HEREDITY.

Introduction: Reproductive process gives rise to new individuals that are similar but with some variations.
Thus the similarities between parents & offspring's are due to heredity and the dissimilarities are due to
variation. Continuity of life is maintained through heredity and evolution.

Heredity explains that the organisms resemble each other because they arise from common ancestor.

Evolution: is the orderly change of various forms through a slow but continuous process. It give rise to a
new complex body design even while the simpler body designs continue to flourish.

Heredity: The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their off springs is called heredity.

Variation: The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species are
called variations.

Importance of variation:
1. They enable the organism to adapt them in changing environment.

2. Variation forms the basis of heredity

3. They form raw material for evolution and development of new species.

Variations may or may not help organisms to survive:

a) Some variations help organisms to survive :-

Eg :- There are some beetles living in green bushes. They increase their numbers by reproduction. Crows
can easily see the red beetles and they are eaten by the crows. During reproduction due to some variation
some green beetles are produced instead of red beetles. The green beetles are not visible to crows and are
not eaten by them. Then gradually the population of the red beetle’s decreases and the population of the
green beetles increases. This variation has helped the organisms to survive.

b) Some variations do not help organisms to survive :-

Eg :- During sexual reproduction a colour variation occurs in red beetles and some blue beetles are
produced instead of red beetles. Both the red and blue beetles are visible to crows and are eaten by them.
Then the population of both red and blue beetles decreases. This variation has not helped the organisms to
survive

c) Aquired traits cannot be passed from one generation to the next :-

Eg :- If the population of beetles increases and plants are affected by diseases, then the food available for
the beetles decreases and their body weight also decreases. If after a few years the availability of food
increases then the body weight of the beetles also increases. This acquired trait cannot be passed from one
generation to the next because there is no change in their genetic composition.

Accumulation of variations during reproduction:

When organisms reproduce, the off springs show minor variations due to inaccuracies in DNA copying. These
variations are less in asexual reproduction and more in sexual reproduction.

Since DNA copying cannot be possible 100% always, DNA copying always involves some variations; thus it will
bring a subtle change in it for the next generation. If this reproduces the newborn will have differences that
they inherit from the first generation, as well as some newly created differences. Therefore variations gets
accumulated generation after generation resulting in Speciation i.e. Evolution.

Some variations are useful variations and they help the organism to adjust to the changes in the
environment. Some variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment and they
may die and become extinct.

Selection of variants by environmental factors forms the basis of evolutionary processes.

Heredity & variation in Asexual Reproduction: In asexual reproduction, organisms raised are the
exact copies of their parents. They tend to preserve the similarities among all the individuals belonging to a
given line of descent/species.

They exhibit very little variations due to some environmental factors or mutations which are sudden change
in genes. Out of these two factors only mutations are inheritable

Heredity & variation in Sexual Reproduction: In sexual reproduction two parents are involved and
there is formation & fusion of gametes. The offspring show variations from their parents due to crossing over
and exchange of gene segments. They are not carbon copy of their parents, due to recombination of parental
genes; so variations which occur are inheritable.

Inherited traits: The Traits / Characters which transfers from parents to offspring generation after
generation

Acquired Traits: It is a particular characteristic that is developed during lifetime of an individual.

such characteristics are not genetically controlled and cannot passed on to next generation.

Rules for inheritance of characters (traits) :-

Characters are transferred through genes present in the DNA molecules in the chromosomes present in the
nucleus of the cell.

The inheritance of characters is due to the fact that both the father and mother contributes equal amount of
genetic material to the child. So for each trait there are two factors one from the father and one from the
mother.

Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments with garden pea plants and determined the rules for the
inheritance of traits.

