1

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
EDO UNIVERSITY UZAIRUE , EDO STATE.
INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRYI
(CHM111)
By
Prof. Mrs. Maliki M.
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ATOMIC THEORY AND NATURE OF ATOMS

• Chemistry studies the composition of matter and the
changes it undergoes.

• For centuries, philosopher, chemist and physicist tried to

answer the question of what matter was made up of using a
variety of experiments and observations.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
• At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

• Understand the atomic structure

1. The early ideas of the atom
2. the modern atomic models

•Know what matter is made up of and the discoverer of the

three main atomic particles

• Understand the limitations of all atomic models

• Calculate wavelength, frequency and energy of spectra lines

of hydrogen atom
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THE EARLY IDEAS OF THE ATOM

o Democritus atomic model

o John Dalton atomic model

o Joseph John Thomson atomic model

o Rutherford atomic model

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Democritus atomic model

All matter consist of particle that can not be further divided
into smaller pieces, Democritus called this fundamental
particle atomos which means "indivisible."

Principles of Democritus' Atomic Theory

o All matters are composed of fundamental particles called
atoms.
o Atoms cannot be destroyed.

o Atoms are separated by empty space.

o Atoms are in constant motion and undergo constant change

through the empty space.
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John Dalton atomic model

John Dalton proposed the atomic theory as follows:

o All elements are composed of atoms which are indivisible

and indestructible particles

o Atoms of the same elements are exactly alike (identical) in

size, shape, mass and chemistry. While atoms of different
elements are different.

o Atoms combine with atoms of other elements in simple

whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
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• Joseph John Thomson atomic model

• In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons while
investigating the electrical conductivity of gases at very low
pressure
• In his experiment, a very high potential difference (pd) was
placed across a glass tube containing gas at a very low
pressure.
• And a glow coming from the negative terminal (cathode)
was observed and was attracted to the anode. A hole in the
anode allowed the rays to pass through and hit the end of
the glass tube .
• The rays was deflected by the magnetic field. The beam hit
the fluorescent screen at the positively charged plate, when
it was exposed to an electric field.
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FIGURE 1.1 THE CATHODE RAY TUBE

Properties of the cathode rays

• They are identical irrespective of cathodes (different metals) or gas
used in the experiment, all produced same results.
• The rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields.
• The rays produced some chemical reactions similar to those produced
by light.
• They travel in a straight line when it is not interfered with.
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Based on the knowledge he obtained from the cathode ray, J.J.

Thomson was able to derive the ratio of electric charge to
mass of an electron as -1.76 ˟108 C/g.

Also, a scientist called R.A. Millikan conducted a number of

experiments in 1916 and found the charge of an electron to be
-1.60 ˟ 10-19 C.

Finally, the mass of the electron was calculated from the data
obtained by J.J. Thomson’s and R.A. Millikan.
Mass of an electron = Charge
Charge/mass
= -1.60 ˟ 10-19 C
-1.76 ˟108 C/g.
9.09 ˟ 10-28g
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FIGURE 1.2 THE PLUM – PUDDING MODEL

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• Rutherford experiment
• Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus. Streams of positively
charged particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold (gold foil).

Observations from the study were;

• Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection
• A few of the particles were highly deflected through quite large
angles.
• Less often, α-particles would bounce back in the direction from
which it came.
• This observation conflicted with Thomson’s model because if the
positive charge was spread out evenly, the alpha particles
should have passed through the foil without much change in
direction.
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• Thus Rutherford proposed that most of the particles passed through

the foil with little or no deflection because the atom consisted of
largely empty spaces.

• However, occasionally one of the α-particle interacted with the very

dense positively charged center which he called the nucleus and the
very large repulsion of this positive charged particle and the nucleus
resulted in the large deviation in the path of the α-particles, even to
the extent of deflecting the α-particle along the direction from which
it came.

• The model though very useful, it could not explain the arrangement of
electrons round the nucleus nor explained what prevented the
electrons from falling into the nucleus.
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FIGURE 1.3 Rutherford’s expected and actual result

FIGURE 1.4 Rutherford's model

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• Discovery of the neutrons

After a series of experiments were conducted it was suspected
that another type of subatomic particle existed.

• This new subatomic particle was discovered by Chadwick

when he bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with α-
particles and observed high energy radiation similar to γ
rays was emitted. Research studies showed that the rays
consisted of electrically neutral particles with mass slightly
higher than the proton
 15

THE MODERN ATOMIC MODELS

Two atomic models are in use today, they are;
• The Bohr atomic model and
• The quantum mechanical model ( also called the wave
mechanical model).
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THE BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

Bohr explained the arrangement of electrons in an atom
and provided answers to what prevented the electrons
from falling into the nucleus.

The movement of the electron in definite concentric

circular path (orbit) around nucleus prevented the
electrons from collapsing into the nucleus. As long as
the electron is on the orbit it do not radiate energy.

Electron emitted energy when it falls toward the nucleus

and absorbs energy when it moves away from the
nucleus in discrete value called quanta.
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•
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Bohr based his explanation of the atomic model and the

electronic energy levels of atoms on the experimental
observation of the emission spectrum of light by atoms.

FIGURE 1.6 THE BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
When a white light source or emitted radiation is passed
through a prism, the light splits from its source into
series of coloured bands called spectrum. Atoms also
give rise to spectrum called the atomic spectrum.

