90 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SIX

55 Identify the correct order of the components with

reference to their arrangement from outerside to Codes
innerside in a woody dicot stem. A B C D
(a) 4 1 5 2
I. Secondary cortex II. Autumnwood
III. Secondary wood IV. Phellem (b) 2 1 3 5
(a) II, III, I and IV (b) III, IV, II and I (c) 5 4 2 1
(c) IV, I, III and II (d) I, II, IV and III (d) 1 2 3 4

56 Consider the following statements. 59 Select the correctly matched pair.

I. Usually the vessels remain plugged with tyloses. (a) Springwood — Late wood
II. It looks black or dark brown. (b) Autumnwood — Alburnum
III. Generally the vessels are not plugged with tyloses. (c) Heartwood — Duramen
IV. It consists of recently formed xylem elements. (d) Sapwood — Early wood
Which of the above statements belongs to the heartwood
and sapwood? Directions (Q. Nos. 60-63) In each of the following
Heartwood Sapwood questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
(a) I and III II and IV corresponding statement of Reason just below it. Of the
(b) II and IV I and III statements, mark the correct answer as
(c) I and II III and IV (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is
(d) III and IV I and II the correct explanation of Assertion
57 Match the following columns. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is
Column I Column II not the correct explanation of Assertion
A. Meristem 1. Photosynthesis, storage (c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
B. Parenchyma 2. Mechanical support (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
C. Collenchyma 3. Actively dividing cells 60 Assertion Permanent tissue is composed of mature
D. Sclerenchyma 4. Stomata cells.
E. Epidermal tissue 5. Sclereids Reason Meristematic tissue is a group of actively
Codes dividing cells.
A B C D E 61 Assertion Xerophytic leaves have sunken stomata.
(a) 1 3 5 2 4
Reason Spongy parenchyma is more in xerophytic
(b) 3 1 2 5 4
leaves.
(c) 2 4 5 1 3
(d) 5 4 3 2 1 62 Assertion Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular
58 Match the following columns. cambium and cork cambium are examples of lateral
meristems.
Column I Column II
Reason These are responsible for producing secondary
A. Stomata 1. Contains chloroplasts
tissues.
B. Mesophyll 2. Light colour
63 Assertion The lenticel is meant for gaseous exchange.
C. Lenticels 3. Dark colour
D. Springwood 4. Epidermis of leaves Reason Lenticel checks excessive evaporation of water.
5. Exchange of gases
DAY SIX ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 91

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Amount of secondary xylem is more than secondary 12 In dicotyledonous stem, which of the following is the
phloem because sequence of tissues from inside to outside?
(a) cambium is more active on the outer side (a) Pith, phloem, cambium, protoxylem, metaxylem, pericycle,
(b) cambium is more active on inner side parenchyma, collenchyma, endodermis and epidermis
(c) cambium has no role
(b) Pith cambium, phloem, protoxylem, metaxylem, pericycle,
(d) cambium is active equally on both sides but xylem is
required endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and epidermis
(c) Pith, cambium, phloem, protoxylem, metaxylem, pericycle,
2 Correct sequence of layers from outside to typical endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and epidermis
monocot root is
(d) Pith, protoxylem, metaxylem, cambium, phloem,
(a) epiblema, endodermis, cortex, pericycle
(b) pericycle, cortex, endodermis, epiblema pericycle, endodermis, parenchyma, collenchyma and
(c) epiblema, cortex, endodermis, pericycle epidermis
(d) epiblema, pericycle, cortex, endodermis 13 A meristem in which the cell division takes place in all
3 Wheat and grass stems elongate by the activity of planes resulting in an increase in volume is called
(a) intercalary meristem (b) apical meristem (a) rib meristem (b) plate meristem
(c) lateral meristem (d) secondary meristem (c) mass meristem (d) None of these
4 Identify the group of glandular tissues. 14 Transport proteins of endodermal cells are control points
(a) Cortex cells, xylem (b) Hydathodes, stinging hairs where a plant adjusts the quantity and types of solutes
(c) Protophloem, oil glands (d) Digestive gland, latex vessels that reach the xylem. Root endodermis is able to actively
transport ions in one direction only because of the layer of
5 In angiosperms, pericycle gives rise to
(a) actin (b) lignin (c) suberin (d) cellulose
(a) primary roots (b) lateral roots
(c) secondary growth (d) cork cells 15 The internal structure of a plant stem is observed. There
is discontinuous ring of angular collenchyma below the
6 A cut trunk shows 26 concentric rings of springwood and
epidermis. Type of vascular bundles are of the same
autumnwood in alternate rows. The age of trunk would be
type as in the stems of solanaceous plants. Sieve tube
(a) 13 years (b) 26 years (c) 52 years (d) 104 years elements possess simple sieve plates, identify the plant.
7 The cells of tunica undergo anticlinal divisions and give (a) Helianthus (b) Cucurbita (c) Zea mays (d) Hydrilla
rise to 16 Consider the following statements.
(a) epidermis (b) cortex (c) endodermis (d) pericycle
I. The central cylinder of the shoot or root surrounded by
8 Histogens capping root apical meristem is cortex is called stele.
(a) dermatogen (b) calyptrogen II. Xylem, phloem and cambium form the major part of
(c) periblem (d) plerome the vascular bundle.
III. In concentric bundles, xylem and phloem combine in
9 Centripetal xylem (exarch) arrangement occurs in the same bundle and are present on the same radius.
(a) roots (b) stems
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these Choose the incorrect statement(s).
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) Only III (d) All of these
10 Generally epidermis is single layered but in certain
leaves, multilayered upper epidermis is present such as 17 Consider the following statements.
(a) Nerium (b) Ficus I. In a dicot root, the vascular bundles are collateral and
(c) Pepromea (d) All of these endarch.
II. The innermost layer of cortex in a dicot root is endodermis.
11 Which of these characters does/do not apply to the III. In a dicot root, the phloem masses are separated from
vascular bundles of monocot stems? the xylem by parenchymatous cells that are known as
I. Conjoint the conjunctive tissue.
II. Endarch protoxylem Which of the following options is correct regarding above
III. Open statements?
IV. Phloem parencyma is absent (a) I is true, while II and III are false
Select the correct answer using the codes given below (b) II is true, while I and III are false
(a) I and II (b) II and III
(c) I is false, while II and III are true
(c) III and IV (d) Only III
(d) III is false, while I and II are true
92 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SIX

18 In the diagram of TS of stele of dicot root, the different (c) A–Water pore B–Epidermis
parts have been indicated by the alphabets. Choose the C–Mesophyll D–Epithem
correct combination. E–Vascular tissue
(d) A–Ostiole B–Epidermis
C–Mesophyll D–Epithem
B E–Vascular tissue
C 20 Match the following columns.
D Column I Column II
E
A. Cuticle 1. Guard cells
A
F B. Bulliform cells 2. Single layer
(a) A–Pericycle, B–Conjunctive tissue, C–Metaxylem, C. Stomata 3. Waxy layer
D–Protoxylem, E–Phloem, F–Pith D. Epidermis 4. Empty colourless cell
(b) A–Endodermis, B–Conjunctive tissue, C–Protoxylem,
D–Metaxylem, E–Phloem, F–Pith Codes
(c) A–Endodermis-B–Conjunctive tissue, C–Metaxylem, A B C D A B C D
D–Protoxylem, E–Phloem, F–Pith (a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 3 2 1 4
(d) A–Endodermis, B–Pith, C–Protoxylem, D–Metaxylem,
E–Phloem, F–Conjunctive tissue Directions (Q. Nos. 21 and 22) In each of the following
19 Choose the correct combinations of labelling of questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
hydathode. corresponding statement of Reason just below it. Of the
A statements, mark the correct answer as
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and
B Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion
D
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is
C
not the correct explanation of Assertion
(c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
E (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
21 Assertion The quiescent centre acts as a reservoir of
relatively resistant cells, which constitute a permanent
source of active initials.
(a) A–Guard cells B–Epithem Reason The cells of the inactive region of quiescent
C–Mesophyll D–Epidermis centre become active, when the previous active initials
E–Vascular tissue get damaged.
(b) A–Guard cells B–Epidermis 22 Assertion In collateral vascular bundles, phloem is
C–Mesophyll D–Epithem situated towards inner side.
E–Vascular tissue
Reason In monocot stem, cambium is present.

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (b) 5 (a) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8 (d) 9 (d) 10 (d)
11 (b) 12 (a) 13 (d) 14 (c) 15 (a) 16 (a) 17 (a) 18 (a) 19 (c) 20 (a)
21 (c) 22 (b) 23 (b) 24 (c) 25 (a) 26 (d) 27 (a) 28 (c) 29 (b) 30 (a)
31 (c) 32 (c) 33 (b) 34 (a) 35 (d) 36 (d) 37 (b) 38 (b) 39 (c) 40 (b)
41 (d) 42 (a) 43 (d) 44 (a) 45 (a) 46 (d) 47 (d) 48 (b) 49 (a) 50 (b)
51 (c) 52 (a) 53 (c) 54 (b) 55 (c) 56 (c) 57 (b) 58 (a) 59 (c) 60 (b)
61 (c) 62 (b) 63 (b)
SESSION 2
1 (c) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (b) 5 (b) 6 (a) 7 (a) 8 (b) 9 (b) 10 (d)
11 (d) 12 (d) 13 (c) 14 (c) 15 (b) 16 (c) 17 (c) 18 (b) 19 (c) 20 (a)
21 (a) 22 (d)
DAY SEVEN

Structural
Organisation
in Animals
Learning & Revision for the Day

u Animal Tissue u Organ and Organ system u Structural Organisation in Some Animals

The term ‘Tissue’ was introduced by Bichat. A tissue is a group of similar cells specialised
for performing a common function.
The branch of biological science which deals with the study of tissue is called Histology.
Term ‘Histology’ was coined by Mayer (1819). Marcello Malpighi is known as founder of
Histology.