Gregor Johann Mendal: Was an Austrian Geneticist and regarded as ‘father of Genetics’.
He performed his experiment on Garden peas (Pisum sativum) during 1856 to 865 and published his results
in a book ‘Experiments on plant hybridisation’. Mendal works remain unrecognised till his death in the year
1884.
Rediscovery of Mendal work: in 1900 by 3 scientist’s separately-
1) Hugo de vries (Dutch)- on Evening primerose (Oenothera lamarkiana)
2) Carl Correns(German)- on 4’O clock plant(Mirabilis jalapa )
3) Teschermack(Austrian)- on Garden pea. (Pisum sativum)
Mendal Experiment on Inheritance of Traits: Mendal used a number of contrasting visible characters
of garden pea like:
Sl.No. Charecters Dominant Recessive
1. Height Tall Dwarf / Short
2. Colour of flower Red White
3. Position of flower Axial Terminal
4. Shape of pod Inflated constricted
5. Colour of pod Green Grey
 6. Shape of seed Round Wrinkled
7. Colour of cotyledons yellow Green

IMPORTANT TERMS:

➢ Mendal called ‘gene’(by Johensen) - Factor

➢ Allele: Two alternate forms of a factor which control the contrast in character.
eg- ‘T’ and ‘t’ are allelers of factor controlling height.

➢ F1 generation: First filial generation.

➢ F2 generation: Second filial generation
➢ Dominant Trait: The allele which is expressed in the hybrid is called dominant.(T)
➢ Recessive Trait: The allele which remain supressed is called recessive. (t)
A single copy of dominant allele(T) is enough to show dominant character, while both copy must
present to express the recessive character.

➢ Genotype: the genetic make-up is called genotype.

➢ Phenotype: The external morphology is called phenotype.
➢ Genotypic ratio: the ratio of all the genotype in a population.
➢ Phenotypic ratio: the ratio of all the phenotype in a population.

Monohybrid cross:- The cross between the plants having only one pair of contrasting character (Eg:- tall
and short plant) is called monohybrid cross.

Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character – a tall pea plant and a short pea plant. He selected
pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall plants (Tt) in the
first generation (F1 ). When the first generation plants were self pollinated, he obtained tall and dwarf plants
in the ratio 3:1 (Phenotypic Ratio) in the second generation. (F2)

The ratio of pure tall (TT), hybrid tall (Tt) and pure dwarf (tt) / Genotypic Ratio was in the ratio 1:2:1
Dihybrid cross:- The cross between the plants having two pairs of contrasting characters (Eg:- shape and
colour of seeds) is called Dihybrid cross. Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters – shape
and colour of seed. He selected plants having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) and
cross pollinated them.

He obtained all plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F 1 generation. When these plants were
self pollinated in the F2 generation out of 16 plants, 9 had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green (Rryy), 3
had wrinkled yellow (rrYy) and 1 had wrinkled green (rryy) seed. In the ratio 9:3:3:1 (Phenotypic ratio).
Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Q. How do these traits get expressed/ mechanism of inheritance/ how the mechenism of heridity does
works:-

Cellular DNA is the information source for making protein in the cell. A section of DNA that provides
information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.

Q. How do proteins control the characteristics? Explain with an example.

Tallness of a plant – we know that plants have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant height can thus
depend on amount of a particular plant hormone. The amount of plant hormone depends on the efficiency
of the process of making it. Consider now an enzyme that is important for this process. If this enzyme works
efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will be tall. If the gene for that enzyme has an
alteration that makes the enzymes less efficient, the amount of hormone will be less, and the plant will be
short.

