Article 1

Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus): Green Colorant for Cot- 2

ton Knit Fabric 3

Md. Himel Mahmud1,†, Md. Tanvir Raihan1,†, Md. Tarik Zaman Shakhik1, Fauzia Tasnim Khan1, and Mohammad 4
Tajul Islam1,* 5

1 Department of Textile Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangla- 6
desh; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; eshi- 7
[email protected]; [email protected] 8
9
† Both authors contributed equally 10
* Correspondence: [email protected] 11

Abstract: The textile industry has been exploring sustainable chemicals and natural alternatives for 12
dyeing textiles to replace harmful and carcinogenic substances used in different stages of textile 13
production. Natural dyes are gaining popularity as they are environmentally friendly and less 14
harmful. Betacyanin, a type of pigment obtained from red pitahaya, commonly known as red 15
dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus), which peels are available as agricultural waste and can be used 16
to meet the demand for natural dye production. This study aimed to explore and utilize dragon 17
fruit’s peel as a natural colorant for dyeing 100% cotton knit fabric (scoured and bleached single 18
jersey plain knit) of 170 g/m², which could transform low-value material into a valuable product. 19
However, cotton's phenolic nature and oxidation process result in negative charges on its surface, 20
making natural dyeing challenging. Cationization with cationic agents (NCH, a mixture of Cationic 21
polyamine and 1,3,Dichlori-2-propanol) and mordanting (Potassium alum or potassium aluminum 22
sulfate) was carried to improve dye exhaustion and enhance colorfastness properties. Spectropho- 23
tometer 800 used to measure color strength (K/S) and several fatness tests including wash, perspi- 24
ration, rubbing were conducted to assess the final product's performance. The process parameters 25
such as temperatures, times, pH levels, and dye concentrations were varied to understand optimum 26
conditions better. 27

Keywords: Dragon fruit, Pitahaya, Natural dye, Cotton, Cationization, Mordant 28

29

Citation: To be added by editorial

staff during production.
1. Introduction 30
The recognition of environmental issues and the implementation of strict regulations 31
Academic Editor: Firstname Last-
have stimulated investigation into sustainable chemicals that can replace harmful and 32
name
carcinogenic substances used in different stages of textile production, such as pretreat- 33
Received: date ment [1], dyeing [2-4], printing [5, 6], and finishing [7-9]. As an extension of this work, 34
Revised: date researchers are exploring natural alternatives for dyeing various textile materials that 35
Accepted: date
have traditionally employed toxic synthetic colorants [10]. Synthetic dyes damage the en- 36
Published: date
vironment, as they are non-biodegradable and can cause pollution during their processing 37
and application [10, 11]. In contrast, natural dyes are viewed as more environmentally 38
friendly and less harmful. Their use in textile production is becoming increasingly popu- 39
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. lar, as natural dyes can produce unique and pleasing shades that are often gentle and soft 40
Submitted for possible open access on the eyes [11]. In addition, plant dyes sourced from renewable and sustainable sources 41
publication under the terms and
can be easily disposed of, and their extraction process does not involve chemical reactions 42
conditions of the Creative Commons
[12]. Researchers worldwide strive to introduce agricultural residual sources that abun- 43
Attribution (CC BY) license
dantly provide natural dyes to manage the growing demand for these dyes and mitigate 44
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses
potential threats [13]. 45
/by/4.0/).

Colorants 2023, 2, Firstpage–Lastpage. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/colorants

Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 2

Apart from carotenoids, chlorophylls, and anthocyanins, betalains are a prevalent 46

pigment derived from natural betalamic acid and contain an immonium group. Nitrogen- 47
containing betalains pigments are water soluble. The primary sources of betalains can be 48
red violet betacyanins (Fig 1) or yellow betaxanthins (Fig 2) [14, 15], which are typically 49
from the Amaranthaceae family (such as Beta vulgaris L. and Amaranthus sp.) and the 50
Cactaceae family (such as Opuntia sp. and Hylocereus sp.), respectively. Red pitahaya, 51
scientifically known as Hylocereus polyrhizus, is a type of fruit popularly known as red 52
dragon fruit due to its aesthetically pleasing deep purple pulp and abundance of small, 53
soft seeds. This fruit is highly sought after in the European and United States markets and 54
is predominantly cultivated in Asia and Australia [15]. Plenty of dragon fruit peels are 55
available as agricultural waste in various nations, such as Indonesia, where about 150,000 56
tons of dragon fruit are produced annually, which can meet the demand for natural dye 57
production [14]. 58
Cotton is the most widely used natural fiber with the quality of making attractive 59
and comfortable clothing due to its hydrophilic properties [16]. Dyeing the cotton with 60
natural sources is often challenging due to negative charges on its surface. As cotton 61
grows [12] due to its phenolic nature [17], hydroxymethyl groups are partially oxidized 62
into carboxylic acid groups, which results in the cotton carrying negative charges during 63
the dyeing process. This can significantly reduce the efficiency of dye fixation on cotton 64
substrates [12, 13]. To address this issue, methods such as introducing cationic sites into 65
the cotton or employing pretreatment processes like chitosan and mordanting with e.g., 66
potassium alum or potassium aluminum sulfate are being utilized to improve dye exhaus- 67
tion and enhance colorfastness properties on cotton [12, 17, 18]. 68

69
70

Fig 1: Molecular Structure of betacyanin, where R1= 3-methyl-3-hydroxy methyl glutaryl and R2= 71
H for Hylocerenin (Hylocereus polyrhizus) [15] 72
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

73
74

Fig 2: Molecular Structure of betaxanthins [15] 75

76
Dragon fruit has been used in coagulation and flocculation of effluent treatment [19, 77
20] and different sectors including food [21, 22], fisheries [23], dye-sensitized solar cells 78
[24, 25], and cosmetics [26]. There is only one work in published literature where colorants 79
extracted from dragon fruit peel were applied to dye silk [27] but to the best of the authors’ 80
knowledge, until now, there has been no research on using dragon fruit’s peel as a poten- 81
tial colorant for cotton fabric. The current study explores and utilizes fruit waste as a cost- 82
effective natural dye source for cotton dyeing. The study aims to transform low-value 83
material into a valuable product by investigating cotton dyeing using dragon fruit peel 84
extract as a natural colorant. 85
86

2. Materials and Methods 87

Materials 88
Scoured and bleached single jersey plain knit fabric (100% cotton) of 170 g/m² was 89
obtained from Fakir Apparels Ltd, Bangladesh. Raw dragon fruits were procured from a 90
local market to extract pigment from the fruit's peel. Potassium alum or potassium alumi- 91
num sulfate (dodecahydrate), KAl(SO4)2·12H2O from Research-lab fine chem. Industries, 92
India was utilized as a mordanting agent. ForCat NCH, a mixture of Cationic polyamine 93
and 1,3,Dichlori-2-propanol was employed as a cationizing agent collected from Fortune 94
Top Pte LTD, Taiwan. Soda ash (Na 2CO3) and glacial acetic acid (100% anhydrous, 95
CH3COOH) were used to maintain varying pH levels. Glauber’s Salt or sodium sulfate 96
anhydrous (Na2SO4.10H2O) was used to determine whether it was essential to be added 97
to this natural dyeing. These chemicals were from Merck, Germany. Soaping agent was 98
used for washing purposes. Grey Scale was used to evaluate staining and shade change. 99
DW (diacetate-wool) Multifiber fabric was employed as an adjacent fabric to assess the 100
staining toward diacetate, bleached cotton, polyamide, polyester, acrylic, and wool 101
Methods 102
Extraction of Dragon Fruit Peel 103
As shown in Fig 3, dragon fruits were first stripped of their peel and diced into little 104
pieces. The peel pieces were then shade dried. The dried peel was ground into powder 105
using a household blender. The blended peel was then extracted in distilled water (Fig 4) 106
at 10 g/L concentration for 14 hours at room temperature (20°C), 1 hour at 40 °C, 1 hour at 107
60 °C, and 1 hour at 80°C with continuous stirring. The extracted solution was then filtered 108
using Whatman filter paper. 109
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig 3: a) Separation of dragon pulp from the peel, b) cutting the peels into pieces, c) Shade dried 110
peel, d) Crushed peel powder. 111