Animal Tissue
Tissue in animals are classified as; epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue
PREP
and nerve tissue. MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator

1. Epithelial Tissue u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—

u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
l
These are ectodermal in origin and cover the outer surface of all body organs and also
u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
lines the cavities of all hollow organs of body.
(Without referring Explanations)
l
In this tissue, cells are compactly arranged and are held together by intercellular
junctional complexes. Cells of the lower most layer rest on basement membrane. u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
l
Based on their functions, epithelial tissue is divided into two types, i.e. covering and u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
glandular epithelia.
In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
(i) Covering epithelia The covering epithelial tissue is nearest to the environment. Accuracy Level should be above 85
& Prep Level should be above 75.
Hence, plays an important role in the life activities of the animal. It is mainly
concerned with protection, respiration, secretion, assimilation and elimination of
waste products.
94 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

Based upon ‘number and arrangement of cell layers’ Exocrine glands can be further classified as
along with ‘shape of the cells’ the covering epithelia is
Structure Location Functions
categorised as simple or unilaminar (single layered),
stratified or compound or multilaminar (multilayered) 1. On the basis of nature of secretion
and specialised epithelium. Mucus Goblet cell of intestine Secretion of mucus
Types of Covering Epithelium Serous Sweat glands Secretion of clear watery
Structure Location Functions fluid or sweat

1. Simple Epithelium Mixed Gastric glands and Secretion of gastric and

pancreatic glands pancreatic juices
l Squamous Cavity of major Absorption, exchange
organs (heart, air sacs of material, filtration 2. On the basis of excretory units
of lungs) Simple Intestinal Secretory units are of
Tubules and ducts of Absorption and same type
l Cuboidal
glands, surface of secretion Compound Liver, pancreas, More than one type of
ovary salivary duct secretory units are present
l Columnar Gastrointestinal tract Secretion of materials 3. On the basis of secretory nature
from special goblet
cells and absorption Holocrine Sebaceous glands Complete secretory unit
disintegrates
l Ciliated Respiratory tract, Movement of mucus,
Merocrine Sweat glands, salivary Secretion by diffusion
Fallopian tube urine, egg, etc.
and intestinal
l Pseudo-stratified Salivary glands, male Protection and
Apocrine Mammary glands Secretion accumulates in
urethra, trachea movement of
apical part of secretory
secretion from glands
unit

2. Stratified Epithelium NOTE • Simple or compound glands can be further classified into
Epidermis of skin and Protection against
tubular (tube-like secretory unit), acinous (rounded) and
l Squamous
hair, oral cavity, abrasion alveolar (flask-shaped).
tongue
Cell Junctions
l Columnar Epiglottis, mammary Protection and
gland ducts, parts of secretion
The structures that provide structural and functional links
urethra between the adjacent epithelial cells are called cell junctions.
Neighbouring cells are held together by different types of cell
l Cuboidal Sweat glands, female Helps mechanical and junctions. They may be
urethra, anal canal. chemical stress.
(i) Tight junctions (Zonula occludens), checks the flow of
3. Specialised Epithelium materials between the cells, e.g. brain.
l Transitional Wall of urinary Allows expansion, (ii) Gap junctions, facilitate the communication between
bladder capability to modify the cells by connecting the cytoplasm for rapid transfer
shape of ions, small molecules and sometimes big molecules.
l Neurosensory Lining of retina, Main receivers of (iii) Adhering junctions, perform cementing function to keep
tongue, ear stimuli neighbouring cells together.
l Pigmented Basal layer of retina Provide the eye its
and posterior part of colour 2. Connective Tissues
iris
l
These are most abundant and widely distributed tissue of
(ii) Glandular epithelia Glandular epithelial cells are the body. These are mesodermal in origin.
specialised cells that perform the function of secreting l
These bind together the various tissues of an organ to
hormones, sweat, mucus, enzyme and other products. support different parts of the body and is involved in
They may be unicellular (e.g. goblet cells of alimentary packaging around different organs.
canal) and multicellular (e.g. salivary gland). l
Hertwig (1883) coined the word mesenchyma for the
Based on the mode of pouring of their secretions, glands mesodermal tissue present between ectoderm and
may be exocrine (i.e. secretion releases through ducts or endoderm.
tubes) or endocrine (i.e. hormones secreted directly into l
Connective tissues constitute about 30% of the body mass.
blood). These have both cellular and extracellular components.
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 95

l
Connective tissues play an important role in body defence, l
Fibrous cartilage contains prominent fibres in matrix
tissue repair, fat storage, transport of materials, support, and connects bones like pubis symphysis in pelvis
insulation, etc. and form intervertebral discs.
l
There are three types of connective tissue l
Elastic cartilage provides strength and maintain
shape of ear pinna, tip of the nose, epiglottis,
(i) Connective Tissue Proper Eustachian tube and larynx.
It has a viscous, gel-like matrix composed of proteoglycans. (b) Bone It is a solid, rigid connective tissue consisting of
It is of following types four parts, i.e. periosteum, matrix, endosteum and bone
(a) Loose connective tissue Cells and fibres are loosely arranged marrow.
in a semi-fluid matrix. They are of the following types l
The outer dense and white fibrous sheath of bone is
l
Areolar tissue occurs beneath the epithelia of many called periosteum.
hollow visceral organs, skin and in blood vessels l
Matrix occurs in form of layers, the lamellae which
(arteries and veins). It contains different types of cells are of three types namely Haversian lamellae,
like fibroblasts (irregularly shaped flat cells flat concentric lamellae, interstitial lamellae and is
synthesise collagen and elastin and secrete major heavily deposited with apatite salts of Ca and
amount of matrix), macrophage (large irregular phosphorus.
amoeboid cells, phagocytic in nature), plasma cells l
False irregular spaces called lacunae, occur in the
(synthesise antibodies) and mast cells (irregular ovoid
matrix. Each lacuna is occupied by flat bone cell or
cells containing basophilic granules made up of
osteocyte (they are metabolically inactive cells).
heparin (anticoagulant), serotonin (vasoconstrictor)
and histamine (vasodilator).
l
The medullary or marrow cavity of bone is lined with
endosteum and osteoblasts are bone forming cells
l
Adipose tissue is located mainly beneath the skin,
that secrete ossein protein in matrix.
heart, blood vessels, kidney and bone. It is specialised
to store fats and reduces heat loss through the skin.
l
Bone marrow is a soft fatty tissue. It is of two types,
There are two types of adipose tissue, white/yellow i.e. red bone marrow (an active tissue, occurs in
tissue (single layered fat droplet present in cell spongy parts of bone, red due to the presence of
surrounded by small amount of cytoplasm) and brown RBCs) and yellow bone marrow (a passive tissue,
tissue (has multiple small fat droplets surrounded by occurs in shafts of bone, yellow due to the presence
larger amount of cytoplasm). The former is found in of adipocytes).
blubber of whales while latter occurs in newborn
(iii) Vascular Connective Tissue
babies and some hibernating animals.
It is also called fluid connective tissue. These are specialised
(b) Dense connective tissue It is mainly made up of
connective tissue that circulate through the cardiovascular
compactly packed bundles of collagen fibres with very
system. It is broadly classified as two main types, i.e. blood
little matrix. It is further classified as
and lymph.
l
Dense regular connective tissue where collagen
fibres are present in rows between many parallel Blood
bundles of fibres. White fibrous, e.g. tendon (connects
It is composed of a straw-coloured transparent fluid called
muscle and bone) and yellow elastic, e.g. ligament
plasma (55%), in which blood cells (45% formed elements)
(connects bone and bone) are two of its types.
are suspended.
l
Dense irregular connective tissue having fibroblasts
with many fibres oriented differently, e.g. in skin. Plasma
It contains water (90-92%), inorganic salts (Na, Cl, K, Mg,
(ii) Supportive Connective Tissue etc.), plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and
It is of following two types, i.e. cartilage and bone. prothrombin), nutrient and organic waste material, regulatory
(a) Cartilage It is solid, semi-rigid with matrix and is substances (hormones and enzymes) and gases
composed of a firm, but flexible material called chondrin (O2, CO2 and N2).
(protein) that is secreted by cells, called chondrocytes. It
Blood Cells (Formed Elements)
also contains fibres, mostly of collagen.
There are three major functional classes of blood cells
The cartilage is of three types as following
(i) Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells/RBCs) These are
l
Hyaline cartilage occurs in the larynx, nasal septum,
circular, biconcave, non-nucleated without any
tracheal rings and costal cartilage and found at the
cytoplasm or organelles and contain a red coloured
ends of bones to form articular cartilage.
respiratory pigment called haemoglobin.
96 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