Atoms of an element absorb energy when heated, the

atoms become excited, the electron is promoted to a
higher energy level (excited state) and on falling to their
lower energy states lose energy and emit light. The
colours are characteristics of the element.
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• Each line in an emission corresponds to a discrete

(separate) wavelength, frequency and energy and thus
the pattern of lines in the spectrum of each element is
unique (like a finger print) to that elements.

• The wavelength of the emission spectrum tells us what

the sample is and the intensity of each wavelength can
tell us how much of the element is present.

• Since all electromagnetic radiation have the same speed

(3 ˟ 108 m/s), then frequency f = C
λ
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• The work of Max Planck has also showed that

electromagnetic radiation may be regarded as stream of
particles called photon. The energy carried by a photon is
related to its frequency by the expression;
E=h ƒ and ƒ = C Therefore, E = hC
λ λ
Where h = Planck’s constant with a value of 6.63 ˟ 10-34 j-
sec. A single photon carries one quantum of energy.

Example1.1 Calculate the frequency of radiation having a

wave length of 6.5 ˟10-7meters .

• Example1.2 Calculate the frequency and energy of a

photon having a wave length of 1. 7µm.
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BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Bohr based his theory of the hydrogen atom on the
electromagnetic spectrum that hydrogen produces.

At room temperature, hydrogen gas does not emit light but

when electricity is passed through a discharge tube containing
hydrogen gas, the molecules break down into atoms and the
tube glows with a reddish pink light.

The emission spectrum reveals that the atom emits radiation

in the form of lines. Several series of discrete lines with each
corresponding to a different wavelength in the
electromagnetic spectrum are observed. Figure 1.7 shows the
emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
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FIGURE 1.7: THE ATOMIC HYDROGEN

SPECTRUM, SHOWING THE FIRST FIVE
SERIES OF THE SPECTRAL LINES.

The intensity and distance between the lines decreases as

the frequency increases after which a continuum is
observed. That is the lines in each series become more
closely spaced at increase frequency (decreasing
wavelength)
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The wave length (λ) of the radiation is related to the

frequency (ƒ) by the equation λ = c
ƒ
ƒ (or ῡ) = frequency of radiation express as hertz (Hz) is
equivalent to cycle “per second”

In spectroscopy, frequency is expressed as wave number

(ῡ) and the wave number is the reciprocal of
wavelength ῡ = (1/ λ) m-1

• Calculating the wavelength of the spectra lines of the

hydrogen atom is done by using an expression known
as Rydberg equation:
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ῡ = (1/ λ)= R(1/ n21 - 1/n22)

Where:
n1= quantum number of the initial energy level (Start).
n2=quantum number of the final energy level.
R is the Rydberg Ritz constants= 10967876m-1
TABLE1.1 THE FIVE SERIES OF LINES IN THE
SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Order Series Converge toward n1 n2
First series Lyman series. Ultraviolet 1 2,3,4,5,------∞
region.
Second series Balmer series Visible region 2 3,4,5,6,------∞
Third series Paschen series Infrared region 3 4,5,6,7,------∞
Fourth series Brackette. Infrared region 4 5,6,7,8,------∞
Fifth series Pfund series Infrared region 5 6,7,8,9,------∞
n2> n1 and n values are all integral up to infinity.
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Example1.3 Calculate the wavelength of the first, second

and third lines in the Lyman series

Example1.4 Calculate wavelengths and the energy of

transition of the second and third lines in the Balmer series
of a hydrogen atom. h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 ˟ 10-34j-
sec, c = speed of light 3 ˟108 m/s
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SUMMARY OF BOHR’S POSTULATE

• Electron moves in circular orbits at different energies
around the nucleus

• The radius of the orbit is quantized. That is orbits are at

definite distances from the nucleus.

• The electrons revolve only in the orbit which have fixed

value of energy, thus electrons in an atom can have only
definite or discrete value of energy.

• As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it neither

loses nor gain energy. These orbits are stationary or ground
state.
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• If an electron in the ground state (stationary state) with

energy Ei, is given sufficient energy and goes into another
allowed orbit, with energy Ef, radiation will be emitted,
with energy and frequency. hf = Ef – Ei

• from going from one orbit to another, Bohr used the

formula below:

• The energy of an electron can only change by some

definite whole number multiple of a unit called the
quantum e.g. 1, 2, 3 --- etc., and not non integrals values
such as 1.2, 2.3, 1.3 and so on.
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THE LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC

MODEL
1. Bohr’s theory cannot explain line spectra of multi-
electrons atom.

2. It cannot explain the splitting of spectral lines in

magnetic field.

3. Bohr’s model is unable to explain the splitting of

spectra lines in an electric.

4. Bohr’s model is also unable to explain Heisenberg’s

uncertainty principles.
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DEFINITION OF BOHR'S ATOM

Bohr's atomic model defines an atom as the smallest unit of
an element displaying all its characteristics and participating
in chemical reactions. Each atom, according to this model,
possesses unique properties such as name, mass, and size,
distinguishing it from others of the same element or isotope.
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SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Hundreds of subatomic particles have been discovered, however three
of these particles; the Proton, Neutron and Electron are of interest to the
chemist.
TABLE 1.2: THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Particle Symbol Electrical Approximate
charge relative mass
(amu)
Electron e- 1- 1/1840
Proton p+ 1+ 1
Neutron n0 0 1

Note: amu is atomic mass unit

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
The proton number is referred to as the atomic number. The mass
number is the sum total of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
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THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

• The mass number of an atom being very small can not
be weighed directly; however experimental methods are
used to determine the mass of one atom relative to
another.