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4: a) Mixing dragon fruit’s powdered peel with distilled water for aqueous extraction, b) 112
Filtration of the extracted dye, c) Dyeing of specimen using extracted dye. 113

Dyeing 114

Dyeing was carried out in a lab dyeing machine (ECO-24, Xiamen Rapid Co. Ltd, China) with a 115
liquor ratio of 1:8 under various dye concentrations, times, temperatures and pH conditions. A typ- 116
ical time-temperature diagram used in the dyeing process is shown in Figure 5 , 15 of the 18 samples 117
were dyed to optimize the conditions for dying cotton fabric with the dragon fruit peel extract. After 118
reaching the proper conditions, one of the fabric samples was dyed along with Glauber's salt, an- 119
other was dyed while mordanting, and the final one was cationized prior to dyeing with the opti- 120
mum conditions. After dyeing, the dyed samples were washed properly and soaping was con- 121
ducted with 2 g/L soap solution at 60 °C for 10 minutes and dried at room temperature. Table 1 122
presents the dyeing experiments carried out to locate optimized dyeing conditions. Once, the best 123
dyeing conditions were determined, three more dyeing experiments were performed to investigate 124
the effect of salt addition to the dyeing bath (Table 2), mordanting effect (Table 3), and cationzation 125
effect on dye yield (Table 4). 126
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 5

127
Fig 5: Time-Temperature profile of dyeing of cationized cotton knit fabric with dragon fruit peel’s 128
extract. 129

Cationization 130

One of the cotton fabric samples was treated with 1 g/L soda ash at 30°C for 5 minutes in a ratio of 131
1:8 (cotton fabric weight/dye volume). ForCat NCH was added to the same bath to cationize the 132
fabric surface before dyeing. The temperature was increased to 60 °C after adding ForCat NCH, and 133
the treatment was carried out for 30 minutes. 134

Mordanting 135

During the dying process, the simultaneous mordanting approach was employed. One of the fabrics 136
was dipped into a 2 g/L mordant solution infused with dye extract with a liquor ratio of 1:8 at pH 9 137
and the dye concentration were 50 g/L. The treatment was carried out at 60°C for 60 minutes. 138

139

Table 1: Dyeing at various conditions. 140

Title Sample no Concentra- Tempera- Time pH K/S value

tion (g/L) ture (min)
(°C)
Temperature 1 30 30 60 7 0.1203
variation 2 30 60 60 7 0.1615
3 30 80 60 7 0.1078
Time varia- 4 30 60 30 7 0.1437
tion 5 30 60 45 7 0.1134
2 30 60 60 7 0.1615
6 30 60 75 7 0.0991
7 30 60 90 7 0.1154
pH variation 8 30 60 60 6 0.136
2 30 60 60 7 0.1615
9 30 60 60 8 0.1453
10 30 60 60 9 0.1343
11 30 60 60 10 0.1182
12 10 60 60 7 0.1096
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 6

Dye concen- 13 20 60 60 7 0.1516

trations vari- 2 30 60 60 7 0.1615
ation 14 40 60 60 7 0.1682
15 50 60 60 7 0.2031

Table 2: Dyeing at appropriate conditions with the addition of Glauber’s salt. 141

