KEY NOTES & FORMULAE

Year 10 - Chemistry

ATOMS.
Atoms: the particles that make up all materials.

Examples - Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen…

Sub-atomic particles: the parts that make up an atom.

Examples – Protons, neutrons & electrons

Nucleus:

 Centre of atom
 Tight bundle of protons & neutrons

Electron shells: AKA energy levels

 The paths that electrons travel

around an atoms nucleus
 Atoms can have multiple layers
of shells depending on how many
electrons it has

The valence shell is full at 8

Electron configurations:
 Shell (n) Maximum # of electrons (=2n2) Think of this like rooms in
a hotel. On the first floor
n=1 2 there is only 2 rooms
innermost shell, closest to nucleus
available. When all the
n=2 8 rooms on the first floor
n=3 18 are full, guests will begin
to fill the second floor,
n=4 32 which has a total of 8
rooms available.
Year 10 – we only go up to 2,8,8,2

Atomic charges:

 Neutral or no charge: number of electrons (-) = number of protons (+)

 Negative charge: more electrons than protons
 Positive charge: more protons than electrons

ELEMENTS.
Element: Substances made up of only one type of atom.

Compound: Substances made up of two or more types of atoms.

Molecule: The general name for a group of atoms bonded together.

Element or atom?

 “Element” and “atom” may refer to similar things…

For example - water or H2O:

 2 elements; hydrogen and oxygen
 3 atoms; 2 x hydrogen, 1 x oxygen

Element or compound?

 An oxygen molecule (O2) is an element because it is only made up of one type of atom
(oxygen).

 A water molecule (H20) is not an element because it is made up of different types of atoms
(hydrogen and oxygen). A water molecule is therefore called a compound.

Elements you should know:

 Atomic number Element name Symbol
1 Hydrogen H
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
8 Oxygen O
11 Sodium Na
12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminium Al
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulfur S
17 Chlorine Cl
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca
26 Iron Fe
29 Copper Cu
30 Zinc Zn
47 Silver Ag
53 Iodine I
80 Mercury Hg
82 Lead Pb

Atomic number:

 Atomic number = number of protons in an atom

 The smaller number when looking at elements of the periodic table

Mass number:

 Mass number = number of protons in an atom + the number of neutrons in an atom

 The larger number when looking at elements of the periodic table

Mass number

Atomic number

THE PERIODIC TABLE.

 The periodic table of elements is arranged into groups (vertical columns) and periods
1 (horizontal rows).

GROUPS PERIODS

Vertical columns are called groups  Horizontal rows are called periods

GROUPS are numbered 1 – 18, from left to right PERIODS are numbered 1 – 7, from top to bottom

The Lanthanide and Actinide series slot in where the * are.

For example: The element lead (Pb) is found in group 6, period 14.

2 Some of the groups have special names:

Group 1 Alkali Metals

Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 17 Halogens
Group 18 Nobel Gases
Mid section (3-12) Transition Metals

Transition metals are in the middle

3 The size of atoms increases as you move ACROSS the GROUPS and DOWN the PERIODS.
This can be seen in the increasing atomic number.
 Metals are on the left of the
4 Periodic Table whilst the non-
metals are on the right.

On the diagram to the right you will

notice that in addition to metals and
non-metals there is another group – the
metalloids. These elements have
properties of both metals and non-
metals.

Properties of metals and non-metals:

Just as human family members often have similar looks and traits, members of element
5 families, or groups, have similar chemical properties.

Example: Elements in Group 8 (Nobel Gases) all have the same thing in common…
 Odourless
  Colourless
 Monatomic gases (pg 250)
 Low chemical reactivity - (unreactive or stable)
 Full out shell - (complete valence electrons)
 Very low melting and boiling points

6 Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons in their valence
shell.

**Note: Valence electrons are the electrons on the outer most shell of an element (see below).
Atoms want 2 electrons in their first shell, 8 in their second shell

7 As you move down the groups, through the periods an extra electron shell is added.
 The number of electrons and their arrangement has a big role in the general
8 properties that elements have, such as, how reactive they are. Because the
arrangement of electrons is similar in each group of the Periodic Table, the
elements in each group have similar properties.

EXTRA Learning the elements of the periodic table can be difficult; a great way to help you
learn them is by watching this YouTube video…

The New Periodic Table Song (In Order) by ASAP Science 2013
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-I7l8TgtuLQ

Another idea is to make up mind joggers, for example:

“I record my Pb (Personal Best) with a lead pencil”.