• The internationally agreed standard is an atom of

carbon-12 having a mass of 12 atomic mass unit (amu).

• Based on this standard, 1amu is exactly equal to one-

twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
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THE MASS SPECTROMETER

The process of producing and analyzing spectra is called
spectroscopy and the instrument for analyzing the
spectra is called a spectrometer. The mass spectrometer
is an instrument designed to separate atoms of different
masses. The process takes place in five stages;
1. Vaporization stage.
2. Ionization stage
3. Acceleration stage
4. Deflection stage
5. Detector stage.
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FIGURE 1.11: THE MASS SPECTROMETER

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MASS SPECTRA AND ISOTOPES

Isotope is defined as a phenomenon in which an element
has the same number of proton but different number of
neutrons (and mass number). If an element X is
represented thus: AZ X

A = the mass number (values are different for isotopes )

Z = the atomic number. (values are same for isotopes)
Therefore, A-Z = Neutron number

Majority of elements found in nature are a mixture of

isotopes. For example Bromine exists in nature as 7935Br
and 8135 Br.
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A mass spectrometer is used to find out the masses of

these isotopes using the carbon -12 scale and also find
out the proportion of each isotope.

CALCULATING RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES

FROM SPECTRA
Example : Calculate the relative atomic mass of
bromine containing approximately 50.52% of
79 Br and 49.48% of 81 Br.
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ELEMENTS, MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS

• Elements are pure substances made up of one type of atom
with specific properties that cannot be changed into simpler
forms.
• Atoms are the smallest units of elements, retaining their
properties. Elements with the same number of protons are
called isotopes if they have different mass numbers due to
varying neutron counts.

• A molecule is the smallest independent unit of a substance

with its own characteristics. Molecules of elements consist
of one or more atoms of the same element (e.g., Ne, O2),
while molecules of compounds contain two or more atoms
of different elements (e.g., H2O, NaOH).
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Breaking down molecules yields constituent atoms or

elements. The number of atoms in a molecule is its atomicity.
Example of Molecules Number of atoms Atomicity
C, He, Ar 1 Monoatomic
N2, O2, H2, Cl2, HCl, CaO 2 Diatomic
H2O, O3, CO2, 3 Triatomic
NH3, P4 4 tetraatomic
CaCO3 5 pentatomic
NaHCO3 6 Hexatomic
S8, H2SO4, C2H6, Al2(SO4), many polyatomic
C6H12O6
A compound is formed by the chemical bonding of two or
more different elements in a fixed ratio. Compounds always
consist of multiple types of elements,. Examples include
Examples are H2SO4, C2H6, Al2(SO4), C6H12O6, CaCO3 etc
 39

SUMMARY
• Democritus atom was the smallest indivisible particle
of an element.

• Dalton atom was summarized as follows ;

1. All elements are composed of atoms which are
indivisible and indestructible particles
2. Atoms of the same elements are exactly identical and
different from atoms of different elements.
3. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to
form chemical compounds.
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• Rutherford’s atom consisted of a positively charged

massive nucleus which the electron revolved around.

• Bohr’s atom has a minute nucleus consisting the proton

and neutron. The nucleus contributes to nearly the
entire mass of the atom. And the electron revolves
round the nucleus in circular orbits of definite quantum
energy much like the planet orbit round the sun.

• Bohr based his atomic model on the electromagnetic

spectrum that hydrogen produces.
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• The atomic hydrogen spectrum shows several series of

spectra lines with each spectra line having its
particular wavelength ( λ), frequency (f) and energy
(E).The wavelength of each spectra line can be
calculated using the Rydberg equation .

• Summation from all the atomic models reveals that the

atom consist of three main sub- particles namely;
electrons, proton and neutron.

• The atomic number (Z) is the number of proton. It does

not change thus referred to as the identity of the atom.
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• During chemical reactions, electrons can be transferred.

• While the number of neutrons can be different for some

atoms of the same element. the phenomenon is called
isotopy
• Isotopy gives rise to difference in the mass number (A)
of atoms of the same element. The mass number is the
sum of the proton and neutron in an atom.

• The relative atomic mass of an element is determined

using carbon – 12 as the standard. Here 1/12 the mass
of carbon-12 is assigned 1amu and an atom of it is
assigned 12amu.
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• Relative atomic masses of elements are not whole

numbers because many elements occur naturally as
isotopes. The relative atomic masses is computed as
the average of all the isotopes.

• The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to separate

atoms of different masses. It is used to identify the
presence of isotopes in an elements and their
proportions.
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INTERACTION AND QUESTIONS

1. Refute Dalton’s Theory of “indivisible” atom using J.J.
Thompson’s and Rutherford Model of the atom.

2.Give reasons for the following:

(i) The nucleus accounts for the mass of an atom.
(ii) Atomic masses unlike the atomic numbers are not whole
numbers.

3. Differentiate between;
i. the spectra lines of white light and the spectra lines of
elements.
ii. Ground state of an electron and the exited state
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4. A line spectrum in the hydrogen atom has a

wavelength corresponding to 4.57 ˟ 10-7m. Calculate
the frequency and the energy associated with this
transition.

5. Calculate the energy of a photon of radiation having a

frequency of 3.54 ˟ 1014 hertz.

6. Calculate the wavelength, the frequency and energy

of the lines in the Balmer series when n2 = 3 and 5

7. The wave number of a line in the Lyman series is

10282383.75m-1
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i. Calculate the frequency and energy of the series

ii. Which line in the series is it?