l
The process by which erythrocytes are formed is l
Platelets contain a variety of substances that promote blood
called erythropoiesis. It takes place in the red bone clotting like thromboplastin and various other blood clotting
marrow of adults and in liver spleen of foetus. factors.
l
The adherence of RBCs together by their concave
surfaces is called rouleaux formation. Lymph
l
RBCs are destroyed in spleen, bone marrow and l
It is a colourless fluid connective tissue made up of
liver, out of which spleen is the most important site plasma and WBCs mostly lymphocytes.
and hence is called as graveyard of RBCs. l
It lacks RBCs, platelets and blood proteins.
l
RBCs can be counted using haemocytometer. l
It carries materials from tissues to blood stream and also in
l
The lifespan of RBCs is 120 days (80 days in rabbit reverse direction.
and 100 days in frog). l
Lymph capillaries present in the intestinal villi are called
(ii) Leucocytes (White Blood Cells/WBCs) These are the lacteals, which are associated with the absorption of digested
largest blood cells and can be circular or irregularly food.
shaped with nucleus. The liferpan of RBCs is 3-4 days.
It is divided into two main groups based on their
nuclear shape and cytoplasmic granules.
3. Muscular Tissue
A. Granulocytes (Granular with lobed nucleus) These l
Muscular tissues are mesodermal in origin except iris and
are of three types ciliary body of eyes which are ectodermal in origin. Study of
l
Neutrophils They have highly lobulated nucleus muscles is called Myology.
(2-7 lobes) and contain hydrolysing enzyme that l
They contribute most to the total weight of body (about
kills the microbes by phagocytosis. They 40%-50%).
stimulate the production of interferons, antiviral l
The muscle cells are always elongated, slender and
substances. spindle-shaped fibre like cells. These are of three types, i.e.
l
Eosinophils They are larger than neutrophils striated, non-striated and cardiac muscles.
and have bilobed nucleus. They phagocytose Differences between Striated, Smooth (non-striated) and
antigen-antibody complexes and their number Cardiac Muscles
increases on allergic conditions like asthma and
Striated Smooth Cardiac
hay fever. Character
Muscle Muscle Muscle
l
Basophils They are intermediate in size
Location Limbs, tongue, In the wall of all Myocardium of
between neutrophils and eosinophils. They are pharynx, visceral organs heart
non-phagocytic with 2-3 lobes of nucleus and beginning of
release heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine. oesophagus
B. Agranulocytes (Agranular with non-lobed Size and shape Long, cylindrical Short, Short,
nucleus) These are of two types with blunt ends spindle-shaped cylindrical with
with pointed flat ends
l
Monocytes They are the largest corpuscles with
ends
eccentrically placed kidney-shaped nuclei. They
are most active phagocytes and in tissue spaces Nucleus Multinucleate, Uninucleate, Uninucleate,
nucleus nucleus central nucleus central
they are transformed into macrophages like peripheral
Kupffer cells in liver, osteoblasts in bone, etc.
Myofibrils The presence of No bands Bands present
l
Lymphocytes These are the smallest leucocytes dark and light
with large, round dense nuclei. They are bands
non-motile and non-phagocytic and are of two Blood supply Highly vascular Less vascular Highly vascular
types namely T-lymphocytes (formed in thymus) Mitochondria Numerous Less in number Numerous
and B-lymphocytes (formed in bone marrow) and glycogen
which are involved immunity and antibody granules
production. Innervation From CNS From ANS Both CNS and
(iii) Blood platelets (Thrombocytes) are round or oval, ANS
biconvex discs, formed by fragmentation of huge cells Branching Unbranched Unbranched Branched
called megakaryocytes. Mode of Contract rapidly Contract slowly Contract rapidly,
l
The formation of platelets are called thrombopoiesis contraction for short period, for long period rhythmically
which takes place in red bone marrow. get fatigued very as do not get and never gets
soon fatigued fatigued
l
The lifespan of platelets is about one week.
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 97

System Component Function

4. Nervous Tissue
Endocrine system Pituitary, adrenal, Coordinates and
l
These are specialised tissues with no intercellular spaces. thyroid and other integrates body
Their main function is receiving stimuli and for conducting ductless glands. activities.
impulses to control and coordinate body functions.
Reproductive Testes, ovaries and Carries out
l
These tissues are devoid of power of division and system associated reproductive reproduction.
regeneration and form nervous system of the animal. structures.
l
They are composed of following elements Immune system Lymphocytes, Removes foreign bodies
macrophages and (pathogens) from the
■ Ependymal cells (lines the cavity of brain and spinal
antibodies. bloodstream.
cord) neurons (conduct nerve impulse), neurosecretory
cells (release neurohormones) and neuroglial cells
(supporting cells).
■ Neuroglial cells are of three types, i.e. astrocytes or
Structural Organisation
macroglia (most abundant supporing cells with repair in Some Animals
function), oligodendrocytes (maintain myelin sheath)
and microglia (specialised macrophages and scavenger 1. Cockroach
of nervous system).
These are brown-coloured, nocturnal (i.e. more active at
■ The structure of neuron consists of dendrites, cyton or
night), omnivorous and cursorial insects.
cell body, nucleus, axon, synaptic buttons, Nissl’s
granules, neurilemma and nodes of Ranvier. These are found in places, where there is warmth, dampness
and plenty of organic food available.
Organ and Organ System Morphology
Tissues organise to form organs, which in turn associate to l
Body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In each
form organ systems in the multicellular organisms. Such an
segment, exoskeleton consists of hardened plates called
organisation is essential for more efficient and better
sclerites, joined to each other by a thin and flexible
coordinated activities of millions of cells constituting an
articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
organism.
l
The mouth parts consists of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of
The Major Vertebrate Organ Systems
mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium (lower lip).
System Component Function l
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails and Covers the body and Forewings called tegmina are opaque dark and cover the
system sweat glands. protects it. hindwings when at rest.
Digestive system Mouth, oesophagus, Digests and absorbs l
The hindwings are transparent, membranous and are used
stomach, intestine, soluble nutrients from
in flight.
liver and pancreas. ingested food.
l
The abdomen in both males and females consists of
Respiratory system Lungs, trachea and Exchanges of gases
other air passage ways. (mainly O2 and CO2 )
10 segments. 7th segment together with the 8th and 9th
sterna forms a brood or genital pouch, whose anterior part
Circulatory system Heart, blood vessels, Transports materials contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and
blood, lymph and throughout the body
collateral glands.
lymph nodes. and connects various
organ systems. l
In males, genital pouch lies at the hind end of abdomen
Urinary system Kidney, bladder and Removes nitrogenous
bounded dorsally by 9th and 10th terga and ventrally by
associated ducts. metabolic wastes from the 9th sternum.
the blood stream. l
Males bear a pair of short, thread-like structure called anal
Skeletal system Bones, cartilage and Protects the body and styles, which are absent in females.
ligaments. provides support for l
In both sexes, 10th segment bears a pair of jointed
locomotion and
filamentous structures called anal cerci.
movement.
Muscular system Skeletal muscle, Produces body Anatomy
cardiac muscle and movement and heat.
smooth muscle. (i) Digestive system is divisible into foregut, midgut and
hindgut.
Nervous system Nerves, sense organs, Receives stimuli,
brain and spinal cord. integrates information l
The mouth leads to pharynx followed by oesophagus,
and directs the body. which opens into a sac-like structure called crop that
98 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

is used to store food. The crop is followed by gizzard, l

The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the
which helps in grinding the food particles. adult form. The last nymphal stage has wing pads, but only
l
Hepatic or gastric caecae present at the junction of adult cockroaches have wings.
foregut and midgut, secrete digestive juice.
l
Hindgut is broader than the midgut and divisible into 2. Earthworm
ileum, colon and rectum.
It inhabitates the upper layer of moist soil and can be traced
(ii) Circulatory system It is of open type with blood flowing by their faecal deposits called worm castings.
in the open spaces. The blood flows freely in the body
cavity which is called haemocoel. Morphology
l
Heart consists of elongated muscular tube lying along l
It is cylindrical and divided into similar segments
the mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen. (metameres).
l
Blood from sinuses enter in the heart through ostia l
First body segment, peristomium contains the mouth.
and blood is pumped anteriorly to sinuses again. Segments 14-16 in a mature worm are covered by a
(iii) Respiratory system consists of a network of trachea that prominent dark band of glandular tissue, clitellum.
opens through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles l
Four pairs of spermathecal apertures are present on
present on the lateral side of the body. The opening of ventro-lateral sides of intersegmental grooves, i.e. 5-9
spiracles is regulated by the sphincters.
segments.
(iv) Excretory system consists of Malpighian tubules l
A pair of male genital pore and a single female genital pore
present at the junction of midgut and hindgut.
is present on ventro-lateral side of 14th and 18th segments,
Malpighian tubules are 100-150 yellow coloured thin
respectively. Thus, it is a bisexual organism.
filamentous tubules. In addition, the fat body
nephrocytes and uricose glands also help in excretion. Anatomy
(v) Nervous system consists of a series of fused, l
Alimentary canal is straight. Calciferous glands, present in
segmentally arranged ganglia joined by paired
stomach, neutralise the humic acid present in humus.
longitudinal connectives on the ventral side.
Typhlosole is present between 26-35 segments.
(vi) Sensory organs in cockroach includes 4 antennae, eyes,
l
Circulatory system closed type. No specialised breathing
maxillary palps, labial palps and anal cerci. The
compound eyes of cockroach consist of 2000 hexagonal devices.
ommatidia each. A cockroach can receive several images l
Respiratory gaseous exchange through moist body surface.
with the help of several ommatidia. This is called l
Excretory organ is called nephridia (3 types, septal
mosaic vision. integumentary and pharyngeal).
(vii) Reproductive system Cockroaches are dioecious l
Nervous system represented by ganglia.
animals, i.e. both the sexes have well-developed
reproductive organs.
l
Sensory system have no eyes, but are light and touch
sensitive organs. Special chemoreceptors (taste receptors)
l
Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes
react to chemical stimuli.
one lying on each side in the 4-6th abdominal
segments. l
Sexual reproduction is present and development is direct.
l
The sperms are stored in the seminal vesicles and are
glued together in the form of bundles called
3. Frogs
spermatophores, which are discharged during They are poikilotherms and have camouflaging ability
copulation. (mimicry). During peak summers and winters, they take
l
Female reproductive system consists of two large shelter in deep burrows, thus they show aestivation and
ovaries, lying laterally in the 2-6th abdominal hibernation, respectively.
segments. Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single
median oviduct, which opens into the genital
Morphology
chamber. l
Skin is smooth, slippery and absorbs water.
l
The fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called l
Body is divided into head and trunk, exhibits sexual
oothecae. Development is parametabolous, dimorphism, male frogs can be distinguished by sound
i.e. through nymphal stage. The nymph looks similar producing vocal sacs and copulatory pad present on the
to adults except difference in size. first digit of forelimbs.
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 99

Anatomy thyroid, thymus, etc., are present and nervous system is

well organised.
l
Digestive system Alimentary canal is short and digestive
glands are present. l
Reproduction In male, a pair of yellowish testes present,
l
Respiration In water, respiration through skin (cutaneous while in female, a pair of ovaries present.
respiration), while on land, skin and lungs (pulmonary l
Fertilisation external in water. Development involves a
respiration) both acts as respiratory organs. larval stage called tadpole. It undergoes metamorphosis
l
Vascular system closed type. to become an adult.
l
Excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, l
Metamorphosis is a change in the form and structure of
cloaca and urinary bladder, ureotelic animal. body tissues. It is controlled by thyroxine hormone of
l
Control and coordination Endocrine glands as pituitary, thyroid gland.

