on kansan ja maan

Mihin käykin, on rakkaus vastassaan.

Jalo sydämeltänsä ja mieleltään,

sanat suussaan on lempeät yhtenään.

Käsi aulis suurelle, pienellekin,

raha hällä ei ruostu kirstuihin.

On kunnia suuri sen kuninkaan,

Hän Eerik on, ruhtinas Tanskanmaan."
 Nyt vasta osui esilaulajattaren lyhytnäköinen katse kuninkaaseen,
ja nähdessään hänen tuikeat kasvonsa ja räpyttelevät silmänsä
valahti hän kuolemankalpeaksi. Dorthe tuiotti häneen kuin noita-
akka, joka manattuaan esille hirvittävän hengen itsekin kauhistuu
tuon mahtavan tuntemattoman nähdessään. Hän risti ehdottomasti
silmänsä ja käänsi katseensa pois hänestä; mutta nähdessään
saattueen loppupäässä teloittajan apulaisineen, kohosi hänen
kauhunsa korkeimmilleen, vieden kokonaan hänen mielenmalttinsa.
Suonenvedontapaisesti huutaen hän kaatui maahan, sillaikaa kun
kuningas käänteli arkaa orittaan ja ratsasti portista sisään
seurueensa kanssa.
KAHDESKYMMENESVIIDES LUKU.

Drotsi Pietari ei ollut huomannut mitä siellä tapahtui. Hän auttoi

nopeasti kuninkaan alas satulasta, saattaen hänet kivirappusia
myöten ylös suureen ritarisaliin. Täällä oli oivallinen pöytä katettuna,
ja täällä vastaanotti kuninkaan Dorthen toimesta enemmän lystikäs
kuin sulosointuinen pöytämusiikki, maalaisviuluniekkojen ja
huilunsoittajien esittämänä, jotka tavallisesti soittivat maalaishäissä.
He hankasivat ja puhalsivat suurimmalla ponnistuksella. Hiki helmeili
otsalla, ja he kumartivat kunnioittavasti, ja koettaessaan
alamaisuudessaan miellyttää kuningasta loihtivat he esiin mitä
kirkuvimpia ja vihlovimpia epäsointuja. Drotsi Pietari viittasi soittajat
vaikenemaan ja poistumaan kun kuningas piteli käsiään korvillaan, ja
kamaripalvelija Raane vahingoniloisesti hymyillen ihaili drotsi
Hesselin kekseliäisyyttä hämmästyttää kuningasta näin miellyttävällä
tavalla. "Se oli minun vanhan kasvatusäitini hyvässä tarkoituksessa
tekemä onnistumaton keksintö", sanoi drotsi Pietari. "Minä toivon,
että te suotte anteeksi talonväkeni viattomat erehdykset, he eivät
ymmärrä hovitapoja."

Kuningas näkyi olevan syviin ajatuksiin vaipunut eikä vastannut.

 "Minä en ole aivan hentomielinen", alkoi Jon ritari puhua, "mutta
minä voin teidän puolesta, kuninkaani, tulla aivan liikutetuksi
tuollaisistakin kissannaukujaisista, kun minä vain huomaan sen
olevan totisesti ja rehellisesti tarkoitettua". Ei kuningas kuunnellut
hänenkään puhettaan, ja ritari Jon kääntyi drotsin puoleen. "Teidän
imettäjännekö lauloi meille tuolla ulkona? Drotsi Pietari, minä en
tuntenut häntä siinä puvussa."

"Tuskin itsekään tunsin hänet, mutta hän se oli varmasti. Hän on

yksinkertaisuudessaan tahtonut hämmästyttää minutkin ilveilyillään."

"Hän huusi kuin huuhkaja, mutta kuitenkin se oli melkein

liikuttavaa", sanoi vanha ritari, koettaen tavallisella iloisella ja
avomielisellä tavallaan saattaa kuninkaan paremmalle tuulelle, jotta
siten saisi kuninkaan siirtämään äkkinäisesti päätetyn teloituksen. —
"Ne hyvät naiset ylistivät laulussaan teidän armahtavaisuuttanne ja
lempeyttänne, kuninkaani!" jatkoi hän. "Mutta heiltä meni suu
tukkoon nähdessään pyövelin teidän seurueenne jatkona. Ettekö
tahtoisi ainakin tämän yön nukkua päätöksenne tehtyänne ja antaa
meidän lähettää vangit Viborgin linnaan? Eiköhän olisi paras ensin
vahvistaa sydäntämme täällä eikä heti ajatella vakavia asioita?"

Tähän viimeiseen kehoitukseen, johon drotsi Pietari yhtyi

osoittamalla nöyrästi kunniapaikkaa pöydän päässä, näkyi kuningas
suostuvan. Hän oli vaiti, mutta istuutui pöytään, jossa hän pikaisesti
virkisti itseään muutamalla pikarillisella viiniä. Vanha ritari Jon koetti
saada aikaan iloisen pöytäkeskustelun, mutta tällä kertaa hänelle ei
tahtonut onnistua saattaa kuningasta hyvälle tuulelle. Pihalla, aivan
ikkunan ulkopuolella, istui pyöveli luurankohevosella, odottaen
ahneiden kätyriensä kanssa kuninkaan käskyjä. Dorthe oli kannettu
sairaana vuoteeseen, ja se näky, joka oli niin voimakkaasti koskenut
häneen, oli myöskin tehnyt omituisen kaamean vaikutuksen koko
talonväkeen. Linnanvouti Tyko huolehti sillävälin kuninkaallisten
metsämiesten sekä haukkapoikien ja tarjoilijapoikien ravitsemisesta,
joita juhlittiin mitä runsaimmin kolmessa eri huoneessa. Mutta
linnassa vallitsi kuolonhiljaisuus, aivankuin siellä olisi vietetty
hautajaisia.

Nyt nousi kuningas äkkiä pöydästä.

"Minä tahdon nähdä ne miehet!" sanoi hän päättäväisesti. —

"Tässä piilee jotakin muutakin. Antakaa tuoda heidät tänne, drotsi,
mutta varmasti kahlehdittuina ja vahvasti vartioituina!"