8. Assume that the atomic mass of an element(X) is

25.77. X has three isotopes; 74.7% of 2613 X, 24.7% of
a X and 0.6% of 28 X . Calculate for the value of a
13 13
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REFERENCE
Earl, B. and Wilford, L.D.R (Eds). (2001). GCSE Chemistry
(Revised Ed.). London: John Murry (Publishers) Ltd.

Earl, B. And Wilford, L.D. R. (2001). Further advanced

chemistry. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.

Brandy, J. E. (5th Ed) (1990). General Chemistry –

Principle and Structure. Published by John Wiley and Son
New York USA.

Ndiokwere, C.I. and Ukhun, M.E. (2006). First year

University inorganic and physical chemistry, revised
edition. Mindex publishing
 48

THANKS FOR
LISTENING
 49
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO, EDO STATE.

INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
(CHM111)

By
Prof. Mrs. Maliki M.
 50

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table arrange elements in order of increasing

atomic number in a manner that elements with similar
properties kept reoccurring at regular intervals to
demonstrate the periodic law.

The periodic law state that the properties of elements

vary periodically according to their atomic number.
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LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this lecture, the students will be able to
know ;
• Why Mendeleev periodic table was discarded.

• The different groups and periods of elements in the

periodic table.

• Know at a glace valuable information from the periodic

table.

• Relates the electronic configuration with the electronic

structure and properties of the element.
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DEVELPEMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The development of the periodic table to the present day
span from 1817 to 1897, with contributors including
Jonah Debereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri I. Mendeleev
and Henry Moseley. Amongst these contributors, Dmitri
I. Mendeleev is the most notable.

In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in

increasing atomic weight to form a periodic table. He
pointed out that element with similar properties kept
reoccurring at regular intervals or periods. Some
elements did not follow that order but he disregarded
the fact .
 53

Mendeleev placed elements with similar properties in

horizontal rows, he called group, while the periods were
vertically arranged. He equally left space in his periodic
table for elements that were not discovered yet. Apart
from spaces left in Mendeleev periodic table, his
arrangement is different from the modern arrangement
of the periodic table.

From his work, Mendeleev proposed a periodic law

which states that the properties of the elements vary in
a periodic way according to their atomic weight.
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Mendeleev’s work was based on the fact that he believed

that the only property of an element which does not
change in cause of a chemical combination was its atomic
weight. But this is not true, as it was later discovered
from Moseley’s work that the atomic number was the
only property in an element that does not change in cause
of a chemical combination.
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MODERN PERIODIC LAW

Henry Moseley was able to reveal the atomic numbers of
several elements from his study. Based on his new
discovery and the inconsistencies in the Mendeleev
periodic table, Moseley suggested that the elements
should be arranged in order of increasing atomic
number instead of atomic mass in the periodic table.

Moseley also proposed the modern periodic law, which

states that the properties of the elements vary in a
periodic way according to their atomic numbers.
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INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE

PERIOD TABLE
• The table relates the electronic configuration with the
electronic structure and properties of the element.

• It shows at a glance the exact period and group an

element belongs.

• The periodic table is divided into 18 groups of elements

and 7 periods, with the transition metals between the
group 2 and 13 elements in the fourth and fifth periods.
Also are the lanthanides and actinide in the sixth and
seventh periods respectively.
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• The periodic table shows the division of elements into

metals on the left side and non-metals on the right hand
side of the table.

• Elements with similar physical and chemical properties

placed on the same vertical row called group or family

• Elements placed in horizontal row called periods in

increasing atomic numbers from left where the metals
are located to the right with the non-metals

• Elements atomic numbers, mass numbers and in some

occasion elements electronic configuration
 58

The periodic table can also be divided into main groups;

The Main group elements also called the Representative

element. This group comprises the s-block and the p-block
elements. These element include the group 1 and 2 (s-block
elements) along with group 13-18 element.

The transition metals transition metals between the group 2

and 13 elements in the fourth and fifth periods. Also are the
lanthanides and actinide in the sixth and seventh periods
respectively. This group comprises the d-block and the f-
block elements. These element include the group 3 and 12
element.
 59

REACTIVITY TREND IN THE PERIODIC

TABLE
A reaction occurs when element loss, gain or share their
valence electrons with another element or specie. The
ease with which elements loss, gain or share electrons
in a chemical reaction measure their reactivity.

Reactivity increases down a metallic group as successive

members of the same group increases by one additional
energy level of electrons. Since metals react by loss of
electrons, the metals down the metallic group lose
electrons easier than those on top.
 60

On the other hand, non-metals react by gain of electrons,

The non - metals on top of the group gain electrons easier
than those below and are more reactive.

Reactivity reduces down the group as successive

members of the group increases by one additional
energy level of electrons and an increased distance
between the valence electrons and the positive nuclear
pull. This makes it more difficult for the positive
nucleus to attract neighboring electrons into the
valence energy level, thereby reducing reactivity as the
group descend.
 61

The period cuts across all the groups in the periodic

table. As one moves across a particular period from
left to right, there is increase electronegativity of the
element. Since the element advance toward elements
with more electronegative properties
 62

GROUP OF ELEMENTS
GROUP I ELEMENT
They are the most electropositive metals. They have one
valence electron which they loss in cause of a chemical
reaction. The members are generally referred to as
alkali metals because their hydroxides are soluble. They
react vigorously with cold water, forming an alkali
solution and liberating hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH +H2
 63

GROUP II ELEMENTS
The Group II elements are also called the alkaline earth
metals. They are less electropositive than the group one
metals. They react by loss of two electrons thus divalent.
They react with cold water mildly, given a basic solution
that is less soluble than the group 1 elements.
Mg + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + H2

GROUP III ELEMENTS

They are metals which are less electropositive than the Group
I and II elements. They react by loss of their three valence
electrons, thus they are trivalent.
 64

GROUP IV ELEMENTS
They exhibit non-metallic properties and they are tetravalent
because they have four valence electrons. They form covalent
bond by sharing of electrons. There is a gradual change from
non-metallic properties to metallic properties as the group
descend. They exhibit two oxidation state which are +2 and
+ 4 oxidation state. The +2 oxidation state increases while
the +4 oxidation state decreases on going down the group.