BONDING.
 Some electrons in a metal lattice do no stay
bound they become part of the sea of electrons
which allows the electrons to travel through metals

Ionic bonding: attraction of positive and negative ions

(charged atoms) formed from the transfer of electrons from
metallic and non-metallic atoms.
Metal cation donates electrons to nonmetal anion from a
lattice

Metallic bonding: a lattice of positively charged metal ions

and free moving electrons à see diagram

Covalent bonding: the sharing of electrons between atoms

of non-metals.
O2 sharing of electron(s) between 2 or more nonmetal atoms 02 H2O

Atoms that don’t need to bond: Nobel gases (group 18, aka: last column in the Periodic
Table). These atoms have a full valence shell (i.e. a maximum number of electrons in their outer
shell), which makes them very stable and non-reactive.

NAMING COMPOUNDS.
Some naming patterns:

Compound First word Second word Example

metal + non-metal
anion (-)

metal ____________i
cation

NaCl:
i.e. ionic bonds
(+)

name de sodium chloride

(usually metal + non-metal)
anion (-)

metal
cation

NaH:
metal + hydrogen hydride
(+)

name sodium hydride

anion (-)

metal + (non-metal + oxygen) metal ____________

cation

NaNO3:
(+)

- no hydrogen - name ate sodium nitrate

(hydrogen HNO3:
anion (-)

hydrogen + element + oxygen is _________ic

cation

nitric acid
(+)

- acid/base - not acid or

named) hydrogen nitrate

hydrogen + element HCl:

Hydro_________ic acid
- acid - hydrochloric acid

Use Greek prefixes for subscripts and

non-metal + non-metal N2O3:
add “-ide” to anion.
i.e. covalent bonds dinitrogen tetroxide
*Prefix “mono” only used in
Subscripts:

1. If an atom has a subscript (i.e. CO2), add the appropriate Greek prefix

Examples: CO2 Carbon dioxide

N2O3 Dinitrogen tetroxide

2. If there is no subscript it is assumed there is one atom, therefore add the Greek prefix
“mono”. NOTE! This rule is not always followed.

Example: CO Carbon monoxide

Greek prefixes:

Naming Exceptions:

Common names of some chemical compounds:

H2O Water

CH4 Methane
Any hydrocarbon
Names will vary (see example above)
i.e. CxHx
NH3 Ammonia
NH4 Ammonium
NaHCO3 Baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)
Marble chips, limestone, chalk
CaCO3
(calcium carbonate)
H2S Hydrogen sulphide (rotten egg gas)

H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide

C6H12O6 Glucose (sugar)

CH3COOH Ethanoic acid

NaCH3COO Sodium acetate

 IDENTIFYING CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
Identifying physical change: crushing, mixing & melting

Identifying chemical change:

 Change in colour
 Formation of gas (smelling a gas or seeing bubbles)
 Formation of a new solid (precipitate)
 Temperature change and/or production of light (energy is being produced or
absorbed)

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS.

Word Equations:

Chemical Equations:

HCl + NaOH à NaCl + H2O

PHYSICAL STATES.

 (s) is for solid

 (l) is for liquid
 (g) is for gas
 (aq) is for aqueous solution (dissolved in water)

The states are always written after the formula name in brackets:
Example: CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) à CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CONSERVATION OF MASS.

Law of conservation of mass: atoms are not created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. They
can only be rearranged.

Chemical
equation HCl + NaOH à NaCl + H2O
Na = 23
Atomic H=1 Na =23 H=1x2
+ O = 16 à
mass Cl = 35.5 Cl = 35.5 O = 16
H=1
36.5 + 40 à 58.5 + 18
Total mass
76.5 à 76.5

BALANCING EQUATIONS.

Atoms are never created or destroyed during chemical reactions. Scientists know that
there must be the same number of atoms on each side of the equation. To balance the
chemical equation you must add coefficients to the different parts of the equation.