Drotsi Pietari meni heti ulos panemaan kuninkaan käskyä

täytäntöön. Hetken perästä hän taas palasi ritarisaliin. Kuningas
käveli kiivaasti edestakaisin liuskakivilattialla. Ritari Jon ja
kamaripalvelija seisoivat ääneti ja näyttivät molemmat samalla
tarkkaavaisuudella seuraavan kuninkaan levottomasti vaihtelevia
kasvojen ilmeitä. Drotsi Pietari seisoi myöskin ääneti, kunnes kohtasi
kuninkaan katseen. "He ovat täällä aivan heti!" sanoi hän sen jälkeen
ja astui lähemmäksi. "Sallikaa minun lausua vielä pari sanaa, herra
kuningas! Ei ainoatakaan vangeista ole otettu kiinni ryöstöstä. He
eivät ole ryövänneet minun omaisuuttani, eikä ritari Lave Rimordson
hyökännyt minun päälleni ennenkuin minä itse kutsuin hänet
ritarilliseen kaksintaisteluun. Häntä ei voi maalain mukaan tuomita
ryövärinä ennen kuin asia on lähemmin selvitetty."

"Vaiti!" vastasi kuningas. — "Lainsuojattomalla miehellä ei ole

minkäänlaisia oikeuksia. Tuossa he ovat. Minä tahdon itse kuulustella
heitä."
 Linnanvouti Tyko astui nyt sisään aseellisten varusmiesten kanssa,
joilla oli keskellään Niilo Rauhaton ja kaksitoista kahlehdittua
ryöväriä. Varusmiehet asettuivat kahteen riviin molemmin puolin
vankeja. Niilo Rauhaton astui ylvästelevällä röyhkeydellä toveriensa
etunenään, mutta Lave Rimordson näkyi häpeävän seuraa, johon oli
joutunut, jääden seisomaan takimaiseksi.

"Kuka on teidän johtajanne?" kysyi kuningas. "Sen tietää jokainen

pojan naskalikin Tanskassa!" vastasi uhmaileva rosvopäällikkö, "sillä
nimellä saavat äidit korpinpoikansa vaikenemaan, vaikka he
pitelisivät veistä heidän kaulallaan. Minun nimeni voi pelottaa kaikki
tyttölapset ja monen suurinenäisen miehenkin hiirenkoloon
pujahtamaan. Jos minulla vain olisi yksi käsivarteni vapaana, herra
kuningas, niin ettepä taitaisi kuunnella nimeäni loppuun asti. Niilo
Rauhaton on muuten minun nimeni, teidän nöyrin palvelijanne! Jos
te olisitte yhtä oivallinen kuningas kuin minä olen ryöväri, niin
olisivat asiat toisin maassa ja valtakunnassa, ja minä olisin ehkä nyt
ollut teidän oikea kätenne."

"Sinä siis itse tunnustat olevasi ryöväri, ja että nämä miehet ovat
sinun kanssarikollisiasi?"

"Jos me sen kieltäisimme, niin me olisimme roistoja ja kehnoja

miehiä!" vastasi Niilo Rauhaton. "Te olette ehkä tottunut valheeseen
ja petokseen hovissanne. Siinä suhteessa olemme ainakin minä ja
minunlaiseni rehellisiä."

"Hyvä!" sanoi kuningas. "Siis te tiedätte kaikki minkä

rangaistuksen laki teille määrää. Valmistautukaa kuolemaan tunnin
kuluessa!"
 "Yhtä hyvin nyt kuin myöhemmin, herra kuningas! — Kaikkien
meidän on kulettava sitä tietä. Mutta, jos te annatte minun elää
huomiseen, niin minä kerron teille uutisen, joka voisi olla teille
hyödyksi ja ehkä estäisi meidän tapaamasta toisemme liian pian
toisessa paikassa."

Kuningas näytti hämmästyvän ja loi katseen kamaripalvelija

Raaneen, joka viittasi hänelle salavihkaa, osoittaen tikarinkahvaan,
joka pisti esiin ryöväripäällikön povitaskusta "Vai niin!" sanoi nyt
kuningas, kääntyen taas ryöväripäällikön puoleen, "sinä tahdot tehdä
minut uteliaaksi ja levottomaksi, mies, saadaksesi aikaa
murtautumaan irti ja toimittamaan huomenna uusia onnettomuuksia.
Se juoni on jo vanha ja kulunut; jos et sinä voi parempaa keksiä, niin
et elä tätä tuntia loppuun."

"No hyvä! Antakaa minun siis mennä edeltäkäsin teille sijaa

hankkimaan! Sen palveluksen minä voin vielä tehdä teille hyvän
toveruuden tähden. No, no, elkää katsoko niin ylvästellen minuun,
teidän armonne. Me molemmat voimme pian ottaa toisiamme
kädestä. Sen mitä te ja teidän kaltaisenne saatte aikaan suuressa, ja
siihen kykenette, sen teemme minä ja minunlaiseni pienessä, siinä
vain on erotus, nähkääs. Jos te siis haluatte tehdä minut
airueeksenne toiseen maailmaan, niin minä saan tyytyä siihen, sillä
vielä tänä päivänä on teillä siihen valta, mutta te tulette sitä
katumaan, herra kuningas! Me tapaamme taas pian, ja silloin te
myönnätte Niilo Rauhattoman tarkoittaneen parastanne."

"Viekää hänet pois!" käski kuningas. "Hänet teloitetaan

viimeiseksi. Jos hän ei tunnusta meille mitä kuvittelee tietävänsä,
kidutettakoon häntä mitä ankarimmin! — Kuuletteko te, ritari Jon,
mitä ankarimmin!"
 Ritari Jon vastasi kuninkaan ankaraan käskyyn ääneti kumartaen.
Vanhan herran kasvoilla oli tuskallinen ilme. Mutta hän siveli nopeasti
kädellään uurteista otsaansa ja näytti taas kylmältä ja rauhalliselta.

"Astu esiin, Lave Rimordson!" käski kuningas, ja hurjan,

epätoivoisen nuorukaisen astuessa esiin hänen näkemisensä herätti
syvintä sääliä kaikissa paitsi kuninkaassa ja kamaripalvelija
Raanessa, jotka molemmat näyttivät katselevan häntä salaisella
pelolla.