Sex determination in human beings : Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of
the cell. Out of this two chromosomes are sex chromosomes X and Y. The female has two X chromosomes
(XX) and male has one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The sperms and eggs have one set of sex chromosomes.
Some sperms have X chromosome and some have Y chromosome. All eggs have X chromosome.If a sperm
having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a girl. If a sperm having Y
chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a boy.
Summary
Dominant traits
The traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible
combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits.
•In Mendel’s experiment, we see that tall trait in pea plants tends to express
more than the short trait.
•Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait.
Recessive traits
A trait which is not expressed in presence of a dominant allele is known as
recessive.
•So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a
dominant allele exists.
Homozygous: A condition in which both the genes of same type are present
for example; an organism has both the genes for tallness it is expressed as
TT and genes for dwarfness are written as tt.
Heterozygous: A condition in which both the genes are of different types for
example; an organism has genes Tt it means it has a gene for tallness and
the other for dwarfness only tall character is expressed.
Genotype: It is genetic make up of an individual for example; A pure tall plant
is expressed as TT and hybrid tall as Tt.
 Phenotype: It is external appearance of the organism for example; a plant
having Tt composition will appear tall although it has gene for dwarfness .
Monohybrid cross
•When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms,
then such a cross is known as monohybrid cross.
•The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is
called monohybrid ratio.
•E.g., If tall plant (TT) is crossed with a dwarf plant (tt), we get 3 tall:1
short plant at the end of the F2 generation.
•So, 3:1 is monohybrid ratio.
he took pure tall (genotype TT) and pure dwarf (genotype tt) pea
plants and cross pollinated them to obtain first generation or first
filial generation. In this figuration (F1 generation) he obtained only
tall plants. This meant that only one of the parental traits was
seen, not the mixture of the two. The plants of F generation or
progeny are then self pollinated to obtain F2 generation or
progeny. Now all plants were not tall. He obtained 75% tall plants
and 25% dwarf plants i.e. the phenotypic ratio was 3:1. This
indicates that in the F, generation both tall and dwarf traits were
inherited but tallness expressed it self. Tallness is a dominant trait
and dwarfness is a recessive trait. F2 generation has a genotypic
ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of three types of plants represented by TT, Tt and
tt as shown in the cross.

Conclusion: Phenotypic ratio—Tall : Dwarf 3 : 1

Genotype ratio—Pure Tall : Hybrid Tall : Pure Dwarf 1 : 2 : 1

Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting characters are

crossed then only one character expresses itself in the Ft generation. This
character is the dominant character and the character/factor which cannot
express itself is called the recessive character.
Dihybrid Cross: Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance
of two pairs of contrasting characters, which is called dihybrid cross. He
cross breed pea plants bearing round green seed with plants bearing
 wrinkled and yellow seeds. In the F1 generation he obtained all round and
yellow seeds it means round and yellow traits of seeds are dominant features
while wrinkled and green are recessive. He self-pollinated the plants of F:
generation to obtain F2 generation, he obtained four different types of seeds
round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled green in the ratio of
9 : 3 : 3 : 1. He concluded that traits are independently inherited

Conclusion
•Round and yellow seeds-9.
•Round and green seeds-3.
•Wrinkled and yellow seeds-3.
•Wrinkled and green seeds-1.
•When two characters are considered while crossing two
organisms, then such a cross is known as a dihybrid cross.
•The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2
generation is called dihybrid ratio.
•E.g., If a plant with round and green pea is crossed with a plant
with wrinkled and yellow pea,
•The first generation plants would all have round and green pea.
•On crossing the same for an F2 generation, we would observe
four combinations of characters in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.
•Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio.
Laws of Mendel
Law of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting
alleles and one always expresses itself in the
organism.It is called the dominant gene and it
expresses in any possible combination.

Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated

completely during the formation of gametes without any
mixing of alleles.

Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can

segregate independently of different characters during
gamete formation.
Acquired Traits: Acquired traits are those which are not inherited over
generations as they are caused due to change in the non-reproductive tissue
and are not passed on the DNA of the germ cells for example if a person is a
dancer child may not be good dancer.

Inherited Traits: Inherited traits are traits which are inherited from generation
to generation.

Autosomes: Those chromosomes which do not play any role in

sex determination.

Sex chromosomes: Those chromosomes which play a role in

determining sex of the newborn.
•If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X
chromosome then the baby will have XX chromosome and it will be
female.
If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X
chromosome then the baby will have XY chromosomes and it will
be male.
Sex determination in human beings: In human beings, all chromosomes are
not paired. 22 chromosomes are paired but one pair called sex chromosome is
odd in not having a perfect pair in males. Females have a perfect pair both
represented by XX. On the other hand males have a normal sized X but the
other is short called Y so it is shown as XY. All gametes or ova formed by the
homogenetic female are similar i.e. have X chromosome. Males heterogenetic
form two types of sperms i.e. half with X chromosome and the other half with Y
chromosome. Sex of the baby will depend on fertilization. There are two
possibilities :