Sample no Concentra- Tempera- Time pH Glauber’s salt K/S value

tion (g/L) ture (min) (g/L)
(°C)
16 50 60 60 7 10 0.087

Table 3: Dyeing at appropriate conditions with mordanting agent 142

Sample no Concentra- Tempera- Time pH KAl(SO4)2.12H2O K/S value

tion (g/L) ture (min) (g/L)
(°C)
17 50 60 60 9 2 0.1071

143

Table 4: Dyeing at appropriate conditions of cationized fabric 144

Sample no Concentration Temperature Time pH K/S value

(g/L) (°C) (min)
18 50 60 60 7 0.5114
145

Testing 146
Color Strength (K/S) Values of Dyed Fabrics 147
The DataColor® 800 (Datacolor, USA) dual-beam spectrophotometer installed with 148
a pulsed xenon lamp filtered to approximate D65 light was used to measure the absorb- 149
ance value of the extracted dye solution and color strength values (K/S) of the dyed sam- 150
ples at their respective maximum absorption wavelengths. The dyed sample's color coor- 151
dinate values (L*, a*, b*) were also measured by measuring the reflectance curve between 152
400 and 700 nm using the same instrument. A diffuse illumination with 8° viewing meas- 153
urement geometry was adopted during all measurements. 154
K/S values were calculated using the Kubelka-Munk equation (Eq. 1) and the appro- 155
priate software. 156
(1 – R)2
K/S = ………………………………. [Eq. 1] 157
2R
K is the co-efficient of absorption, S is the co-efficient of scattering and R is the reflec- 158
tance value of the sample. 159
Color Fastness Determination 160

Colorfastness to wash of dyed cotton fabrics was assessed according to ISO 105 C06 161
(C2S): Colorfastness to domestic and commercial laundering [28]. According to ISO 105 162
E04: 1994 [29], colorfastness to perspiration was determined. Colorfastness to rubbing 163
was evaluated according to ISO 105 X12:1993 [30]. Grey Scale was used to assess staining 164
[31] and shade change [32]. DW (diacetate-wool) Multifiber fabric[33] was employed as 165
an adjacent fabric to assess the staining toward diacetate, bleached cotton, polyamide, 166
polyester, acrylic, and wool. 167

3. Results and Discussion 168

Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Effect of extraction temperature 169

Different temperatures were used during the traditional extraction method to select 170
the optimum temperature for extracting the pigment from dragon fruit peel. The maxi- 171
mum K/S value was attained at 60°C, as shown in Fig 6. The K/S value grew as the tem- 172
perature rose from room temperature up to 60°C, at which point a decline in the K/S value 173
was seen. Maybe 60°C is the ideal extraction temperature which enables the most dye 174
molecules to be freed from the peel and available in the bath. Therefore, for cotton dyeing, 175
dragon fruit peel was extracted at 60°C for 1 hour. 176

k/s value

1.4

1.2

1.0
Absorbance

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)
177
Fig 6: Determination of appropriate temperature for Dragon fruit peel extraction. 178

Effect of Dyeing Temperature, Time, pH and Dye concentration 179

k/s value
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
k/s value

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
30 60 80
Temperature (°C)
180
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 8

Fig 7: Determination of appropriate temperature for dyeing. 181

182
Fig 7 provides information on the dyeing process for three samples at different tem- 183
peratures to compare the K/S values for each sample and choose the appropriate temper- 184
ature for dyeing. According to the figure, a greater temperature allows for more molecule- 185
diffusion energy, which promotes dye absorption and a higher K/S value. The K/S value 186
indicates how well the sample material takes up the dye and how deep the resulting color 187
is. In general, higher K/S values indicate deeper, more intense colors. In this figure, the 188
sample dyed at 60°C had the highest K/S value of 0.1615 suggesting that the dyeing pro- 189
cess was most effective at this temperature. This might be caused by the dye molecules' 190
maximal diffusion rate into the substrate. The energy needed to dye was optimum and 191
desorption was minimum at this temperature. However, as the temperature increased, 192
the K/S value decreased, indicating that temperatures over the ideal range promoted de- 193
sorption. 194

k/s value
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
k/s value

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (min)
195
Fig 8: Determination of appropriate time for dyeing. 196