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 A tissue is a 8 Vagina, oesophagus and urethra contain which type of
(a) group of separate organs that are coordinated in their tissue?
activities (a) Stratified squamous epithelium
(b) group of similar cells that function together to perform (b) Simple squamous epithelium
an activity (c) Ciliated epithelium
(c) layer of cells surrounding an organ (d) Columnar epithelium
(d) one layer thick sheet of cells 9 Transitional epithelium lines the
2 Simple tissue is defined as (a) epiglottis (b) skin
(a) group of similar cells, which are common in origin (c) urinary bladder (d) Fallopian tube
(b) different types of cells performing same functions 10 The junction, which helps to stop substances from
(c) different types of cells performing different functions leaking across a tissue is
(d) organised group of cells performing many functions (a) gap junction (b) tight junction
3 Compound tissue is defined as (c) adhering junction (d) All of these
(a) similar types of cells held together by connective tissue 11 Normal wear and tear of cells in simple epithelia is
(b) different types of cells, which are different in structure negligible because
and function
(a) epithelial cells are very tough
(c) different types of cells performing one function
(b) epithelial cells are closely fitted like tiles of a mosaic
(d) similar cells at different regions performing many
functions (c) epithelial cells are kept moist due to the material that
diffuse through it
4 Epithelial tissue serves as (d) None of the above
(a) protective covering (b) reproductive structures
(c) corpuscles (d) nerve cells
12 Pavement epithelium is another name for
(a) cuboidal epithelium
5 Epithelial tissue arises from (b) ciliated epithelium
(a) ectoderm (b) endoderm (c) simple squamous epithelium
(c) mesoderm (d) All of these (d) stratified epithelium
6 Which of the following is the characteristic of epithelial 13 The type of epithelial cells, which line the inner surface of
tissues? Fallopian tubes, bronchioles and small bronchi is known as
(a) They are highly vascularised (a) squamous epithelium (b) columnar epithelium
(b) They never possess glands (c) ciliated epithelium (d) cubical epithelium
(c) They have large intercellular spaces
(d) They have a rapid rate of cell division 14 Select the correctly matched pair.
(a) Cuboidal epithelium — Blood vessels
7 Brush-bordered epithelium is found in (b) Columnar epithelium — Uterine endometrium
(a) Fallopian tube (b) small intestine (c) Simple epithelium — Nasal cavity
(c) stomach (d) trachea (d) Stratified epithelium — Thyroid follicles
100 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

15 Choose the correctly matched pair. j CBSE-AIPMT 2014 27 Connective tissue is

(a) Inner lining of salivary ducts – Ciliated epithelium (a) ectodermal in origin with intercellular spaces
(b) Moist surface of buccal cavity – Glandular epithelium (b) mesodermal in origin without intercellular spaces
(c) Tubular parts of nephrons – Cuboidal epithelium (c) ectodermal in origin without intercellular spaces
(d) Inner surface of bronchioles – Squamous epithelium (d) mesodermal in origin with intercellular spaces

16 An exocrine gland, in which a portion of the secretory cell 28 Wharton’s jelly present in umbilical cord is an example of
is discharged with the secretion is termed as (a) adipose tissue
(a) apocrine (b) merocrine (b) mucous connective tissue
(c) endocrine (d) holocrine (c) areolar tissue
(d) elastic connective tissue
17 The function of the gap junction is to j CBSE-AIPMT 2015
29 Select the correctly matched pair.
(a) performing cementing to keep neighbouring cells
(a) Chondroblast — Matrix secreting
together
cells of cartilage
(b) facilitate communication between adjoining cells by (b) Elastic cartilage — In pubic symphysis
connecting the cytoplasm for rapid transfer of ions, (c) Fibrous cartilage — Pinna of ear
small molecules and some large molecules (d) Hyaline cartilage — Intervertebral disc
(c) separate two cells from each other
30 The bone marrow is composed of
(d) stop substance from leaking across a tissue
(a) muscle fibres and adipose tissue
18 The main difference in white and yellow fibres is of (b) areolar tissue and adipose tissue
(a) protein (b) colour of the fibres (c) adipose tissue and calcified cartilage
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (d) adipose tissue, areolar tissue and blood vessel

19 Which one is a specialised connective tissue among 31 Vascular tissue or fluid tissue is made up of
these? (a) RBCs, WBCs and plasma
(a) Adipose tissue (b) Bone (b) RBCs, plasma and platelets
(c) Areolar tissue (d) Fibroblasts (c) RBCs, WBCs, plasma and platelets
(d) WBCs, plasma and platelets
20 All the following are examples of connective tissue except
(a) tendons (b) ligaments
32 Which of the following is not correct?
(c) muscle (d) adipose tissue (a) The brown adipose tissue cell has a single large droplet
surrounded by a small amount of cytoplasm, whereas
21 Cartilage is a non-vascular connective tissue having the white adipose tissue cell has many small droplets of
matrix of fat suspended in a larger amount of cytoplasm
(a) elastin (b) keratin (b) Brown fat cells contain many mitochondria, while white
(c) fibrin (d) chondrin fat cells have comparatively few
22 White fibrous tissue are present at the joints of (c) Brown fat has a larger capacity for generating heat than
(a) cranial bones white fat
(b) humerus and glenoid cavity (d) Brown fat is mainly found in newborn mammals
(c) femur and acetabulum 33 The striated appearance of a myofibril is due to the
(d) carpals and metacarpals distribution pattern of
23 Bone marrow is absent in (a) actin and myosin (b) fascicles
(a) reptilians (b) amphibians (c) troponin (d) meromyosin
(c) fishes (d) birds 34 Cardiac muscle is found in
24 Camel’s hump is made up of (a) pericardium (b) endocardium
(a) skeletal tissue (b) muscular tissue (c) myocardium (d) peritoneum
(c) cartilage (d) adipose tissue 35 What is not true about striated muscles?
25 Which one of the following substances, if introduced in (a) They are multinucleate and syncytial
the blood stream would cause coagulation at the site of (b) Are found in pulmonary vein
its introduction? (c) Sarcolemma is found over them
(a) Fibrinogen (b) Prothrombin (d) Jaw muscles are striated voluntary and strongest
(c) Heparin (d) Thromboplastin 36 Bundles of striated muscle fibres called fasciculi are
26 Mark the odd one. enclosed by a sheath called
(a) Monocytes (b) Lymphocytes (a) epimysium (b) endomysium
(c) Neutrophils (d) Erythrocytes (c) perimysium (d) peritoneum
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 101

37 The transparent lens in the human eye is held in its 47 How many teeth are present in cockroach’s gizzard?
place by j NEET 2018 (a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 12 (d) 6
(a) smooth muscles attached to the iris
48 Heart of cockroach is
(b) ligaments attached to the iris
(c) ligaments attached to the ciliary body (a) myogenic (b) neuromyogenic
(d) smooth muscles attached to the ciliary body (c) neurogenic (d) None of these

38 Which one of the following statements is incorrect? 49 Type of respiration in cockroach is

(a) Cardiac muscles experience fatigue (a) cutaneous (b) tracheal
(b) Smooth muscles are uninucleate and involuntary (c) pulmonary (d) bracheal
(c) Gluteus maximus is the largest muscle of the human body 50 Which among these is not involved in excretion in
(d) Triceps and biceps are antagonistic muscles cockroaches?
39 Smooth muscle fibres are (a) Malpighian tubules (b) Nephrocytes
(a) cylindrical, branched, multinucleate (c) Uricose glands (d) Maxillary palps
(b) spindle-shaped, unbranched, uninucleate
51 Which one of the following is not a sensory structure in
(c) cylindrical, unbranched, multinucleate cockroach?
(d) spindle-shaped, branched, uninucleate
(a) Antennae (b) Eyes
40 Smooth muscles are j NEET-II 2016 (c) Anal cerci (d) Proventriculus
(a) involuntary, fusiform, non-striated
(b) voluntary, multinucleate, cylindrical 52 In male cockroaches, sperms are stored in which part of
(c) involuntary cylindrical, striated the reproductive system? NEET-II 2016
j