To balance an equation, follow these steps:

Determine the number of atoms for each element:

REACTANTS PRODUCTS
Equation: Mg + O2 à MgO
Mg = 1
Number of atoms: Mg = 1 O =2
O=1

As you can see in the example above, the number of atoms on each side of the chemical
equation is not balanced. There are more oxygen atoms in the reactants that the products. We
need to increase the number of oxygen atoms on the product side. We can do this by using
coefficients:

STEP 1 REACTANTS PRODUCTS

Equation: Mg + O2 à MgO
Mg = 1
Number of atoms: Mg = 1 O =2
O=1
Not balanced

STEP 2 REACTANTS PRODUCTS

Equation: Mg + O2 à 2MgO
Mg = 2 Not balanced
Number of atoms: Mg = 1 O =2
O=2
Our equation is still not balanced. We now have more magnesium in the products than the
reactants. We must keep going:

STEP 3 REACTANTS PRODUCTS

Equation: 2Mg + O2 à 2MgO
Mg = 2 Balanced J
Number of atoms: Mg = 2 O =2
O=2
 REACTION TYPES.

Acid Reactions:

Neutralization Reactions:
Acid + Base à Water + Salt

Acid Carbonate Reactions:

Acid + Carbonate à Carbon Dioxide + Water + Salt

Acid Metal Reactions:

Acid + (Reactive) Metal à Hydrogen Gas + Salt

Exothermic Reactions:

Endothermic Reactions
Decomposition & Combination Reactions:

Decomposition Reaction: a chemical reaction where one compound breaks down into two or
more new, simpler substance. It usually needs heat energy. Compounds decompose by
elements do not. Electricity can be used to decompose some substances (electrolysis).

XY à X + Y

Combination Reactions: a chemical reaction where two reactants combine to form one
product.
X + Y à XY

Redox Reactions:

Redox reaction: reduction reactions must occur in tandem with oxidation reactions

Oxidation reaction: gain of oxygen or loss of electrons (e.g. combustion & corrosion)
Exothermic (releases heat)

X + Oxygen à Y-oxide + heat

Reduction reaction: loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons

Endothermic (absorbs heat)

Y-oxide + heat à X + Z

Metal Displacement Reactions:

*NOTE: this reaction is only subject to certain metals & ionic solutions

X-metal ion + Y-metal à X-metal + Y-metal ion

Combustion Reactions:

Combustion Reactions: a reaction in which oxygen reacts with another element or compound
to produce energy in the form of heat.

Compound + Oxygen à Compound + Compound (+ heat)

Precipitation Reactions:

Precipitation Reactions: when two clear solutions react to produce an insoluble solid (i.e. a
solid and a liquid).

Solution + Solution à Solid (Precipitate) + Liquid

1. List the ions present in the mixture

2. Consult a solubility table to see whether any of the ion combinations are insoluble
3. Write an ionic equation that includes only the ions involved in making the precipitate
4. State the colour of the precipitate if relevant
 IONIC COMPOUNDS.

Naming ionic compounds: Check ion valances sheet for correct naming of ionic compounds

METALS.
Properties of metals:

 Crystalline lattice structure made up of positive ions held

together by a sea of freely moving electrons
 Good conductors of heat & electricity
 Luster (are shiny)
 High density (due to tightly packed atoms)
 Solid at room temperatures (except for mercury which is
liquid)
 Generally have high melting and boiling points
 High tensile strength (resist bending)
 Malleable (can be beaten into a shape and bent without
snapping)
 Ductile (can be pulled into a wire without breaking)
 Can be melted and mixed with other metals to form alloys
 Most like to bond with non-metals to form compounds

Metals in chemical reactions:

Metals in chemical reactions have different abilities to react with other substances or non-
metals (e.g. gold is unreactive while sodium in very reactive).

Activity series: metals have been ordered into a list called the “activity series” according to
how readily they react.

ACTIVITY OF COMMON METALS

Most reactive Least reactive
Lose electrons easily Hold onto electrons more tightly
Electrolysis Carbon reduction Native metals
K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Ni Sn Pb Cu Ag Hg Pt Ag Au
Reacts with cold
water
Reacts with steam

Reacts with dilute acids and produce hydrogen

Reacts with concentrated sulfuric acids and nitric acids (hydrogen (hydrogen not
released) released)
React with oxygen

Reactive metals:
o Located high on the activity series list
o Will react strongly with most non-metals to form compounds called ores or minerals
o Once they have formed a compound they are very difficult to extract

Unreactive metals:
o Located low on the activity series list
o Unreactive metals (e.g. gold & silver) are more likely to exist in a pure form
o Usually found in the Earth’s crust
Extracting metals:

Ore processing and refining: most ores (rock containing metal compounds) are impure: they
are mixed with gangue (other unwanted minerals, sand and rock). Ores obtained by mining
need to be processed and refined to separate the separate the useful and unusual materials.