"Tällä miekallani minä löin teidät ritariksi kolme vuotta sitten",

sanoi kuningas. — "Nyt musertakoon teidän syntymäkaupunkinne
pyöveli teidän ritarilliset aseenne ja ripustakoon teidän kilpenne,
kärki ylöspäin, hirsipuun alle. Tunnustatteko olleenne liitossa tämän
julkean ja kuuluisan ryövärin kanssa?"

"Kyllä, kuningas Eerik Kristofferinpoika!" vastasi nuori ryöväri —

"minä tunnustan vieläkin enemmän: jos me olisimme tavanneet
toisemme Daugbergin kaivoksissa puoli tuntia sitten, olisitte te yhtä
vähän nähnyt tämän illan auringonlaskua kun minä nyt sitä odotan".

"Haa, salaliitto!" — huudahti kuningas. — "Te ette ole vain ryöväri

— maankavaltaja, kuninkaanmurhaaja te olette, — senkin roisto!
Kuka on maksanut teille Tanskan kuninkaan hengestä?"

"Minä en ole mikään palkattu ryöväri" — vastasi Lave Rimordson

ylpeästi — "Minä olen ritari ruhtinaallista syntyperää, eikä ainoakaan
kuningas saa minua rankaisematta loukata. Kuningas Eerik, sinä
hetkenä, jona sinä julistit minut lainsuojattomaksi, vannoin minä
sinun kuolemasi ja perikatosi. Totisesti, jos minun oikea käteni olisi
tänä hetkenä vapaa, niin minä pitäisin vielä valani, ja tämä hetki olisi
viimeisesi."
 "Mielipuoli!" huudahti kuningas, astuen askeleen taapäin "Sinä
erehdyt, jos luulet häpeällisillä tunnustuksillasi voittavasi hetkenkään
lykkäystä. Vaikka sinulla olisi tuhat kanssarikollista, niin minä en
lahjoita sinulle hetkeäkään niitä mainitaksesi."

"Siinä te teette viisaasti, kuningas Eerik!" vastasi vangittu ritari ja

hymyili pilkallisesti. "Säästäkää niitä hetkiä, jotka teillä on jälellä.
Teillä ei ole tietoa montako niitä on, ja kun tilintekonne hetki on
käsissä, on teillä paljon enemmästä tehtävä tili kuin niillä syntisillä,
jotka te nyt tuomitsette pyörille teilattaviksi."

"Vaiti kurja!" huusi kuningas katkeroituneena, mutta hänen

silmänsä räpyttivät tuskallisesti, ja hänen levottomassa mielessään
näkyi äkkiä tapahtuvan muutos. "Sinun henkesi on minun
kädessäni", jatkoi hän, "sinä olet lainsuojaton kapinoitsija, — sinä
olet ryöväri, ja murhaaja. — Sinä olet itse uhannut herrasi ja
kuninkaasi henkeä. Mutta drotsi Hessel on väittänyt sinussa olevan
vielä jälellä ritarillista kunniantuntoa. Sinun Pentti-veljesi on minun
uskollinen ja ansiokas palvelijani, — sinun kunnoton kuolemasi
näiden pahantekijöiden kanssa voi luoda varjon minun
valtaistuimelleni. Etkö luule kuningas Eerik Kristofferinpojan voivan
vielä armahtaa sinua?"

"Oi miksei, ikuisella vankeudella kauniissa Sjöborgin linnassa —

eikö niin?" vastasi uhkamielinen vanki; "sillä minä en myö sieluani ja
autuuttani väärällä valalla enkä luovu kostostani. Se tulee ja sen
täytyy tulla, jos ei minun kauttani, niin toisten kautta. Kun syksy on
käsissä, on elonkorjaajia kylläksi —"

"Saatana, mitä sinä tarkoitat, tunnusta!" huusi kuningas

levottoman tuskallisena. — "Kurja pahantekijä, etkö usko minulla
olevan kidutuspenkkiä? — Katso ulos ikkunasta siellä on mies, joka
osaa irroittaa kielesi siteet."

"Sitä ei tarvita, Eerik kuningas!" vastasi ylpeä vanki hillityllä

äänellä, kohottaen kalpeat kasvonsa ja tuijotti kuninkaaseen
pelottavin katsein. "Teidän pyövelinne ei tarvitse raastella minua
puhumaan. Jos te tahdotte kuulla totuuden, niin minä en sitä salaa
teiltä kuolinhetkelläni. Niin suuri pahantekijä kuin olenkin", jatkoi hän
ääntään korottaen, — — "niin minä olen kuitenkin paljon ylempänä
sitä roistoa, joka petti parhaan ystävänsä ja häväisi hänen vaimonsa,
sillaikaa kun uskollinen ystävä vuodatti verensä kunniakkaassa
taistelussa, roiston kunnian puolesta. Jos ei rohkea Stig Andersen
verisesti kosta vaimonsa kunniaa, — jos ei Ingeborg rouvan sokealla,
mielipuolella isällä ole niin paljon näköä ja järkeä jälellä, että hän
ritarimiekallaan löytää tien teidän petolliseen sydämeenne, kuningas
Eerik, niin silloin ei ole tanskalaisen aateliston sydämissä enää
rehellistä veripisaraa, ja silloin eivät he ansaitse parempaa
kuningasta kun te olette."

Kuningas oli valahtanut kalpeaksi kuin ruumis. Hurjistunut kiukku

ajoi vaahdon hänen suupieliinsä, hän oli suonenvedon tapaisesti
pudistanut kätensä suuren miekankahvansa ympäri. Nyt hän paljasti
miekkansa ja hyökkäsi kuin mielipuoli uhmailevaa vankia kohti, joka
ei hievahtanut paikaltaan, hymyili vain hurjaa hymyään. Silloin juoksi
drotsi Pietari esiin asettuen vangin ja kiukustuneen kuninkaan väliin.
"Tämä ei ole mikään teloituspaikka, herra kuningas!" sanoi hän
kiivaasti, "ettekä te ole pyöveli, joka kaadatte turvattoman vangin.
Hän on julkea majesteettirikoksen tekijä, enkä minä enää rukoile
hänen henkensä puolesta. Mutta minun taloani ei häväistä teolla,
joka on teidän kruunullenne arvoton. Jos teidän heti täytyy saada
nähdä tämän eksytetyn nuorukaisen verta, niin olettehan te tuonut
pyövelin mukananne!"