GROUP V ELEMENTS
They are non-metals and show two common valences of 3
and 5. They react by gain of electrons. Their oxides combine
with water to form acid.
 65

GROUP VI ELEMENTS
Element in group VI are non-metals. There are electron
acceptors and are oxidizing in nature.

GROUP VII ELEMENTS

The elements in Group VII are known as the halogen which
means salt former. They are the most reactive non-metals.
They are so reactive that they cannot exist free in nature.

GROUP VIII ELEMENTS

These elements are also called the noble gases. They are
unreactive.
 66

• TRANSITION ELEMENTS/METALS
• The lanthanides series; these are the fourteen elements after
lanthanum with atomic number from 58-71 in the sixth
periods. Members successively add one electron to the 4f
sub shell.

• The actinides series: These are the fourteen elements after

actinium with atomic number from 90-103 in the seventh,
periods. Members successively add one electron to the 5f
sub shell.
 67

• PERIODIC PROPERTIES IN THE PERIODIC

TABLE
The period properties in the periodic table are all
related to the forces of attraction between the positive
nucleus and the negative electrons. These properties
include.
• Ionization energy
• Electronegativity
• Electron affinity
• Atomic radius
• Ionic radius
 68

IONIZATION ENERGY
This is the energy required to remove the most loosely
held valence electron or outermost energy level electron
of an atom in the gas phase, to form ions. The ionization
energy increases across the period and decreases down the
group.
SUMMARY OF FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY
DOWN THE GROUPS AND ACROSS PERIODS
He
H
2.4
1.3
Li Be B C N O F Ne
0.5 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.7 2.2
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.5 0.7 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.5
K Ca
0.4 0.6
 69

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
This is the measure of the ability of an atom to attract
electrons when it is in a molecule. Electronegativity
decreases as the group descend and increase across
the period from left to right.
SUMMARIES OF ELECTRONEGATIVITY
TRENDS, DOWN THE GROUP AND ACROSS
THE PERIOD
H
He
2.2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2
K Ca
0.8 1.0
 70

ELECTRON AFFINITY
This is the energy released when an electron is added
to a neutral atom in gaseous state to form gaseous
ion. Electron affinity decreases down the group and
Electron affinity increases with increase in atomic
number along the period
 71

ATOMIC RADIUS
The size of an atom is expressed in terms of its radius
because the wave-like nature of the atom which does not
allow it to have a definite diameter; radius, circumference
or volume because of its wave-like nature.
ATOMIC RADIUS TREND DOWN THE GROUP
AND ACROSS THE PERIOD
H
0.030 He

Li Be B C N O F Ne
0.123 0.089 0.088 0.077 0.070 0.064 0.064
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099
K Ca
0.203 0.174
 72

IONIC RADIUS
Just like the atoms, ions also have a wave like property which
makes their size difficult to ascertain. Ions are formed when
atom gain or lose electron(s). The ionic radius is the
effective distance between the nucleus of the ions and its
outer energy level. Usually, ions have eight electrons in the
outer energy level.

Metals react by the loss of all their valence electrons, forming

positive ions called cation since all the outer energy level
electrons are lost the energy level is lost as well, causing the
radius of the ion to become smaller than the initial atom.
Also, greater positive change exerts a greater attractive
force on the electrons, thus causing shrinkage in size
 73

Non-metals on the other hand, react by gain of electrons

forming negative ions called anion. The radius of the ion
formed becomes bigger than the initial atom. This is
because the electron gained fill up the energy level,
resulting to a greater negative charge. This reduces the
attractive pull of the positive nucleus on the outer energy
level electrons. Ionic radius just like atomic radius increases
down the group. But it reduces across the metallic period
while it increases across the non-metallic period.
 74

SUMMARY OF THE IONIC RADIUS TREND

DOWN THE GROUP AND ACROSS THE
PERIOD.
H
He
0.021
Li Be B C N O F Ne
0.060 0.031 0.020 0.015 0.017 0.140 0.136
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.095 0.065 0.050 0.041 0.212 0.184 0.181
K Ca
0.133 0.099
 75

SUMMARY
In 1869, Dmitri I. Mendeleev arranged the elements in
increasing atomic weight to form a periodic table.

Mendeleev periodic table was discarded because some

elements did not follow the periodic trend and also it
was later discovered that the appropriate thing was to
arrange elements in order of increasing atomic number.

The modern periodic table arrange elements in order of

increasing atomic number in a manner that elements
with similar properties kept reoccurring at regular
intervals to demonstrate the periodic law.
 76

The modern periodic law states that the properties of the

elements vary in a periodic way according to their
atomic numbers.

The table relates the electronic configuration with the

electronic structure and properties of the element.