Methods of refining the metals include:

 Magnetism and electric charge (electrolysis)
 Carbon reduction

Electrolysis: uses an electric current to separate highly reactive metals

o A chemical reaction (decomposition) produced by passing an electric current through a

liquid containing ions.
o Used to separate ionic bonds - a negatively charged electrode is used to attract positively
charged ions and a positively charged electrode is used to attract negatively charged ions.
o Acts by reducing the ions of highly reactive metals (takes away the reactive ionic charge
by adding electrons to the atom)
o Used for the manufacture of chemicals (i.e. Chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen) and for
extracting some metals from ores or refining others.

Carbon reduction: uses carbon to separate moderately reactive metals

o A chemical process of separation of metals from their ores using carbon

o Ore is heated to very high temperatures using a source of pure carbon (usually coke)
o Smelting – process of using heat and carbon to extract a metal from its ore
Native metals: pure metals that can be found in nature (chemical extraction is not required)

o Low reactivity
o Requires physical extraction from other minerals through a process called froth
flotation

REACTION RATES.
Reaction Rate: the rate at which reactants are used up in a chemical reaction

Reaction Rate = Δ reactant or product concentration

Time

Δ = change

 Fast reaction rate = explosions & combustion

 Slow reaction rate = rusting, ripening & fermentation of wine

It’s all about collisions and energy...

 Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain amount of energy

 The rate of a reaction depends on two things:

o Frequency of collisions between particles
o Energy with which particles collide

5 Factors that affect reaction rate:

1. The nature of the reactants (i.e. reactivity level)

2. Reactant concentration
3. Surface area
4. Agitation (i.e. mixing/stirring)
5. Temperature
6. Catalysts (i.e. chemical helpers such as enzymes)

Increased reaction rate Decreased reaction rate

Highly reactive substances Less reactive substances
(i.e. elements from Group 1 and Group 7) (i.e. transition metals)
More concentrated Less concentrated
Greater surface area Smaller surface area
More agitation Less agitation
Higher temperature Lower temperature
Catalyst present Catalyst absent

Temperature: higher temperatures cause particles to move faster and with more energy.

 The faster particles move, the more chances of collisions.

 The more energy present, the more successful reactions.
Concentration: the amount of a reactant in a certain volume of water.

 More concentrated = increased chances of collisions and therefore increased reaction

rate.

Agitation: mixing or stirring of a substance.

 Helps to keep reactants moving and distributes them evenly allowing for maximum
chances of collision.

Surface area: greater surface area = lots of small pieces, smaller surface area = one large piece.

 If reactants are divided into smaller pieces, more of the reactant is exposed allowing for
greater chances of collision and therefore increases reaction rate

Catalysts: chemicals that speed up reactions but are not consumed (used up) during the
reaction. They are chemical reaction “helpers”.

 They reduce the amount of energy that is required to covert the reactants into products
 They make it easier for reactant molecules to collide and form products

Example: Enzymes - a biological catalyst that help chemical reactions to occur within the
human body.
EXPERIMENTS.

POSSIBLE ASSESSMENT TASK:

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: balancing chemical equations & catalyst

 What: Hydrogen peroxide [+ catalyst: manganese dioxide] à water + oxygen

o Fresh H2O2 in a conical flask.
o Add a small amount of manganese dioxide (to act as a catalyst).
o Fizzing will occur as a gas is produced (indicating that a chemical reaction has
taken place).
o Splint test. Students should attempt to identify the gas produced (oxygen – flame
burns brighter).
o Students should deduce what the products are (oxygen + water).
o Students should identify type of reaction (decomposition).
o Students should write word equation (hydrogen peroxide à water + oxygen).
o Students should write balance chemical equation (2H2O2 à 2H2O + O2).