Kuninkaan hurjistunut viha lauhtui äkkiä ja hän purasi

harmistuneena huuleensa, työnsi miekan tuppeensa ja loi rohkeaan
drotsiin katseen, joka kylläkin selvästi osoitti tälle, että hän viimeisen
kerran antoi näin rohkean neuvonantajan ohjata itseään.

"Aivan niin, drotsi Hessel!" sanoi hän kylmästi. "Te olette oikeassa,
minä olin vähällä unohtaa kuninkaallisen arvoni tuon julkean
pahantekijän hävyttömyyden tähden. Tekin olitte vähällä unohtaa
sen kunnioituksen, jota olette velvollinen osoittamaan kuningastanne
kohtaan. Tällä kertaa minä kuitenkin tahdon seurata teidän viisasta
neuvoanne. Toimittakaa vangit mestauspaikalle, ritari Jon! Lave
Rimordson on ensimäisenä sinne vietävä. Sen kunnian minä suon
hänelle hänen syntyperänsä tähden. Hänet teloitetaan miekalla,
mutta hänen päänsä asetettakoon paalulle ja hänen ruumiinsa
hirsipuuhun korppien syötäväksi. Drotsi Pietarin esirukouksen tähden
säästettäköön hänen ritarillinen vaakunansa erityisestä armosta. Ne
toiset kidutettakoon ja teilattakoon eläviltä. Nyt pois!"

Ritari Jon meni antamaan linnanvoudille viittauksen viedä vangit

ulos. Lave Rimordson heitti halveksuvan silmäyksen kuninkaaseen.
Hän laski oikean haavoitetun kätensä sydämelleen ja kasvot poispäin
käännettyinä pudisti hän mennessään ääneti vasemmalla kädellään
drotsi Pietarin kättä. Niilo Rauhaton hypähti hurjasti ovella ja helisteli
kahleitansa. "Nyt rohkeutta, toverit!" huusi hän hurjasti nauraen.
"Näyttäkää nyt minulle, että pysytte miehinä ja ojentakaa rohkeasti
ulos kielenne siksi kun se on leikattu poikki! Katsokaa minuun
viimeiseen asti ja olkaa päälliköllenne kunniaksi. Kun minä olen
nähnyt heidät kaikki teilattavan, herra kuningas!" huusi hän
ivallisesti, kääntyen vielä kerran uhmailevana ovessa — "niin sitten
tulee hienomman väen vuoro. Tulkaa itse antamaan minulle
armonpisto, niin olette kunnon pyöveli, silloin minä kuiskaan teidän
korvaanne salaisuuden, jota te muuten ette saa kuulla ennenkuin
Cecilian päivän jälkeen." Tämän sanottuaan hän poistui ulos ovelta.

Kuningas kääntyi nopeasti ylenkatseellisen näköisenä, mutta

julkean ryöväripäällikön jäähyväissanat näyttivät kuitenkin tehneen
hänet levottomaksi. "Seis!" huusi hän — "Ei sentään, tuo viekas
joukkio ei saa minua petetyksi! Minä tunnen heidän juonensa.
Tuollaisilla salaperäisillä puheilla on moni paatunut roisto laverrellut
itsensä hirsipuusta. Raane, anna taluttaa ratsuni esille. Minä tahdon
katsoa etempää säilyttävätkö he uhmailunsa kaikesta huolimatta
loppuun asti."

Raane poistui ja palasi heti takaisin. "Hevoset seisovat oven

edessä, teidän armonne!"

"Sinun myöskin?"

"Niinkuin käskette, herra kuningas!"

"Minä luulen kuitenkin muuttaneeni mieltä. Semmoisen näyn

nähtyään ei saa hyvin nukutuksi, ja meidän täytyy huomenna nousta
aikaisin ylös. Drotsi Hessel, onko kaikki järjestetty metsästystä
varten!"

"Ei mitään puutu, herra kuningas!" vastasi drotsi Pietari luoden

häneen katseen, joka ei salannut hänen kiihoittunutta
mielentilaansa.
 "Minä ratsastan kuitenkin sinne!" sanoi kuningas, "se on sittenkin
huvitusta. Voihan sulkea silmänsä silloin kun ei halua katsoa. Teidän
täytyy itse tunnustaa, tunnollinen drotsini että minä olen ollut sekä
oikeudenmukainen, että armollinen."

Drotsi Pietari kumarsi ääneti.

"Kohtelias isäntäni seuraa kai minua?" lisäsi kuningas ystävällisellä

äänellä, suuttumustaan salaten.

"Minä teen sen hyvin vastenmielisesti, armollinen kuningas, mutta

jos te käskette, täytyy minun totella. Tässä ei tapahtunut mitään
vääryyttä sen minä myönnän. Mutta se nähtävä ei ole
kuninkaallinen, ja minä olisin toivonut teille arvokkaampaa huvitusta
täällä käydessänne, jota minä en enää uskalla kutsua armolliseksi."

"Antaa sen asian jäädä! Te seuraatte minua!" sanoi kuningas ja

meni.

Raane hymyili, ja synkkänä ja syvästi kiihoittuneena seurasi drotsi

Pietari kuninkaallista vierastaan.
KAHDESKYMMENESKUUDES LUKU.