The periodic table shows the division of elements into

metals on the left side and non-metals on the right hand
side of the table.
 77

The period properties in the periodic table are all related

to the forces of attraction between the positive nucleus
and the negative electrons. These properties include;
• Ionization energy
• Electronegativity
• Electron affinity
• Atomic radius
• Ionic radius

The electron configuration of an atom is the

representation of the arrangement of electrons distributed
among the orbital shells and sub-shells in its ground state.
 78

The physical and chemical properties of elements are

related to their unique electronic configurations.

The valence electrons (electrons in the outermost shell)

are the determining factor for the unique chemistry of the
element.
 79

INTERACTION AND QUESTIONS

1. List the following atoms in order of increasing
electronegativity; K, Al, S, CI, and F

2. List the following in order of reactivity Na, K, Be, and Ca.

3. In the following bonded pairs of atoms, state in each case

the atom that attracts more of the bond (a) Li: Br (b)
Na:CI (c) Mg and Mg2+ (d) CI and CI- (e) K and Ca

4. Why does hydrogen with one proton have a mass of 1

atm unit while helium with two protons has 4amu
 80

4. Identify the atom or ion with the larger radius in each of

the following pair
(a) S and O
(b) H and Li
(c) Mg and Mg2+
(d) Cl and Cl-
(e) K and Ca

5. Place the following isoelectronic species in order of

increasing atomic radii and explain. Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Si4+
N3-, O2-. F-, Ne
6. Who discovered the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom
 81
REFERENCE
Brandy, J. E. (5th Ed) (1990). General Chemistry –
Principle and Structure. Published by John Wiley and Son
New York USA.

Earl, B. and Wilford, L.D.R (Eds). (2001). GCSE Chemistry

(Revised Ed.). London: John Murry (Publishers) Ltd.

Earl, B. And Wilford, L.D. R. (2001). Further advanced

chemistry. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.

Ndiokwere, C.I. and Ukhun, M.E. (2006). First year

University inorganic and physical chemistry, revised
edition. Mindex publishing
 82

THANKS
FOR
LISTENING
 83
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO, EDO STATE.

INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
(CHM111)

By
Prof. Mrs. Maliki M.
 84

INTRODUCTION TO THE WAVE

MECHANICAL MODEL
The wave mechanical model (also called the quantum
mechanical model) involves the use of quantum numbers
to completely describe the properties of the electrons
around a nucleus. Four quantum numbers are used;

1. Principal quantum number (n)

2. Azimuthal/subsidiary/angular momentum quantum number (l)

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

4. Spin quantum number (s)

 85

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this lecture, the students will be able to;

• Write the electronic configuration of elements

• Understand the Aufbau’s principle .

• Understand the concept of hybridisation.

• Deduce hybrid structure of simple compounds

 86

WAVE MECHANICAL MODEL

According to Albert Einstein, light has both wave and
particle character. It was projected that small particles
like electrons can also display same dual properties.

In 1926, the Austrian Physicist – Erwin Schrodinger

formulated wave-equation to describe the location and
energy of electrons. He incorporated the Bohr, Louis de
Broglie and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and
developed the wave mechanical model (Quantum
mechanical model).
 87

Unlike the Bohr model, the wave mechanical model does

not propose that electrons are localized in fixed orbits.
It describes the probability of finding an electron in a
certain position at any time. Such regions where we
could find an electron is called an “orbital”. The
electron cloud defines the shape of the orbital.
 88

ENERGY LEVELS OF AN ATOM

Electrons are arranged in energy levels. As we have already
known but electrons do not move in fixed path, the Bohr
orbit should not be confused with orbitals.

Electrons with the lowest energy level are found nearer the
nucleus while electrons with higher energy are successively
found further away from the nucleus.

Each energy level as well as orbitals have a maximum

number of electrons they can hold, the first energy level
which is closest to the nucleus can hold not more than two
electrons.
 89

Let us consider the Bohr‘s atom below.

Figure 3.1: Energy level of an atom
 90

QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers are numbers used to completely
describe the properties of the electrons around a nucleus.
These properties can be described in terms of four
quantum numbers. There are:
Principal quantum number: (n)
This describes the distance of an electron from the
nucleus. It is the same as Bohr’s energy level. It
describes the size and energy of the orbital. It is assigned
numbers ranging from n = l, 2, 3, 4,∞. The number of
electrons that can occupy a given energy level is given
by 2n2. Orbitals with the same n-value belong to the
same energy level, period or shell .
 91

Azimuthal or subsidiary or angular momentum

quantum number: (Ɩ).
The principal quantum number is divided into different
sub-shells. These sub-shells are designated as s, p, d, f
and so on. The Azimuthal quantum number
determines the shape of these sub-shells. Each sub-
shell corresponds to several electron cloud space. The
energy of the sub-shells increases as the value of
increases. Azimuthal quantum number has integer
values ranging from Ɩ = 0, 1 2, 3 to n-1.The energes of
the sub-shells are in this order s<p<d<f.
 92

TABLE 3.1SUMMARY OF SUB-SHELLS, NUMBER

OF ORBITALS, SHAPE OF ORBITALS AND
THEIR MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

Maximum
Number of Shape of
Sub-shell No. of
orbitals Orbitals
Electrons
s 1 Spherical 2
p 3 Dumbbell 6
Double
d 5 10
Dumbbell
f 7 Complex 14
 93