(d) voluntary, spindle-shaped, uninucleate (a) Seminal vesicles (b) Mushroom glands
(c) Testes (d) Vas deferens
41 Nerve cell is originated from embryonic
(a) ectoderm (b) mesoderm 53 What external changes are visible after last moult of a
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) endoderm cockroach nymph? j
NEET 2013
42 Which statement is not true about nerve fibres in mammals? (a) Anal cerci develop
(a) All nerve fibres are non-medullated (b) Both forewings and hindwings develop
(b) Afferent (sensory) nerves transmit impulses to brain and (c) Labium develops
spinal cord (d) Mandibles become harder
(c) Efferent (motor) nerves carry signals from brain and 54 Which one of the following features is not present in
spinal cord to effector organs Periplaneta americana j
NEET-I 2016
(d) Mixed nerves carry signals in both directions
(a) Indeterminate and radial cleavage during embryonic
43 What is not true about glial cells? development
(a) Modified glial cell called Schwann cell secretes myelin (b) Exoskeleton composed of N-acetylglucosamine
sheath (c) Metamerically segmented body
(b) Assist in nourishment neurons (d) Schizocoelom as body cavity
(c) Modulate nerves of impulses
(d) Secrete neurotransmitters that facilitate synaptic
55 In earthworm, genital papillae occur in segments
transmission (a) 16th and 17th (b) 16th and 18th
(c) 17th and 19th (d) 17th and 18th
44 An organ is a
(a) group of two or more kinds of tissues, united structurally 56 The structure in earthworm which serves as a wedge to
and coordinated together to perform an activity force open cracks in the soil is
(b) group of similar cells that function together in a (a) peristomium (b) clitellum
specialised activity (c) typhlosole (d) prostomium
(c) multilayered sheet of cells 57 The main function of clitellum is
(d) solid structure formed of embryonic mesoderm
(a) cocoon formation (b) locomotion
45 Which of the following features is used to identify a male (c) excretion (d) copulation
cockroach from a female cockroach? j
NEET 2018
(a) Forewings with darker tegmina 58 Which of the following correctly describes the location of
(b) Presence of caudal style some body parts in the earthworm (Pheretima)?
j
CBSE-AIPMT 2009
(c) Presence of a boat-shaped sternum on the 9th
abdominal segment (a) Two pairs of accessory glands in 16th-18th segments
(d) Presence of anal cerci (b) Four pairs of spermathecae in 4th-7th segments
46 In cockroach, the arthrodial membrane (c) One pair of ovaries attached at intersegmental septum
(a) covers the compound eyes(b) forms the hypopharynx of 14th and 15th segments
(c) forms the tegmina (d) joins the sclerites (d) Two pairs of testes in 10th and 11th segments
102 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

59 In the circulatory system of Pheretima A, B, C and D A B C D E

represents (a) Gall bladder Lung Fat bodies Kidney Rectum
A (b) Gall bladder Lung Testes Kidney Rectum
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 (c) Gall bladder Lung Fat bodies Testes Rectum
3 4 B (d) Gall bladder Lung Ovary Testes Rectum
1 2
64 Match the following columns.
Column I Column II

C A. Ligament 1. Stores fat

D B. Tendon 2. Connects bone to bone
(a) A–Lateral hearts, B–Subneural vessel, C–Commissural C. Areolar tissue 3. Connects muscle to bone
vessel, D–Lateral oesophageal vessel
(b) A–Lateral hearts, B −Lateral oesophageal vessel, D. Adipose tissue 4. Forms blood cells
C–Subneural vessel, D–Commissural vessel 5. Filling tissue
(c) A–Lateral hearts, B–Commissural vessel, C–Subneural
vessel, D–Lateral oesophageal vessel Codes
(d) A–Commissural vessel, B–Lateral hearts, C–Lateral A B C D
oesophageal vessel, D–Subneural vessel (a) 2 3 5 4
(b) 2 3 5 1
60 Chromatophores in skin of frog are found in stratum
(c) 2 3 1 4
(a) corneum (b) compactum
(d) 2 4 5 1
(c) germinativum (d) mostly spongiosum
61 Choose the incorrect statement regarding the circulatory 65 Match the following columns.
system of frog. Column I Column II
(a) Sinus venosus receives, blood through major veins A. Phallomere 1. Chain of developing ova
called vena cava
(b) The ventricle opens into a sac-like conus arteriosus B. Gonopore 2. Bundles of sperm
(c) The erythrocytes are nucleated C. Spermatophore 3. Opening of the ejaculatory duct
(d) Special venous connection between liver and intestine
called renal portal system is present D. Ovarioles 4. The external genitalia

62 Select the correct route for the passage of sperms in Codes

male frogs. j
NEET 2017 A B C D
(a) Testes → Bidder’s canal → Kidney → Vasa efferentia → (a) 3 4 2 1
Urinogenital duct → Cloaca (b) 4 3 2 1
(b) Testes → Vasa efferentia → Kidney → Seminal vesicle → (c) 4 2 3 1
Urinogential duct → Cloaca (d) 2 4 3 1
(c) Testes → Vasa efferentia → Bidder’s canal → Ureter →
Cloaca Directions (Q. Nos. 66-67) In each of the following
(d) Testes → Vasa efferentia → Kidney → Bidder’s canal → questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
Urinogenital duct → Cloaca corresponding statement of Reason. Of the statements, mark the
correct answer as
63 The given figure is related to diagrammatic representation (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the
of internal organs of frog. Identify A to E . correct explanation of the Assertion
Heart (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
Oesophagus
the correct explanation of Assertion
Liver (c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
A
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
B
Stomach
66 Assertion Areolar tissue is a connective tissue.
C
Reason Areolar tissue is found beneath epithelia of
D stomach.
Ureter Intestine 67 Assertion Earthworm possess both male and female
Urinary bladder E reproductive organs.
Cloaca Reason Self-fertilisation is absent in earthworm.
Cloacal aperture
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 103

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Epithelial cells of the intestine involved in food absorption 12 If a live earthworm is pricked with a needle in its outer
have on their surface surface without damaging its guts, the fluid that comes
(a) pinocytic vesicles (b) phagocytic vesicles out is
(c) zymogen granules (d) microvilli (a) excretory fluid (b) coelomic fluid
(c) haemolymph (d) slimy mucus
2 The connective tissue that connects the skin to the
underlying structures is called 13 Which one of the following tissues, in mammals shows
(a) areolar tissue (b) serous membrane the least capacity for regeneration?
(c) reticular tissue (d) dense connective tissue (a) Epithelial tissue of the skin
(b) Endothelium of blood vessels
3 Which among the following is not characteristic of yellow
(c) Skeletal tissue of long bones
fibres of connective tissue?
(d) Nervous tissue of brain
(a) Contain elastin
(b) Fewer in number 14 Fat bodies of cockroach are analogous to vertebrate
(c) Straight and branched (a) spleen
(d) Provide toughness and strength (b) adipose tisssue
(c) kidney
4 Most of the neurons of our body are
(d) liver
(a) unipolar (b) bipolar
(c) pseudounipolar (d) multipolar 15 Mycetocyte cells of the fat body of cockroach help in
5 Four healthy people in their twenties got involved in (a) urea formation
injuries resulting in damage and death of a few cells of (b) food storage
(c) synthesis of glycogen from glucose
the following. Which of the cells are least likely to be
(d) intermediary metabolism
replaced by new cells?
(a) Osteocytes (b) Malpighian layer of the skin 16 Earthworms are
(c) Liver cells (d) Neurons (a) uricotelic under conditions of water scarcity
(b) ammonotelic, when plenty of water is available
6 Tissue, which has power of division and regeneration
(c) ureotelic, when plenty of water is available
throughout life is
(d) uricotelic, when plenty of water is available
(a) epithelial tissue (b) muscular tissue
(c) connective tissue (d) nervous tissue 17 Identify the correctly matched pair.
7 The terga, sterna and pleura of cockroach body are (a) Sarcomere — Basic unit of muscle contraction
joined by (b) Haemopoiesis — Formation of RBC
(a) cementing glue (b) muscular tissue (c) Lifespan of — 10 days
(c) arthrodial membrane (d) cartilage human RBC
8 Skeletal muscle fibre is a ‘syncytium’ which means it is (d) Plasma — Blood minus clotting factors
(a) made up of many fibres 18 Cockroach has no RBCs or haemoglobin because
(b) made up of many proteins
(c) swollen in the middle with tapered ends (a) cockroach does not respire
(d) multinucleated (b) cockroach is invertebrate
(c) its blood does not transport O2 and CO2 and tissues
9 Kidney of frog is
have direct exchange of gases from air
(a) archinephros (b) pronephros (d) cockroach respires anaerobically
(c) mesonephros (d) metanephros
19 Which type of tissue correctly matches with its location?
10 Whale is a warm-blooded animal, which lives in cold sea.
Which organ of its body makes it hot? Tissue Location
(a) Blubber (b) Pelage (a) Areolar tissue Tendons
(c) Muscles (d) Blood vessels
(b) Transitional epithelium Tip of nose
11 Bowman’s glands are found in
(c) Cuboidal epithelium Lining of stomach
(a) olfactory epithelium (b) external auditory canal
(c) cortical nephrons only (d) juxtamedullary nephrons (d) Smooth muscle Wall of intestine
104 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY SEVEN