K/S value for different dyeing times has been shown in fig 8 from where the appro- 197
priate dyeing time can be determined. Here, the sample dyed for 60 min has the highest 198
K/S value of 0.1615, which suggests that the dyeing process was most effective at 60°C for 199
60 minutes. The dye absorption improved with time, and more dye molecules could dif- 200
fuse into the materials, improving the K/S value. The desorption rate increased and the 201
K/S value gradually decreased as the time passed beyond 60 minutes, despite the expec- 202
tation that it would exhibit a similar attitude toward the longer period. It showed that dye 203
desorption is encouraged by time and temperature higher than the ideal level. 204
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 9

k/s value
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
k/s value

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
6 7 8 9 10
pH
205
Fig 9: Determination of appropriate pH for dyeing 206

The proper pH for dyeing was determined by contrasting the K/S values for each 207
sample at various pH levels using the information in fig 9. Here, the sample dyed at a pH 208
of 7 has the highest K/S value of 0.1615 and after that, in an alkaline pH range it showed a 209
gradual decrease. As the pH increased, cotton fibers became negatively charged by pro- 210
ducing cellulosate ion and repelling the available negatively charged betacyanin dye mol- 211
ecules. This resulted in a decreased K/S value in a higher pH value than 7. 212

k/s value

0.20

0.15
k/s value

0.10

0.05

0.00
10 20 30 40 50
Dye Concentration (g/L)
213
Fig 10: Determination of appropriate concentration for dyeing 214

Fig 10 is intended to assist in determining the proper dye concentration for a certain 215
dyeing procedure. Here, the K/S value generally increases as dye concentration does. A 216
dye concentration of 10 g/L was too low to generate a deep and rich hue, as seen by the 217
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 10

sample treated with the lowest concentrations of 10 g/L having the lowest K/S values 218
(0.1096). On the other hand, the sample treated with the highest concentrations of 50 g/L 219
had the highest K/S values of 0.2031, signifying more dye molecules were available in the 220
bath and could participate as the dye concentration increased which resulted in the deep- 221
est and richest hue. 222
223

Comparison between Untreated, with-salt, mordanted and cationized samples 224

k/s value
0.6

0.5114
0.5

0.4
k/s value

0.3

0.2031
0.2

0.1071
0.1 0.087

0.0
Untreated With Salt Mordanted Cationized
Comparison
225
Fig 11: Comparison of K/S values among differently dyed fabrics 226

The four samples in Fig. 11 were dyed to examine their K/S values over 60 minutes 227
at 60 °C with 50g/L dye solution at pH 7. The untreated sample was not subjected to Glau- 228
ber's salt, mordanting, or cationizing processes. Glauber's salt was added to the with-salt 229
sample. However, the pH of mordanting bath did not remain at 7 due to the addition of 230
potash alum and increased to pH 9. 231
The Untreated sample appeared to have K/S values, 0.2031, followed by the mor- 232
danted sample (0.1071) and with-salt sample (0.087). These variances in K/S ratios show 233
that, even at the same concentration (50g/L), Glauber's salt and the mordanting agent per- 234
formed less efficiently. The cationized sample looked to have a K/S value much greater 235
than the other samples (0.5114). This implies that the cationizing ForCat NCH has signif- 236
icantly changed the solution's dyeing performance. This signifies that cationized agent 237
enabled more active sites for the dye molecules to be attached to, and this bond between 238
dye molecules with cotton’s cellulose through cationizing agent helped attain the maxi- 239
mum K/S value compared to other samples. 240
Color Fastness Analysis 241

242
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 11

Rating

5
5 5 5

4
4
Rating

3
2.5

0
Wash fastness Perspiration Perspiration Rubbing Rubbing
fastness(Acid) fastness (Alkali) fastness (Dry) fastness (Wet)

Fastness
243
Fig 12: Shade change rating 244

The cationized sample was only analyzed to evaluate color fastness properties as it 245
obtained the highest color yield in k/s. Fig 12 illustrates that the fabric's wash fastness 246
ranges from poor to fair. It means taking high dye concentrations may result in a signifi- 247
cant loss to appreciate loss in color depth. Acid's good perspiration fastness results in a 248
minimal loss of color depth, while alkali's outstanding perspiration fastness results in no 249
change in color depth. And both the dry and wet rubbing fastness are excellent, indicating 250
no loss in color depth. The poor to fair wash fastness indicated the dye molecules’ desorp- 251
tion in the washing condition which may break the bonds made by the cationizing agent 252
and result in a color loss. 253