Seuraavana aamuna, kun aurinko nousi, paistoi se kolmentoista

teloitetun ryövärin ruumiille Daugbergin-harjulla. Alempaa syvältä
luolatieltä kuului iloista hälinää, metsätorvien toitotuksia ja koirien
haukuntaa, suuri metsästysseurue ratsasti ohi. Etunenässä ratsasti
kuningas kirkkaan viheriässä metsästyspuvussa, vanhan Jon ritarin
ja drotsi Pietarin välillä. Heitä seurasi kuusi komeasti puettua
tarjoilijapoikaa haukkoja ja metsästystarpeita kantaen, heidän
joukossaan nähtiin pieni, ystävällinen Åke Jonson, joka kantoi
kuninkaan lempihaukkaa. Kuninkaallisen metsästäjäjoukon
etunenässä, joka kuletti mukanaan vitjoista kolmeakymmentä koiraa,
ratsasti kamaripalvelija Raane, joka samaten kuin metsästäjät oli
keveästi asestettu jousipyssyllä ja metsästyspuukolla; sitäpaitsi
hänen vyöllään riippui säihkyvillä jalokivillä koristettu kapea miekka,
jonka kuningas oli äskettäin antanut suosikilleen silmiinpistäväksi
armonosoitteeksi. Aseenkantaja Skirmen ei ollut metsästysseurueen
mukana; — hän ei ollut vielä palannut käynniltään Henner Friserin
luota metsämökiltä. Hänellä oli lupa viipyä poissa tämän päivän
iltaan asti, ja hänen sijastaan nyt linnanvouti Tyko seurasi drotsia,
päättäen muutaman reippaan Harrestrupin metsästäjän kanssa
seurueen.
 Ratsastaessaan Daugbergin harjun ohi sulki kuningas vasemman
silmänsä, ettei näkisi teloituspaikkaa, ja kannusti metsästysorittaan.
Kun he olivat vähän matkan päässä sieltä, kääntyi hän oikealle
sivulle, jolla vanha ritari Jon ratsasti. "No, he pysyivät itsepäisesti
uhkamielisinä?" sanoi hän, "eilen illalla minä en tahtonut häiritä
hyvää yöuntani kuulemalla teidän kertomustanne loppuun, ja itse
minä en ollut niin lähellä, että olisin kuullut, mitä he sanoivat. Eikö
julkea Niilo Rauhaton tahtonut mitään tunnustaa?"

"Ei sanaakaan, herra kuningas!" vastasi Jon ritari — "mutta hän

nauroi ilkeästi kuollessaan, uhaten kahdeksan päivän päästä kertoa
teille mitä tiesi".

Kuningas räpytteli levottomasti silmiään ja kalpeni. "Sano minulle,

rakas Jon!" sanoi hän, "luuletteko te kaikkien noiden salaperäisten
uhkausten ja varoitusten, joita nuo miehet lausuivat, olleen muuta
kuin viekkaita verukkeita, joilla he koettivat välttää rangaistusta ja
saada tilaisuuden pakenemaan?"

"Minä en tiedä, herra kuningas, mutta teidän sijassanne minä en

olisi kiirehtinyt niin paljon tämän kuolemantuomion täytäntöön
panemista. Se seikka, että niin ylhäistä syntyperää oleva lainsuojaton
ritari oli näiden rosvojen joukossa, näyttää minusta, heidän
puheistaan huolimatta, olevan todennäköisenä todisteena siitä, että
he ovat olleet täällä vaarallisemmissa ja tärkeämmissä asioissa kuin
aikeessa ryöstää Harrestrupin ruoka-aitta ja viinikellari. Ehkä he
olisivat voineet antaa meille tärkeämpiäkin tietoja."

Kuningas oli tämän kuultuaan tullut vieläkin levottomammaksi.

"Saatana!" huusi hän kiivaasti, "täytyi kiirehtiä tekemään kaikki
heidän vaaralliset aikeensa mahdottomiksi. Miksi ette sanonut
minulle arvelultanne ennemmin, vielä heidän eläessään? Nyt teidän
viisautenne tulee liian myöhään, ritari Jon."

"Tehän ette tahtonut kuulla sanaakaan, herra kuningas. Kun

minulla on selvä kuninkaallinen käsky noudatettavana, niin minun
täytyy vaieta ja totella etenkin milloin, niinkuin nyt tässä,
epäilemättä kaikki on oikeudenmukaista, ja puustavillisesti laillista."

"Pahus vieköön, sitten me emme enää tahdo ajatella sitä!" sanoi

kuningas koettaen rauhoittaa itseään. Hän kannusti
metsästysorittaan ja antoi metsästäjien puhaltaa iloisen
metsästyslaulun.

Drotsi Pietari pysyi vakavana ja hiljaisena. Kuningas ei ollut vielä

koko aamuna puhunut hänelle sanaakaan, ja terävänäköinen drotsi
oli selvästi lukevinaan sekä kuninkaan että viekkaan kamaripalvelijan
kasvoista, että hänen kukistamisensa oli päätetty, mutta että ei vain
tahdottu häiritä päivän huvituksia antamalla tiedoksi hänen valtansa
ja vaikutuksensa loppuneen. Tämän alakuloisen ajatuksen vaimensi
kuitenkin toinen paljon tärkeämpi asia: huolenpito maan ja
valtakunnan turvallisuudesta, johon Inge neidon muistutus
valppaudesta ja äskeinen tapahtuma ryövärien kanssa oli antanut
aihetta.

Ritari Jon sitävastoin karkoitti kaikki synkät ja levottomuutta

aiheuttavat ajatukset luotaan. Hän oli nuoruutensa aikoina ollut
innokas metsästäjä, mutta ei ollut moniin vuosiin ottanut osaa näihin
huvituksiin. Metsästystorvien äänet ja iloinen melu herättivät hänen
mieleensä lapsuudenmuistot, ja kuninkaan seuralaisena hän piti
velvollisuutenaan olla niin huvittava ja iloinen kuin mahdollista.
Niinpian kuin ensimäinen metsäeläin oli ajettu esiin ryhtyi kuningas
intohimoisesti sitä takaa-ajamaan. Tässä ei kukaan vetänyt vertoja
hänelle. Hän ratsasti hurjaa vauhtia eteenpäin metsästäjien ja
koirien keskellä, ja niinkuin tavallisesti ihailivat vieraat metsästäjät
sekä hänen rohkeuttaan, että varmaa nuolella osaamistaan. Vanha
Jon ritari jaksoi vaivoin seurata häntä, mutta hän ei antanut
huomata matkan häntä rasittavan. Siirtyen ajatuksissaan takaisin
nuoruutensa aikoihin, kannusti hän tulista ratsuaan, antaen sen
tehdä mitä uskaliaimpia hyppäyksiä ojien ja aitojen yli.

Drotsi Pietari oli tottunut tällaiseen ajometsästykseen, mutta hän

tunsi kuitenkin usein tuskaa haavoistaan, ja hänen alakuloista
mielialaansa lisäsi vielä enemmän osanotto ritari Jonia kohtaan,
jonka hän selvästi näki rasittavan itseään yli voimiensa. Mutta ei
näyttänyt hyödyttävän puhua vanhalle herralle. Niin iloiselta kuin hän
näyttikin, oli hän viittauksella antanut drotsille tiedoksi yhtyvänsä
hänen epäluuloonsa ja katsoi hyvin tärkeäksi, että metsästysseura
pysyisi koossa.