20 Which one of the following statements is incorrect? 29 Compound eyes of arthropods form apposition image in
(a) Cartilage contains chondrin, which makes the matrix (a) dim light (b) bright light
(b) Matrix of bone is formed by ossein (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(c) Haversian canal system is characteristic of mammalian 30 The given diagram is of a section of hyaline cartilage, the
bone different parts have been indicated by alphabets.
(d) Volkman’s canal connect the lacuna present in the Choose the correct match.
cartilage
21 How do you differentiate a frog from a toad? E
(a) Frog has no exoskeleton, but toad had scales A
(b) Frog respires through lungs, but toad respires through skin B
(c) Frog has a tail, but toad has no tail C
(d) Frog has no parotid glands, but toad has a pair of D
parotid glands
22. Region of earthworm, which is referred to as forest of
(a) A–Chondrin, B–Chondrocyte, C–Lacuna, D–Capsular
nephridia is
matrix, E–Perichondrium
(a) clitellar region
(b) A–Chondrin, B–Lacuna, C–Chondrocyte, D–Capsular
(b) pharyngeal region
(c) typhlosolar region matrix, E–Perichondrium
(d) intestinal region (c) A–Perichondrium, B–Chondrocyte, C–Lacuna,
D–Capsular matrix, E–Chondrin
23. Identify the substance, which keeps the epithelial cells
(d) A–Capsular matrix, B–Chondrocyte, C–Lacuna,
together.
D–Perichondrium, E–Chondrin
(a) Hyaluronic acid (b) Collagen
(c) Mucin (d) Glycoprotein 31 Which of the following is/are false statement(s)?
(a) Compound squamous epithelium lies in the pancreatic
24. Which one of the following pairs of structures
duct of human
distinguishes a nerve cell from other types of cell?
(b) Stratified epithelial lining is found in intestine
(a) Perikaryon and dendrites
(c) The plasma membrane of intestinal cells are modified
(b) Vacuoles and fibres into microvilli
(c) Flagellum and medullary sheath (d) Both (a) and (b)
(d) Nucleus and mitochondria
32. The four sketches (A, B, C and D) given below, represent
25 Identify the incorrect statement. four different types of animal tissues. Which one of these
(a) Tendons connect skeletal muscle with bones is correctly identified in the options given, along with its
(b) Ligaments connect bones with bones correct location and function?
(c) Adipose tissue stores fats
(d) Matrix of cartilage is filled with mast cells and
macrophages
26 Chordae tendineae in heart of frog is found in the wall of A B
(a) ventricle (b) left auricle
(c) right auricle (d) sinus venosus
27 Which one of the following groups of structures/organs
have similar function?
(a) Typhlosole in earthworm, intestinal villi in rat and C D
contractile vacuole in Amoeba
(b) Nephridia in earthworm, Malpighian tubules in
cockroach and urinary tubules in rat
(c) Antennae of cockroach, tympanum of frog and clitellum Tissue Location Function
of earthworm (a) B–Glandular Intestine Secretion
(d) Incisors of rat, gizzard (proventriculus) of cockroach epithelium
and tube feet of starfish (b) C–Collagen Cartilage Attach skeletal
28 Thousands of years old mummies are still in their condition fibres muscles to bones
as they were before due to the non-destruction of (c) D–Smooth Heart Heart contraction
(a) yellow elastin fibres (b) white elastin fibres muscle tissue
(c) collagen fibres (d) veins (d) A–Columnar Nephron Secretion and
epithelium absorption
DAY SEVEN STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 105

33 Frog’s heart when taken out of the body continues to beat (a) A −Eosinophil, B −Erythrocyte, C −Neutrophil
for some time. (b) A −Eosinophil, B −Lymphocyte, C −Neutrophil
Select the best option from the following statements. (c) A −Erythrocyte, B −Basophil, C −Neutrophil
(d) A −Eosinophil, B −Monocyte, C −Neutrophil
I. Frog is a poikilotherm.
II. Frog does not have any coronary circulation. 37 Match the following columns.
III. Heart is myogenic in nature. Column I Column II
IV. Heart is autoexcitable. A. Neutrophils 1. Kidney-shaped
(a) Only III (b) Only IV (c) I and II (d) III and IV B. Eosinophils 2. S-shaped
34 The H-zone in the skeletal muscle fibre is due to C. Basophils 3. 3-5 lobes
(a) the absence of myofibrils in the central portion of D. Monocytes 4. 2 lobes
A-band
(b) the central gap between myosin filaments in the A-band 5. Disc-shaped
(c) the central gap between actin filaments extending Codes
through myosin filaments in the A-band A B C D A B C D
(d) extension of myosin filaments in the central portion of (a) 3 5 1 2 (b) 5 3 2 4
the A-band (c) 2 1 5 3 (d) 3 4 2 1
35 Consider the following statements. Directions (Q. 38-39) In each of the following questions, a
I. Striped muscles are in the form of bundles of cells. statement of Assertion is given followed by the corresponding
II. The Pal muscle fibres, which are called fasciculi. statement of Reason. Of the statements, mark the correct
answer as
III. Skeletal muscles from the largest tissue in the body.
IV. Cardiac muscles in the embryo are originated from (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the
mesenchyma cell. correct explanation of Assertion
Choose the option with the correct statement(s). (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
(a) Only I (b) II and III (c) I, II and III (d) II and IV the correct explanation of Asseretion
(c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
36 Study the diagram given below and identify the cells (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
labelled as A, B and C. Choose the correct option.
38 Assertion Body cavity of earthworm has coelomic fluid
C within it.
Reason Coelom has no such significance.
39 Assertion Connective tissue contains a large amount of
non-living intercellular or extracellular matrix.
B
A Reason Intercellular substance is usually made up of
protein fibres.

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (d) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (c) 10 (b)
11 (c) 12 (c) 13 (c) 14 (b) 15 (c) 16 (a) 17 (b) 18 (c) 19 (b) 20 (c)
21 (d) 22 (a) 23 (d) 24 (d) 25 (d) 26 (d) 27 (d) 28 (b) 29 (a) 30 (d)
31 (c) 32 (a) 33 (a) 34 (c) 35 (b) 36 (c) 37 (c) 38 (a) 39 (b) 40 (a)
41 (a) 42 (a) 43 (d) 44 (a) 45 (d) 46 (d) 47 (d) 48 (c) 49 (b) 50 (d)
51 (d) 52 (a) 53 (b) 54 (a) 55 (c) 56 (d) 57 (a) 58 (d) 59 (c) 60 (d)
61 (d) 62 (d) 63 (a) 64 (b) 65 (a) 66 (b) 67 (b)

1 (d) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (d) 5 (d) 6 (a) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (c) 10 (a)
SESSION 2
11 (a) 12 (b) 13 (d) 14 (d) 15 (c) 16 (b) 17 (a) 18 (c) 19 (d) 20 (d)
21 (d) 22 (a) 23 (d) 24 (a) 25 (d) 26 (a) 27 (b) 28 (a) 29 (b) 30. (a)
31 (d) 32 (a) 33 (d) 34 (c) 35 (c) 36 (d) 37 (d) 38 (c) 39 (b)
106 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY EIGHT

DAY EIGHT

Unit Test 2
(Structural Organisation in
Animals and Plants)
1 A simple mechanical tissue devoid of lignin is 7 In which of the following, abnormal secondary growth is
(a) collenchyma (b) parenchyma seen?
(c) sclerenchyma (d) chlorenchyma (a) Triticum (b) Cucurbita
(c) Dracaena (d) Helianthus
2 The lining of bone marrow cavity is called
(a) endosteum (b) endothelium 8 Anatomically old dicot root can be distinguished from
(c) endomyosium (d) endoneurium dicot stem by
(a) the absence of secondary phloem
3 Phyllode is present in (b) the presence of cortex
(a) Asparagus (b) Euphorbia (c) the absence of secondary xylem
(c) Australian acacia (d) Opuntia (d) the position of protoxylem
4 Whorled arrangement of leaves is found in 9 The number of abdominal segments in male and female
(a) Calotropis (b) Ocimum (c) Tobacco (d) Nerium cockroach is
5 Consider the following statements regarding Periplaneta (a) 10, 10 (b) 9, 10
(c) 10, 11 (d) 8, 10
americana.
I. Head is hypognathus and is formed by the fusion of 10 Which component does not destruct even in thousand
6th segments. year old mummies?
II. The mouthparts consist of a pair of mandibles and (a) Collagen fibres
maxillae, labium forming the upper lip and labrum (b) White elastin fibres
forming lower lip, while the hypopharynx acts like a (c) Yellow elastin fibres
tongue. (d) Both (b) and (c)
III. Gizzard is muscular and internally provided with six
cuticular teeth which crush the food. 11 Identify the plant, in which the lower surface of the nodes
gives out slender adventitious roots.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Solanum tuberosum (b) Cyprus
(a) I and II (b) I and III (c) II and III (d) I, II and III
(c) Curcuma tuberosum (d) Lilium bulbifera
6 On the basis of stipules, match the stipule type with the 12 Identify the plant in which the terminal bud is modified
plant in which it is present. into tendril
(a) Spinous — Smilax (a) passion flower
(b) Tendrillar — Acacia (b) citrus
(c) Ochreate — Polygonum (c) wood apple
(d) Adnate — Pisum (d) Vitis (grape)
DAY EIGHT UNIT TEST 2 (STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS) 107

13 The arrangement of tissues in bicollateral vascular 24 Match the following columns.

bundle is Column I Column II
(a) outer cambium–outer phloem–middle xylem–inner
phloem–inner cambium A. Neutrophil 1. Single large nucleus

(b) outer phloem–outer cambium–middle xylem–inner B. Eosinophil 2. 2-3 lobed nucleus

cambium–inner phloem
C. Basophil 3. Kidney-shaped nucleus
(c) outer xylem–outer cambium–middle phloem–inner
cambium–inner xylem D. Lymphocyte 4. 2-7 lobed nucleus
(d) outer phloem–outer xylem–middle cambium–inner E. Monocyte 5. Bilobed nucleus
xylem–inner phloem
Codes
14 White fibrous tissue is abundant in A B C D E
(a) bone (b) cartilage (a) 2 1 3 5 2
(c) ligament (d) tendon (b) 2 5 1 4 3
15 Which of the following plants does not contain thorn? (c) 4 5 2 1 3
(a) Vitis (b) Wood apple (d) 2 4 5 3 1
(c) Duranta (d) Bougainvillea 25 Which of the following statements are correct?
16 Identify the correctly matched pair. I. When a fruit develops from inflorescence, it is
composite.
(a) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis — Tree
II. Mesocarp is the edible part in apple.
(b) Dalbergia sissoo — Shrub
III. Gynobasic style is seen in Ocimum.
(c) Raphanus sativus — Herb IV. Hypanthodium is a special type of inflorescence
(d) Mangifera indica — Tree with adventitious found in Euphorbia species.
aerial roots (a) I and IV (b) I and III
(c) I and II (d) II, III and IV
17 Wild strawberry is an example of
26 The balloon-like growth of parenchyma in the lumen of
(a) offset (b) stolon
(c) sucker (d) runner vessels is known as
(a) tyloses (b) tunica
18 Another name for squamous epithelium is (c) phellogen (d) histogen
(a) brush-bordered epithelium
(b) glandular epithelium 27 An example of merocrine gland is
(c) germinal epithelium (a) mammary gland (b) pineal gland
(d) pavement epithelium (c) sebaceous gland (d) salivary gland