Figure 3.2: Shape of Orbitals

The one s-orbitals

The three p-orbitals

 94

The five d-orbitals

 95

Magnetic Quantum Number (m): This specifies the

permitted orientation in space for an electron cloud. It
gives the number of orbital types in an energy level.
And it has integral values of m = Ɩ --- 0 --- + Ɩ. That is,
the number of orbital in a sub shell is given by 2Ɩ +1 .
When Ɩ = 0, m = 0, which means that there is only one
orientation, which is a spherical distribution (s-sub
level or s-orbital).When Ɩ = 1, then m = -1, 0, + 1, that
is there are three permitted orientation. The axes of
these dumb-bells shaped orbital lie at 90° to each
other. They are designated as Px, Py and Pz as shown in
Fig. 3.2b.
 96

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QUANTUM

NUMBERS AND ATOMIC ORBITAL
Principal Subsidiary Number of Number of Orbital Atomic Number of
Quantum No. Quantum No. Sublevels m = 2Ɩ+ 1 Orbital Electron
(n) (Ɩ)
1 0 1 1 1s 2
0 1 2s
2 2 8
1 3 2p
0 1 3s
3 1 3 3 3p 18
2 5 3d
0 1 4s
1 3 4p
4 4 32
2 5 4d
3 7 4f
 97

Spin quantum number (s): This does not arise from

Schrodinger. It gives the direction of electron spin on its
axis. It has two values: +½ and -½ . This means that an
electron in a particular orbital has two permitted orientation
of spin on its own axis, opposite to one another s = + ½ (for
electron spinning in clockwise direction) and s = - ½ (for
anticlockwise direction).
 98

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF
ELEMENTS
Electron configuration of an element is the arrangement
of electrons in its atomic orbital when it is at the
ground state. In order to understand how electrons are
arranged in orbitals. It is necessary to understand some
basic principles. These principles are;
1. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
2. Pauli's exclusion principle
3. Hund’s rule
4. Aufbau’s principle or building - up principle
 99

Finally, electron structures are shown by writing down

the list of orbitals, with number of electrons in each
orbital shown as a superscript e.g. the 9 electrons in a
fluorine atom can be arranged in the order 1s2 2s2 2p5.
This order is referred to as electronic configuration of F.
 100

HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITAL

Hybridization involves combining a number of orbitals to
create a set of an equal number of new orbitals, where
each of the new hybrid orbitals has properties which are
an average of those of the orbitals from which they
were created.

A number of different types of hybrid orbitals are known

for elements. These hybrid orbitals and the shape of the
resulting molecules are given in table 3.4 below.
However, only a few of the hybrid orbitals will be
discussed here.
 101

Table 3.4: HYBRID ORBITALS TYPES IN COORDINATION

COMPOUNDS
Atomic Orbitals Hybrid Type Numbers of Structure
Orbitals
sp sp 2 Linear
sd sd 2 Linear
spp sp2 3 Trigonal planar
sppp sp3 4 Tetrahedral
sppd sp2d 4 Square planar
spppd sp3d 5 Trigonal
bipyramid
sppdd sp2d2 5 Square-base
bipyramid
spppdd sp3d2 6 Octahedral
 102

Examples;
sp-HYBRIDISATION e.g. BeCl2
sp2-HYBRIDISATION e.g. BF3
sp3-HYBRIDISATION e.g. CH4

It is interesting to note that hybrid formed by only using

the s and the p (i.e. sp1, sp2 and sp3) orbitals in
molecule complies with the octet rule. the octet rule
does not hold in some molecules where the atom may
use the d orbital.
examples of s, p and d orbitals hybridisation are;
• PF5
• SF6
 103

SUMMARY
The wave mechanical model (also called the quantum
mechanical model) involves the use of 4 quantum
numbers to completely describe the properties of the
electrons around a nucleus.

Electron configuration of an element is the arrangement

of electrons in its atomic orbital when it is at the
ground state. Using some basic principles;
1. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
2. Pauli's exclusion principle
3. Hund’s rule
4. Aufbau’s principle or building - up principle
 104

Hybridization involves combining a number of orbitals to

create a set of an equal number of new orbitals, where
each of the new hybrid orbitals has properties which are
an average of those of the orbitals from which they
were created.
 105

INTERACTION AND QUESTIONS

1. Write the electronic configuration of the following
elements K, S, P, and Ar

2. Deduce the shape of the following molecules.

(a) PCI5 (b) PF3 (c) SF6 (d) XeF4 (e) CH4 (f) NH3
(Xe = 54, S = 16, P = 15, C = 6, N = 7, Al = 13, B = 5, Be = 4)

3a. Which type of hybridization occurs in molecules with

trigonal planar geometry?
b. What is the hybridization of oxygen atoms in water
(H2O)?
c. Which type of hybridization is observed in molecules with
octahedral geometry?
 106

REFERENCE
Brandy, J. E. (5th Ed) (1990). General Chemistry –
Principle and Structure. Published by John Wiley and Son
New York USA.

Earl, B. and Wilford, L.D.R (Eds). (2001). GCSE Chemistry

(Revised Ed.). London: John Murry (Publishers) Ltd.

Earl, B. And Wilford, L.D. R. (2001). Further advanced

chemistry. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.

Ndiokwere, C.I. and Ukhun, M.E. (2006). First year

University inorganic and physical chemistry, revised
edition. Mindex publishing
 107

THANKS
FOR
LISTENING
 108
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO, EDO STATE.

INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
(CHM111)
By

Prof. Mrs. Maliki M.

 109

STOICHIOMETRY

This is the aspect of chemistry that deals with quantities of

substances. These quantities can be expressed in terms of
number of moles, mass, volume and Avogadro’s number.
And these are based on;

• Conservation of mass

• Relative masses of atoms

• The mole concept

 110
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

1. Use of the mole concept in quantitative chemical

calculations.