Koko aamupäivän kuningas ei ajatellut muuta kuin metsästystä, ja

jos joskus pysähdyttiin kaatuneen petoeläimen ympärille, oli
kamaripalvelijalla uusi näkyvissä, ja hän riensi taas edelleen
uudistetulla, metsästysinnolla. Kun viimeinkin pysähdyttiin viheriälle
metsänurmelle, jossa hevoset saivat hengähtää, nautittiin siellä
pikaisesti valmistettu päivällinen, jonka kestäessä kamaripalvelija oli
väsymätön kertomaan kuninkaalle hauskoja metsästysjuttuja. He
olivat istuutuneet kumoonkaadetulle tammenrungolle. Pöytäliina oli
levitetty pehmeälle sammalelle, ja vähän etemmäksi olivat
metsästäjät leiriytyneet, kaadettu saalis oli vähän syrjempänä.
Tarjoilijapojat kantoivat ruuan kuninkaalle, joka oli iloisen ja
tyytyväisen näköinen.
 "Tämä on ritarillista ja kuninkaallista ajanviettoa!" vastasi Jon ritari
kuninkaan kysymykseen huvittiko metsästys häntä; —
"nuoruudessani olin minäkin oivallinen metsästäjä, mutta nyt minä
olen liian jäykkä ja vanha siihen leikkiin."

"Ensi kerralla, herra kuningas, on parasta että minä jään kotiin

niinkuin vanhat metsästyshevoset."

"Tehän halusitte tällä kertaa itse mukaan", sanoi kuningas. "Minua

ihmetytti teidän intonne."

"Ei se ollut aivan metsästyksen tähden, herra kuningas!" vastasi

vanhus vakavasti, heittäen tarkkaavaisen silmäyksen Raaneen.
"Tämä osa Jyllantia on minulle hyvin outoa". lisäsi hän hätäisesti, "ja
minä tahdoin myöskin mielelläni nähdä drotsi Hesselin isäntänä".

"Silloin olette myöskin nähnyt hänen olevan herran talossaan ja

pitävän tarkan huolen vierasvaraisuudesta!" vastasi kuningas
ivallisesti hymyillen. "Ryövärit ja sissitkin ovat turvassa hänen
kattonsa alla."

"Jos hän siinä meni hiukan liian pitkälle, teidän armonne!" sanoi
ritari Jon — "niin minä pyydän teitä minun tähteni suomaan sen
hänelle anteeksi. En minäkään puolestani pitänyt niitä vankeja niin
vaarallisina."

"Minun täytyy myöntää, herra kuningas", alkoi drotsi Pietari nyt

puhua —"että näiden pahantekijöiden asia oli merkillisempi kuin mitä
uskoinkaan, he ovat nyt palkkansa ansainneet. Jos minä siinä
tilaisuudessa, erehdyin ja silmänräpäykseksi unohdin sen
kunnioituksen, jota olen velvollinen osoittamaan kuninkaallista
vierastani kohtaan, niin elkää salliko tänä päivänä auringon laskea
vihanne yli, kuninkaani. Jos minä senkautta olen menettänyt
kuninkaallisen suosionne, niin suokaa minun edes — —"

"Kyllin siitä!" keskeytti kuningas hänet kylmästi, "minä olen tullut

tänne huvittelemaan enkä joka päivä tuomioita langettamaan. Minä
olen omien ajatusteni herra, ja minun päätökseni saatte tietää
kunhan aika on käsissä. No, miksi eivät metsästäjien torvet soi?"

Raane antoi nopeasti viittauksen kuninkaallisille torvensoittajille,

jotka seisoivat vähän etempänä pienellä kunnaalla. He soittivat nyt
reippaan metsästyskappaleen, jota he kutsuivat Waldemar Seierin
metsästykseksi, ja jota kuningas erityisesti suosi.

Painostava äänettömyys vallitsi kuninkaan epäsuosiollisen

lausunnon jälkeen drotsi Pietarille. Raane hymyili viekkaasti, hän
täytti kuninkaan pikarin ja koetti muutamilla hovinarrin eleillä
herättää iloisen mielialan jälleen. Mutta kuningas ei koskenut
pikariin, vaan vaipui syviin mietteisiin. Voimakas liikkeellä-olo ja
tietoisuus taitavuudestaan metsästäjänä näytti karkoittaneen hänen
kasvoiltaan sen epämääräisen ja vastakkaisen ilmeen, joka rumensi
ne, ja hetkeksi oli niille levinnyt todellinen kuninkaallisen suuruuden
piirre. Käsi miekan kahvalla hän katseli kolmea tärkeintä
neuvonantajaansa niinkuin se, jolla on minä hetkenä tahansa oikeus
vapautua heistä kaikista. Raane oli ainoa, jota kohtaan hän tunsi
jonkinlaista luottamusta; parempina hetkinään kuningas kuitenkin
ylenkatsoi häntä alhaisten huvitusten kurjana välittäjänä. Se voima,
jota vanha ritari Jon osasi niin suurella viisaudella ja varovaisuudella
käyttää, näytti hänestä tällä hetkellä olevan sekaantumista
majesteetin oikeuksiin, ja drotsi Pietarin etevämmyys tuntui hänestä
sietämättömältä. Nuo reippaat, ylpeät voitonsäveleet, jotka kuningas
tunsi lapsuutensa ajoilta, herättivät eloon hänen
nuoruudenunelmansa, ja muiston siitä ajasta, jolloin häntä äitinsä
vieressä jo tervehdittiin kuninkaan nimellä ja hän tunsi Waldemarin
veren virtaavan rohkeana ja turmeltumattomana suonissaan. Näytti
siltä kuin hänen koko turhaankulutettu kuningaselämänsä kulkisi
hänen ohitsensa ja hän istuisi yksin ja vihattuna ilman ainoatakaan
ystävää. Omituinen surumielisyys ja alakuloisuus näkyi tahtovan
vallata hänet; mutta hän voitti nöyryyttävän tunteen ja hurja uhka ja
kovuus loisti taas hänen räpyttelevistä silmistään.