 Reference: Pearson (10) – page 145

POSSIBLE ASSESSMENT TASK:

Reaction of marble chips and hydrochloric acid: balancing equations

 What: marble chips (calcium carbonate) + hydrochloric acid à calcium chloride + water
+ carbon dioxide

 Reference: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 146

Conservation of mass:

 What: investigate the conservation of mass in a chemical reaction

 Reference (modeling clay): Pearson (10) – page 148

 Worksheet: Pearson (9) – Worksheet 3.1: Analyzing a reaction

Reactions with modeling clay and post-it notes: simulating balancing equations

 What: simulating the conservation of mass in chemical reactions using modeling clay
models and post it notes

 Reference #1 (modeling clay): Pearson (10) – page 148

 Reference #2 (post-it notes): Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 142

Reaction between gases:

 What: two clear gases combine to form a white gas

 o Concentrated hydrochloric acid (gas) + concentrated ammonia (gas) à
ammonium chloride

 Reference: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 151

Chemical reactions (possible intro):

 What: three examples of chemical reactions

o Test 1: steel nail + copper sulfate solution. After 5 minutes examine the nail.
o Test 2: copper sulfate solution + sodium hydroxide solution
o Test 3: heat sugar in a test tube
o Students to complete discussion questions provided

 Reference: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 153

Precipitate reactions:

 What: to predict and then test particular precipitate reactions

 Reference: Pearson (10) – page 160

 Extra: solubility table

Froth flotation simulation:

 What: simulate froth flotation separation of gold

o Before lesson: mixed gold glitter with plaster (and brown dye for effect). Set as
“nuggets” (use plastic shot cups or ice tray?)
o During lesson: students should use hammer (and chopping board) to crush rocks
into a fine powder. Add powered, a small amount of dish detergent and water to
a sealable container. Shake to create bubbles. Leave to rest for 10 minutes or
until mixture has separated.

 Reference: Experimental idea; requires testing.

Electrolysis role-play:

 What: students will role play the electrolysis of sodium chloride

 Reference: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 156

Electrolysis of water:

 What: use a Hofmann voltammeter to separate the components of water via

electrolysis. Capture the gases produced in inverted test tubes. Students should answer
questions provided.

 Reference: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 157

Carbon reduction (metal extraction):

  What: to use carbon reduction (heat + carbon) to extract a metal (copper).
o Copper oxide + carbon à carbon dioxide + copper.

 Reference: Pearson (10) – page 161

Heating metal carbonates: indicators of chemical change

 What: to investigate the effect of heat on metal carbonates (showing chemical change:
gas produced, colour change, solid formed)

 Reference: Pearson (10) – page 159

Temperature and rate of reaction:

 Demo: beaker of hot water and beaker of cool water. Add potassium permanganate
crystals (or a few drops of food dye). The colouring in the hot water will move faster
than in the cold water.

 Role-play: also perform “temperatures and rate of reaction” role-play

 Experiment: to determine how temperature affects the light intensity of light sticks

 Reference #1: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 163

 Reference #2: Pearson (10) – page 169

Concentration and rate of reaction:

 Demo: 2 x beakers of cool water (same amount). Add twice as much potassium
permanganate crystals (or food dye) to one beaker than the other. The colouring in the
more concentrated beaker will move faster than the less concentrated beaker.

 Role-play: also perform “concentration and rate of reaction” role-play

 Experiment: to examine how the concentration of hydrochloric acid affects the rate at
which it reacts with marble chips.

 Reference #1: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 164

 Reference #2: Pearson (10) – page 170

Surface area and rate of reaction:

 Demo: 2 x beakers of warm water (same amount). Add 1 whole Beroca tablet (smaller
surface area) to one beaker. Add 1 crushed Beroca tablet (larger surface area) to other
beaker. The colouring in the crushed tablet beaker will move faster than the whole
tablet beaker.

 Role-play: also perform “surface area and rate of reaction” role-play

  Experiment: to design an conduct an experiment to determine how changing the
surface area of a reactant changes the rate of reaction – using chalk & hydrochloric acid

 Reference #1: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 165

 Reference #2: Pearson (10) – page 171

Agitation and rate of reaction:

 Demo: 2 x beakers of cool water (same amount). Add same amount of potassium
permanganate crystals (or food dye) to beakers. Stir one, leave the other to sit. The
colouring in the beaker being stirred will move faster than the one left to sit.

 Role play: also perform “agitation and rate of reaction” role-play

 Experiment: to observe the effect of stirring on the rate at which chalk dissolves in
hydrochloric acid

 Reference #1: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 164

 Reference #2: Pearson (10) – page 171

Catalyst and rate of reaction:

 Role-play: also perform “agitation and rate of reaction” role-play

 Experiment: elephant toothpaste – yeast as a catalyst

 Reference #1: Pearson (10), Teacher Edition – page 164

 Reference #2: Robert Winston, Science Experiments - page 34-35