19 Eichhornia is an example of 28 Select the correct statement.

(a) runner (b) offset (a) Outer nodes are regions on stem, where leaves attach
(c) stolon (d) sucker (b) The growing apex of the stem is covered by apical bud
20 Which of the following tissues is ectodermal in origin? (c) The narrow zone surrounding the root is called root cap
(d) Haustoria of Cuscuta contain chlorophyll
(a) Muscles (b) Nervous tissue
(c) Endocrine tissue (d) Blood 29 Match the following columns.
21 A fruit is a nut in Column I Column II
(a) Brassica (b) Mangifera A. Gymnosperms 1. Grit of pear
(c) Anacardium (d) Calotropis
B. Kranz anatomy 2. Epidermal tissue
22 Dead elongated cells with tapering ends are found in C. Stone cells 3. Heartwood
(a) vessels (b) tracheids
D. Stomata 4. Non-porous and softwood
(c) sclerenchyma (d) xylem fibres
5. Mesophyll undifferentiated cells
23 Which of the following is positively geotropic?
(a) Stem Codes
(b) Root A B C D A B C D
(c) Leaf (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 5 4 2 1
(d) Flower (c) 4 5 1 2 (d) 5 2 3 1
108 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY EIGHT

30 Identify the correctly matched pair. 41 Which among the following is a non-endospermic seed?
(a) Agave (century plant) — Cladode (a) Castor (b) Pea
(c) Papaya (d) Rice
(b) Asparagus — Bulbils
(c) Opuntia — Phylloclade 42 Identity A, B, C and D in the given figure of dorsal view of
(d) Ruscus — Bulb earthworm’s body and choose the correct combination of
option given below.
31 Phloem parenchyma is not found in A
(a) monocots (b) dicots
(c) gymnosperms (d) Both (a) and (c) C
B
32 Which of the following is an example of scaly, imbricate
bulb? D

(a) Amorphophallus (zimikand)

(b) Allium sativum (garlic)
(c) Allium cepa (onion)
(d) Crocus sativus (saffron)
(a) A – Setae, B – Clitellum, C – Genital papillae, D – Anus
33 Vascular bundles with water cavities are found in (b) A – Peristomium, B–Cilium, C–Male genital aperture,
(a) maize (b) Cycas D – Base
(c) Pinus (d) sunflower (c) A – Prostomium, B – Metameres, C – Clitellum, D – Anus
34 Consider the following statements. (d) A – Annuli, B – Grooves, C – Metameres, D – Anus
I. Neurons with longer processes happen to be the 43 Hypanthodium occurs in
longest cells in the body. (a) fig (b) cauliflower
II. The non-myelinated gaps in the axon are called node (c) sunflower (d) coriander
of Ranvier.
III. The neurilemma is composed of neuroglia cells.
44 Consider the following statements about vascular
cambium ring in secondary growth.
Which of the statements given above are correct? I. In vascular bundles, the cambium present in between
(a) I and II (b) I and III the primary xylem and primary phloem is called
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III interfascicular cambium.
35 Axillary bud is modified into a tendril in II. Along with interfascicular cambium, some medullary
ray cells also become active forming intrafascicular
(a) Duranta (b) Smilax
(c) Polygonum (d) Passiflora cambium.
III. Both interfascicular and intrafascicular cambium join
36 Identify the plant in which the leaves are arranged in an together and form a vascular cambial ring.
opposite decussate manner.
Which of the statements given above are incorrect?
(a) Alstonia (devil tree) (b) China rose
(a) I and II (b) I and III
(c) Sunflower (d) Azadirachta indica
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III
37 Cambium produces growth in
45 In paddy, the edible part is
(a) branches (b) girth
(c) pith (d) cortex (a) endosperm
(b) cotyledon
38 Identify the correctly matched pair. (c) endosperm and embryo
(d) fruit
(a) Turmeric — Tuber
(b) Potato — Rhizome 46 Opposite superposed arrangement of leaves is seen in
(c) Onion — Tunicated bulb (a) mustard
(d) Helianthus tuberosis — Imbricate bulb (b) mango
(c) tobacco
39 Stone cell is the common term used for (d) Rangoon creeper
(a) brachysclereids (b) macrosclereids 47 Fabaceae family is characterised by
(c) astrosclereids (d) trichosclereids
(a) tetradynamous androecium
40 Which of the following is a corm? (b) unilocular ovary
(a) Maize (b) Solanum (potato) (c) syncarpous gynoecium
(c) Zingiber (ginger) (d) Amorphophallus (zimikand) (d) All of the above
DAY EIGHT UNIT TEST 2 (STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS) 109

48 Cork cambium arises from 61 Which one of the following pairs of structures
(a) periblem (b) phelloderm distinguishes a nerve cell from other types of cell?
(c) phellogen (d) periderm (a) Vacuoles and fibres
(b) Flagellum and medullary sheath
49 The matrix of cartilage contains the polysaccharide of a
(c) Nucleus and mitochondria
proteoglycan. It is (d) Perikaryon and dendrites
(a) cartiline (b) ossein
(c) chondroitin (d) casein 62 Muscles responsible for movement of food in stomach
is/are
50 Tyloses are thickenings seen in
(a) stratified (b) unstratified
(a) ray parenchyma
(c) cardiac (d) None of these
(b) collenchyma
(c) phloem cells 63 Which of the following statements are true?
(d) ray parenchyma and xylem cells I. If the stem is joined with solid nodes and hollow
51 Identify the incorrect statement. internodes, it is called caudex.
(a) Lateral buds of stem give rise to flower II. In tridax, the stem is decumbent.
(b) Ipomoea has reproductive roots III. Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing more
or less in vertical direction.
(c) The spongy tissue of epiphytic root is called velamen
IV. Runner is an underground modification of stem.
(d) Floating roots of Jussiaea contain chlorophyll
V. Biparous type of cymose branching is seen in Saraca.
52 Desmosomes are connected with Choose the correct option.
(a) cell adherence (b) cell excretion (a) I, IV and V (b) II and III
(c) cell division (d) cytolysis (c) II, III and V (d) III and IV
53 The type of vascular bundle in which xylem surrounds 64 Ground substance of connective tissue is made up of
phloem is (a) lipids
(a) amphicribal (b) collateral (b) mucopolysaccharides
(c) leptocentric (d) conjoint (c) monosaccharides
54 Closed vascular bundles do not contain (d) phospholipids
(a) pith (b) conjunctive tissue 65 Consider the following statements regarding heartwood.
(c) ground tissue (d) cambium I. It does not help in water conduction.
55 Histiocytes helps in II. It is also called alburnum.
(a) phagocytosis (b) matrix production III. It is dark in colour and physiologically active.
(c) secretion (d) fibre production IV. It has tracheary elements, which are filled with tanin,
resis, etc.
56 Which one of the following does not match?
Choose the incorrect statements.
(a) Bulb — Allium cepa
(a) I and IV (b) I and II
(b) Phylloclade — Opuntia
(c) II and III (d) III and IV
(c) Cladode — Asparagus
(d) Bulbils — Euphorbia 66 An organised and differentiated cellular structure having
cytoplasm but no nucleus is called
57 Adipose tissue does not contain (a) vessels (b) xylem parenchyma
(a) basement membrane (c) tracheids (d) sieve tubes
(b) fibroblast
(c) amorphous ground substance 67 Which among the following permits distentions?
(d) collagen fibres (a) Stratified epithelium
58 Sclerenchymatous bundle sheath is found in (b) Pavement epithelium
(a) mango (b) grass (c) Transitional epithelium
(c) banyan (d) Both (a) and (c) (d) Keratinised epithelium

59 Winged seeds which aid in anemochory develop in 68 Identify the correctly matched pair.
(a) Cinchona (b) Ailanthus (a) Offset — Mint
(c) Papaver (d) Nymphaea (b) Stolon — Pistia
60 Free-central type of placentation is seen in (c) Runner — Jasmine
(a) Cucurbita (b) Hibiscus (d) Sucker — Chrysanthemum
(c) Brassica (d) Dianthus
110 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY EIGHT