Drotsi Pietari seisoi ääneti ajatuksiinsa vaipuneena. Hänen

rehellisistä avonaisista kasvoistaan voi selvästi lukea miten arka asia
kuninkaan suosion menettäminen oli hänelle. Vain yksi ajattelematon
sana oli tehnyt tyhjäksi hänen koko tulevaisuuden suunnitelmansa.
Hän ei voinut kieltää esiintyneensä liian ylimielisenä asiassa, jonka
tiesi oikeaksi, ja jonka liian rohkea puolustus oli saanut kuninkaan
koko suuttumuksen kohdistumaan häneen. Hänen mieltänsä
katkeroitti tietoisuus siitä, että oli loukannut kuningasta hetkenä,
jona tämä saapui vieraana hänen kotiinsa. Se oli hänelle tällä
hetkellä melkein katkerampaa kuin ajatus sen näennäisistä
seurauksista. Nyt kohdistui kuninkaan ankara tuomarinkatse häneen,
mutta sen liioiteltu kovuus näytti melkein tyynnyttävän häntä. Se
avomielisyys, jolla hän vastasi tähän katseeseen, ei sen sijaan
suinkaan ollut omiaan lepyttämään kuningasta, vaikka hänen
täytyikin tuntea kunnioitusta sitä lujaa itseluottamusta ja rauhallista
mieltä kohtaan, jota ei mikään hallitsijan oikku voinut nöyryyttää.

Sekä Raane, että vanha Jon ritari olivat näiden mykkien, mutta
merkitsevien kasvonilmeiden tarkkaavaisina todistajina, jotka soiton
ja yleisen vaitiolon aikana korvasivat keskeytyneen pöytäkeskustelun.
Vanha, viisas valtiomies näytti rauhalliselta ja välinpitämättömältä,
mutta kyynel kimmelsi hänen silmissään kun hän huomasi kuninkaan
hurjien intohimojen rumentamilla kasvoilla vielä hetken välähtävän
ylevyyden ja arvokkaisuuden ilmeen. Hän tunsi huolestuneena
uskollisen drotsi Pietarin kukistumisen päätetyksi ja myöskin oman
vaikutusvaltansa olevan horjuvalla pohjalla. Mutta eniten huolestutti
häntä se riemuitseva ilme, jota viekas kamaripalvelija turhaan koetti
salata, ja se liehakoiva teeskentely, jolla hän kehoitti jatkamaan
metsästystä. Nyt huomasi vanha herra kamaripalvelijan tekevän
myöskin omituisen liikkeen käsivarrellaan, johon kuningas nyökäytti
päätään kuin salaisen sopimuksen merkiksi. Kuningas näytti aikovan
nousta, mutta vaipui taas ajatuksiinsa, jääden istumaan.
Torvensoittajat jatkoivat puhaltamistaan.

"Herrajumala!" keskeytti nyt vanha Jon ritari pitkän

äänettömyyden, "he soittavat kuningas Waldemarin metsästystä. On
niin omituista sitä ajatella, herra kuningas. Jos teidän suurella
isoisällänne olisi ollut kreivi Albert ja uskollinen Riisen Kaarle
vieressään, kun hänelle soitettiin tuo kappale Lyon onnettomalla
metsästysretkellä, niin tuskin musta kreivi Henrik olisi sillä kertaa
saanut häntä käsiinsä."

"Kruunuhirvi! Kruunuhirvi!" huusi nyt Raane, hypähtäen ylös.

Kuningas nousi nopeasti. Joukko eläimiä, komea sarvipäinen hirvi
etunenässä, juoksi ohitse. Silmänräpäyksessä olivat kaikki
metsästäjät hevosten selässä. Torvet toitottivat ja koirat haukkuivat.

"Eteenpäin!" huusi kuningas ja hypähti oriinsa selkään. Drotsi

Pietari ja Jon ritari kiirehtivät nopeasti hänen sivulleen. —
Kamaripalvelija ratsasti edeltä; ja nyt alkoi metsästys kahta
innokkaammin ja rajummin. Väliin jouduttiin pois eläinten jäliltä ja
löydettiin ne jälleen, ja sitten ratsastettiin muutama tunti
keskeyttämättä.
 "Herra kuningas!" sanoi lopulta drotsi Pietari ratsastaen aivan
kuninkaan viereen, kun tämä oli hetkeksi pysähtynyt tarkkaamaan
koiria ja jälkiä, "levähtäkäämme hetken! Ritari Jonin ikäiselle on näin
raju liikkuminen rasittavaa, minun haavojeni siteet ovat auvenneet!"

"Se, joka ei jaksa seurata, jääköön jälkeen!" vastasi kuningas —

"minulla on kylliksi metsästäjiä mukanani, minä en tarvitse teitä.
Eteenpäin, Raane!"

Metsästystä jatkettiin innolla. Mutta ei drotsi Hessel eikä ritari Jon

jääneet jälelle. Alkoi viimein hämärtää. Drotsi Pietari ratsasti taas
Raanen ja kuninkaan hevosien väliin. "Jos tahdotte ehtiä
Harrestrupiin yöksi, herra kuningas", sanoi hän näennäisellä
levottomuudella, "niin täytyy meidän nyt kääntyä ja jättää eläimet
täksi päiväksi rauhaan".

"Minä teen vain sen mitä minä tahdon!" vastasi kuningas

suuttuneena. Hän oli juuri äsken itse nuolella osunut kruunuhirveen,
jota nyt tulisesti seurattiin. "Kruunattu eläin on minun", huusi hän,
"vaikka sitten saisin seurata sitä aamuun asti!"