Diacetate
Bleached cotton
Polyamide
Polyester
Acrylic
Wool
5

4
Rating

0
Wash fastness Perspiration Perspiration
fastness(Acid) fastness(Alkali)
Fastness
254
Fig 13: Staining rating. 255
Colorants 2023, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 12

The DW fabric seemed to have a greyscale rating of 4.5 or higher for wash fastness 256
as shown in fig 13, indicating that they retain their color well after washing. This fabric 257
also has a perfect rating of 5 for perspiration fastness (acid), which means they are resistant 258
to discoloration when exposed to acidic sweat. 259
For perspiration fastness (alkali), all the parts of the DW fabric except for wool have 260
a rating of 5, indicating excellent color fastness when exposed to alkaline sweat. Wool has 261
a slightly lower rating of 4.5, suggesting it may experience discoloration when exposed to 262
alkaline sweat. 263
Overall, this figure provides useful information for selecting fabrics with good color 264
fastness properties, depending on the specific application and end use. 265

4. Conclusions 266
The textile industry has been exploring sustainable chemicals to replace harmful and 267
carcinogenic substances used in different stages of production. Natural dyes have gained 268
popularity as a more environmentally friendly and less harmful alternative to synthetic 269
dyes. Red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus), predominantly cultivated in Asia and Aus- 270
tralia, is a potential source of betalains (betacyanins) for natural dye production, as there 271
is an abundance of dragon fruit peels available as agricultural waste. On the other hand, 272
dyeing cotton with natural sources can be challenging due to negative charges on its sur- 273
face. To address this issue, methods such as introducing cationic sites into the cotton or 274
employing pretreatment processes like chitosan and mordanting with potassium alum or 275
potassium aluminum sulfate are being utilized to improve dye fixation and colorfastness 276
properties on cotton. This study aimed to determine the optimal conditions for extracting 277
pigment from dragon fruit peel and using it for dyeing fabrics. Different temperatures, 278
times, pH levels, and dye concentrations were tested to determine the K/S value, which 279
indicates the depth and intensity of the resulting color. 280
The maximum K/S value was obtained at 60°C, and the dyeing process was most 281
effective at this temperature for 60 minutes, pH of 7 was found to be most suitable, and 282
dye concentration 50 g/L produced desirable color results while maintaining good color 283
fastness. Further experiments were conducted to compare the K/S values of different 284
chemical solutions, with sample using a cationizing agent, ForCat NCH. This chemical 285
significantly improved the dyeability and retention of the dye on the fabric, resulting in a 286
much higher K/S value compared to non-cationized samples both untreated and mor- 287
danted. Colorfastness analysis was also conducted to evaluate the fabric's ability to retain 288
its color over time, where the cationized sample had poor to fair wash fastness properties. 289
Overall, the study provided insights into the optimal conditions for using dragon 290
fruit peel pigment as a natural dye for fabrics. The findings can be used to guide future 291
research in this area and promote the use of sustainable and eco-friendly dyeing methods. 292
293

Author Contributions: Md. Himel Mahmud: Investigation, Writing- Original draft preparation, 294
Visualization; Md. Tanvir Raihan: Investigation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization; 295
Md. Tarik Zaman Shakhik: Investigation, Visualization; Fauzia Tasnim Khan: Investigation, Vis- 296
ualization; Mohammad Tajul Islam: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing- Re- 297
viewing and Editing. (Md. Himel Mahmud and Md. Tanvir Raihan, both contributed equally) 298

Funding: Not applicable. 299

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 300

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. 301

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. 302

Conflicts of Interest: There is no conflict of interest to be declared. 303

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