2. Calculate and utilize concentration units such as molarity.

3. Express chemical quantities in terms of number of moles,

mass, volume and Avogadro’s number.
 111

THE MOLE CONCEPT

The mole concept is the expression of quantities in terms of
number of moles, mass, volume and Avogadro’s number.

THE MOLE AND THE ADVOGADRO’S NUMBER

One mole of a chemical species contains exactly one gram
atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of the
species. For example:
1 mole = One atomic mass
Fluorine = 19g
Calcium = 40g
 112

A MOLE AND THE AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

A mole of specie also contains a constant number of the
elemental particles, atoms, ions molecules etc. The number
is 6.02 x 1023 and it is called the Avogadro’s number. One
mole of specie will contain one atomic mass of that specie
and will also contain the Avogadro’s number of particles
 113

TABLE 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC MASS

AND THE AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
ONE MOLE ONE ATOMIC ONE AVOGADROS
MASS NUMBER
Hydrogen 1g 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Boron 11g 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Fluorine 19g 6.02 x 1023 atoms

• Example 1
• Express as mole (a) 24g of carbon (b) 10g of Neon (c) 120g
of calcium
• Example 2
• What is the mass of 0.3mol of phosphorus and how many
atoms does it have?
 114

MOLE, MASS AND VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

At standard temperature, (0OC or 273k) and standard pressure
(760mmHg or 101.3 x 103 pa), the volume occupied by one
mole of any gas is a constant value called the molar volume.
The is equal to 22.4dm3. For example, the gram molecule
mass of one mole of carbondioxide (CO2) is 44g

Therefore, for gases at stp;

1 mole = one gram formula mass
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 atoms, molecules, formulas, species etc.
1 mole = 22.4dm3
 115

Examples 5.4
Calculate the (a) volume at s.t.p of ammonia in 8.50g of
ammonia gas.
(b) How many molecules of ammonia will there be in the
sample
(c) Express the volume at s.t.p in moles (one gram atomic
mass of NH3 = 17g, one Avogadro number = 6.02 x 1023)
 116

MOLE RATIO, MASS AND VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

IN CHEMICAL EQUATION
The whole number before the reactant and product formula
represents their number of moles. That is the whole
numbers are the mole ratio of the reactants and products in a
chemical reaction.
When no whole number is written in front of a formula in a
chemical equation, it implies that the mole ratio is one.
Example
Equation 2H2+ O2 2H2O
Mole ratio 2 1 2
Reacting mass (2x2) (16x2) (18x2)
Reacting mass 4g 32g 36g
 117

From the above example, it is clear that the mass that reacted
is simply the product of the number of moles and the gram
formula mass.

Reacting mass = Number of moles x gram formula mass

Example 6
What mass of zinc tetraoxosulphate (VI) is obtained from
reacting 10g of zinc with excess dilute tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid. (Zn = 65, S =32, O=16)
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
 118

STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
INVOLVING A LIMITING REAGENT
So far, we have been dealing with reaction in
stoichiometric quantities.

There are some other instances where some reactants are

insufficient. In this case, the insufficient reactant will be
consumed before the reactants in excess are used up.

And as such the quantity of the product is determined by

the insufficient reagent. The insufficient reagents limit
the amount of the product that can be formed. It is
therefore called the limiting reactant or reagent.
 119

Example 7
What mass of zinc tetraoxosulphate (VI) can be produced
when 35.0g of zinc is allowed to completely react with
73.9g of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid? (Zn = 65, S =32, O
=16)

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
 120

OTHER METHODS OF EXPRESSING

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Unit Symbol Definition Relationship
Molarity M Number of moles of solute per litre
of solution M=
Molality M Number of moles of solute per m=
kilogram of solution
Mole Fraction X Ratio of the moles of solute to the X=
total moles of solute plus solvent
Normality N Number of equivalent of solute per N=
litre of solution
Percent by Wt % Parts by weight of solute per 100 Wt %=
weight parts by weight of solution.
Percent by Vol% Parts by weight of solute per 100 Vol%=
Volume parts by volume of solution
 121

INTERACTION AND QUESTIONS

1. What volume will the following gases occupy at STP
i. 42g of N2 ii.16g of O2 iii. 0.2mol of CO2
iv. 3.02 x 1023 molecules of CO
v.1.20 x 1023 molecules of CH4

2.(a) How many moles are present in 1g of sodium

hydroxide?
(b)What is the mass of 1.0mol of oxygen atoms?
 122

3. Using 12g of copper, what mass of Copper (ii) trioxonitrate

(v) will be formed in the reaction
3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Cu = 63.5, O = 16, N = 14, H= 1)

4. How many moles are contained in 47g of magnesium

trioxonitrate (v) Mg(NO3)2
(a) How many molecules of Mg(NO3)2 are in the sample
(b) How many moles are there in:
(i) 6g of magnesium
(ii) 6g of oxygen gas
 123

REFERENCE
Earl, B. and Wilford, L.D.R (Eds). (2001). GCSE Chemistry
(Revised Ed.). London: John Murry (Publishers) Ltd.

Brandy, J. E. (5th Ed) (1990). General Chemistry – Principle

and Structure. Published by John Wiley and Son New York
USA.

Ndiokwere, C.I. and Ukhun, M.E. (2006). First year

University inorganic and physical chemistry, revised
edition. Mindex publishing
 124

THANKS
FOR
LISTENING