Nyt mentiin huimaavaa nelistä eteenpäin, yli kantojen ja kivien,

läpi metsien ja vesakkojen, koirien haukkuessa ja torvien iloisesti
raikuessa. Drotsi Pietari ja ritari Jon seurasivat vielä kuningasta,
eivätkä kadottaneet häntä hetkeksikään näkyvistään. Mutta ritari
Jonin hevonen kompastui erään vaikeamman hyppäyksen
tehdessään, ja hän itse sai niin voimakkaan sysäyksen oikeaan
sivuunsa, että hän jäi hetkeksi makaamaan tainnoksiin maahan.
Drotsi Pietari hyppäsi hevosensa selästä ja riensi häntä auttamaan;
hän huomasi kauhukseen vanhan herran taittaneen yhden
kylkiluunsa. "Pysähtykää, Jumalan nimessä, pysähtykää!" huusi hän
voimiensa takaa. Metsästäjät kuulivat drotsin voimakkaan äänen,
jota he olivat tottuneet tottelemaan ja pysähtyivät. He tulivat heti
avuksi. Pian oli risuista saatu kokoon paari, jolla vanha herra voitiin
kantaa. Kaikki osoittivat hänelle mitä suurinta osanottoa. Mutta
tämän hämmingin aikana olivat kuningas ja kamaripalvelija Raane,
sekä kaksi vikkelintä haukankantaja-poikaa kadonneet heidän
näkyvistään.

Niin pian kuin ritari Jon heräsi tainnoksista ja näki makaavansa

paarilla, ympärillään drotsi Pietari ja hätääntyneet metsästäjät, kyseli
hän huolissaan ja pelästyneenä kuningasta.

"Hän ei tahtonut pysähtyä", sanoi drotsi Pietari, "mutta hänen

täytyy heti kääntyä takaisin. On mahdotonta enää jatkaa
metsästystä. On jo melkein yö."

"Joutuun hänen jälkeensä, drotsi Pietari!" huusi vanhus, "taivaan

nimessä, joutukaa hänen jälkeensä. Mitä te ajattelette!" kuiskasi
hän, "onhan hän yksin Raanen kanssa. Teidän väkenne pitää huolen
minusta. Eteenpäin!"

"Pidä hyvä huoli hänestä, Tyko! Hän on kuninkaan tärkein mies",

sanoi drotsi Pietari linnanvoudilleen, hypätessään kiireellä ratsunsa
selkään. "Kantakaa hänet varovasti Harrestrupiin! Te muut seuraatte
minua! Jumala olkoon teidän kanssanne, jalo herra!"

Silmänräpäyksessä oli drotsi Pietari kadonnut metsään

kuninkaallisten metsästäjien kanssa, sillaikaa kun linnanvouti Tyko
miestensä kanssa kantoi varovaisesti sairaan ritari Jonin
Harrestrupiin.
KAHDESKYMMENESSEITSEMÄS
LUKU.

Samaan aikaan, iltahämärässä, seisoi Klaus Skirmen

aseenkantajahattu kädessään Henner Friserin ja Åsen edessä
pienessä yksinäisessä metsätorpassa, lähellä Finnerupea. Voimakas
sankarivartaloinen vanhus oli sota-asussa; hänen yllään oli
friisiläinen sotisopa, nahkainen panssari, ja hylkeennahkalakki
harvoilla hiuksilla, ja hän nojasi pitkään keihääseen. Pienellä, somalla
Åsella näytti olevan paljon rauhallisemmat ajatukset mielessä;
hänellä oli yllään sama tummansininen puku, sama poimuteltu hame
ja heleän — sininen esiliina, jossa Skirmen oli nähnyt hänet silloin
kun hän oli mukana pelastamassa Åsea Hegnesgavelista. Hän piteli
tuttavallisesti Skirmeniä kädestä ja katseli ihastuneena häneen
suurilla, vilkkailla silmillään, tämän ujona odottaessa vanhan
Hennerin ratkaisevaa sanaa.

"Kiitos varoituksestasi, reipas poikani!" sanoi Henner ja Pudisti

voimakkaasti aseenkantajan kättä. "Oh hyvä, että sinä tulit niin
aikaseen, että voit auttaa meidän pieniä varustustöitämme. Tulkoot
nyt takaa-ajajamme minä hetkenä tahtovat. Ei kukaan näe meitä
kauemmin kuin itse haluamme. — Jos on totta mitä puhut, — ja
minä en pidä sinua minään lavertelijana — niin sinä olet nopsa
poika. Niiden ryövärien kanssa ei ollut leikkimistä. Jos sinä jatkat
tähän tapaan, ja herrasi hyvällä omallatunnolla voi antaa sinulle
ritarilyönnin, niin ei minulla ole mitään sitä vastaan, että minun pieni
Åseni rakastaa sinua ja sinä häntä. Kun me ensikerran tapaamme
voimme puhua lähemmin asiasta!"

Skirmen ja Åse lensivät onnellisina toistensa syliin ja syleilivät

sitten ilonsa innossa vanhusta.

"Hiljaa, hiljaa, lapset! Jumala ja pyhä Kristian teitä siunatkoot!"

jatkoi voimakas vanhus liikutettuna — "mutta nyt ei ole aikaa ajatella
rakastelemista ja lempimistä. Nyt sinun täytyy lähteä, Skirmen! Ja
vie suoraa päätä herrallesi tiedot siitä mitä me tiedämme!"

"Hänellä on siitä jo vähän vihiä", sanoi Skirmen. "Hän tietää mitä

Riiben porvarit sanoivat kapakassa. Mutta ei hän kuitenkaan usko
sen paljoakaan merkitsevän."

"Sano hänelle terveisiä minulta", sanoi vanhus, "että niillä varmasti

ei ole vähempää merkistä kuin mitä kansa sanoo niiden kolmen
auringon merkitsevän, jotka me näimme taivaalla pyhän
Nemesiuksen päivänä. Se oli päivänä ennen pyhäin miesten päivää.
Oppineet papit puhuvat paljon eräästä pakanallisesta koston
noitahengestä, jolla on ollut melkein sama nimi kuin sillä hyvällä
pyhimyksellä, jota me sinä päivänä palvelemme. Meidän herramme
tuntee sen noidan, enkä minä ymmärrä näitä auringon ja kuun
merkkejä. Mutta yhden minä tiedän: kun vihaiset ritarit kömpivät
munkinkauhtanoihin, niin eivät he silloin ainakaan aio
pyhiinvaellusmatkalle. Käske herrasi ensiksi ja etupäässä varomaan
Finnerupin latoa! Ja nyt matkaan! Suutele häntä Åse, ja anna hänen
sitten mennä! Sinun norlantilaisesi on innokkaampi kuninkaan