69 Match the following columns. Codes

A B C D A B C D
Column I Column II
(a) 4 5 2 1 (b) 3 2 1 5
(Types of neurons) (Examples)
(c) 1 2 5 4 (d) 4 1 5 2
A. Unipolar 1. Early embryo
B. Bipolar 2. Retina of eye 77 Number of abdominal segments in the embryo of
C. Multipolar 3. Brain
cockroach is
(a) 8 (b) 9
D. Pseudounipolar 4. Dorsal root ganglion of
(c) 10 (d) 11
spinal cord
78 Phylloclades are
Codes
(a) leaf modifications
A B C D A B C D
(b) one internode long stem
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) modified petioles
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 1 3 2 4 (d) green succulent stems of indefinite growth
70 The longest podomere in cockroach is 79 Which of the following statement(s) is/are incorrect in
(a) tarsus (b) tibia reference to the blood vascular system of the earthworm?
(c) coxa (d) trochanter
I. Blood vascular system is of open type.
71 Lignin is the important constituent in the cell wall of II. Smaller blood vessels supply the gut, nerve cord and
(a) xylem (b) phloem the body wall.
(c) parenchyma (d) cambium III. Blood glands are present on 6th, 7th and 8th
segments.
72 Reticular connective tissue is found in
IV. Blood cells are phagocytic in nature.
(a) tonsils (b) ciliary body
(a) Only I (b) I and IV
(c) ribcage (d) throat
(c) I and III (d) II and III
73 Plants with soft stems are called 80 Secondary meristem produces
(a) saplings (b) trees
(a) basal growth
(c) shrubs (d) herbs
(b) radial growth
74 Which of the following statements are true? (c) transverse growth
I. If the stem is jointed with solid nodes and hollow (d) vertical growth
internodes, it is called caudex. 81 The muscular tissues are derived from embryonic
II. In Tridax, the stem is decumbent. (a) mesoderm (b) endoderm
III. Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing more (c) ectoderm (d) Both (b) and (c)
or less in vertical direction.
IV. Sucker is an underground modification of stem. 82 A common characteristic feature of plant sieve tube
V. Biparous type of cymose branching is seen in Saraca. cells is
(a) I, IV and V (a) the absence of mitochondria
(b) II and III (b) the presence of cell wall
(c) II, III and IV (c) the presence of haemoglobin
(d) III and IV (d) the absence of nucleus
75 If an earthworm is left in 40% KOH solution for a long 83 According to histogen theory, epidermis is formed by
time, which part would be left undissolved? (a) dermatogen (b) protoderm
(a) Setae (b) Spermatheca (c) periblem (d) plerome
(c) Sand particles (d) Circular muscle
84 In roots, lateral branches grow from
76 Match the following columns. (a) epiblema (b) pericycle
(c) cortex (d) endodermis
Column I Column II
A. Tracheids 1. Depression in cell walls 85 Number of ganglia in the thorax of cockroach is
(a) 4 (b) 3
B. Pits 2. Procambium (c) 6 (d) 8
C. Sieve tubes 3. Metaphloem
86 Vessels of heartwood are blocked by
D. Primary xylem 4. Dead and tube-like (a) hydathodes (b) tyloses
5. Conducting elements of phloem (c) stomata (d) latex
DAY EIGHT UNIT TEST 2 (STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS) 111

87 Which one of the following correctly describes the (c) Both connect bone to muscles
location of some body parts in the earthworm Pheretima? (d) Both are made up of striated muscles
(a) Two pairs of accessory glands in 16-18 segments 89 Vascular bundles grow from
(b) Four pairs of spermathecae in 4-7 segments
(a) protoderm (b) periderm
(c) One pair of ovaries attached at intersegmental septum
(c) ground meristem (d) procambium
of 14th and 15th segments
(d) Two pairs of testes in 10th and 11th segments 90 Skeletal muscles are
88 What is common between tendon and ligament? (a) voluntary
(b) attached to bones of the skeletal system
(a) Both connect bone to bone
(c) striated or striped
(b) Both are connective tissues (d) All of the above

ANSWERS
1 (a) 2 (a) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (a) 10 (c)
11 (c) 12 (d) 13 (b) 14 (d) 15 (a) 16 (c) 17 (b) 18 (d) 19 (b) 20 (b)
21 (c) 22 (b) 23 (b) 24 (c) 25 (b) 26 (a) 27 (d) 28 (b) 29 (c) 30 (c)
31 (a) 32 (b) 33 (a) 34 (a) 35 (d) 36 (d) 37 (b) 38 (c) 39 (c) 40 (d)
41 (b) 42 (c) 43 (a) 44 (a) 45 (c) 46 (d) 47 (b) 48 (c) 49 (c) 50 (d)
51 (d) 52 (a) 53 (c) 54 (d) 55 (a) 56 (d) 57 (a) 58 (b) 59 (a) 60 (d)
61 (d) 62 (b) 63 (b) 64 (b) 65 (c) 66 (d) 67 (c) 68 (d) 69 (b) 70 (b)
71 (a) 72 (a) 73 (d) 74 (b) 75 (a) 76 (d) 77 (d) 78 (d) 79 (c) 80 (b)
81 (a) 82 (d) 83 (a) 84 (b) 85 (b) 86 (b) 87 (d) 88 (b) 89 (d) 90 (d)
DAY NINE

Cell : The Unit

of Life
Learning & Revision for the Day
u The Cell Theory u Types of Cells u Nucleus
u Some Important Facts Related u Components of a Cell u Chromosome
to Cells u Cell Organelles : Structure and
Functions

l
A cell (Latin, cellula – a small compartment) is the smallest unit that exhibit the
properties of life and is known as the structural and functional unit of all living beings.
l
Robert Hooke (1665) first saw and Antony van Leeuwenhoek described the first living
cell. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and its
improvement as electron microscope has revealed all the structural details of the cell.
l
The properties exhibited by a cell are
nCells are complex and highly organised structures containing many internal
components.
nCells contain a genetic blueprint.
nCells arise from the division of other cells, i.e. pre-existing cells.
nCells acquire and utilise energy to perform chemical and mechanical activities.
PREP
l
The branch which deals with the study of cell and its organelles is called cytology.
Various scientists have worked on the structural and functional properties of a cell that
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
led to several discoveries in the field of cytology.
l
Some of the related discoveries are discussed below u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
Important events in discovery of cell u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
Year Name of the scientist Discovery (Without referring Explanations)
1665 Robert Hooke Discovered the cells in sections of cork (Father of Cytology).
u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
1675 Antony van Leeuwenhoek Discovered microscopic ‘animalcules’ in pond water. u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
1831 Robert Brown Discovered nucleus in cells of orchid roots.
In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
1839 Theodor Schwann Concluded that cells of plants and animals are similar Accuracy Level should be above 85
structures, and that plant cells have a cell wall which is & Prep Level should be above 75.
absent in animal cells.
1855 Rudolf Virchow Stated that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, i.e. ‘Omnis
cellula-e-cellula’.
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 113

The Cell Theory Eukaryotic Cell

MJ Schleiden and T. Schwann, based on their respective l
Cell with advanced nucleus, (i.e. a well developed nuclear
observations, formulated the cell theory in 1839. This was membrane) is called a eukaryotic cell.
modified by Rudolf Virchow (1855) to explain the formation of
new cells. The cell theory can be summarised as
l
The eukaryotic cells have a more elaborate internal
organisation as compared to the prokaryotic cell
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
consisting of cell membrane enclosing various cell
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. organelles.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Types of Eukaryotic Cell
Virus as Exception to Cell Theory The eukaryotic cells are of two types, i.e. plant cells and
Apart from other organisms, virus can reproduce using its own animal cells. Most of the organelles and other structures are
genetic material only inside the host which provides it with raw common to both animal and plant cells.
materials and biosynthetic machinery. Outside the host cell, The differences between plant and animal cell are as follows
they are just non-living inert particles. Due to this fact, virus
can be considered as an exception to the cell theory. Differences between plant and animal cell

Some Important Facts Related to Cells Characters Animal Cells Plant Cells

l
Mature nerve cells are incapable of division. Liver cells and Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose
muscle cells retain mitotic ability but seldom divide Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
normally.
Centrioles Present in all animal Only present in lower
l
PPLOs (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms) such as cells plant forms
Mycoplasma gallisepticum is the smallest living cell,
measuring about 0.1-0.3 µ. Vacuole One or more small One, large central vacuole
vacuoles (much smaller taking up 90% of cell
l
Ostrich egg is the largest living cell with 6 inches in diameter. than plant cells) volume.
l
Nerve fibres are longest cells in animals measuring more
than 90 cm long. The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell can
be summarised as given below in the table
l
The cells and their compounds like cell organelles are
measured in terms of the fractions of a millimetre, because Differences between prokaryotic
of their extremely small size. and eukaryotic cell
l
All eggs are unicellular in nature. Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
l
Acetabularia is the largest, unicellular, uninucleate, green Cell size Small (0.1-2.0 µm) Large (10-100 µm)
alga, which consists of a cap and stalk. Its body cannot be
Envelope Glycocalyx, cell Cell wall and cell
divided into cells. wall, cell membrane (animal cells
l
Unicellular organisms have single cell, e.g. yeast, diatoms, membrane lack cell wall)
Acetabularia, while in multicellular organisms, number of Nuclear Organised nucleus Organised nucleus
cells varies individual to individual, e.g. green algae organisation absent, instead present; differentiated
(Pandorina) have fixed number of cells (i.e. 8, 16, 32), nucleoid is found into envelope, nucleoli,
whereas a man of 80 kg weight has 60 thousand billion cells. nucleoplasm, etc.
There are around 1012 cells in 1 kg. DNA and Naked, not Nuclear DNA associated
histones associated with with histones protein
Types of Cell histones protein
Depending upon the nature of nucleus and the basic structure, Cellular Transcription and Transcription occurs in
cells are of following two types processes translation occur nucleus while
in cytoplasm translation in cytoplasm

Prokaryotic Cell Plasmids May be present Absent altogether

l
Cell that does not have a nuclear membrane and nucleoid Ribosomes 70S type 80S type usually
represents the genetic material, is called a prokaryotic cell. however, 55S type may
occur in mitochondria
l
Most prokaryotic cells, specifically the bacterial cell have a and chloroplast
cell envelope consisting of an outer glycocalyx, followed by
peptidoglycan cell wall and plasma membrane. Cell organelles Absent Present
(membrane bound)
114 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Cell Wall
Microbodies Absent Present l
It is the outermost, rigid protective and non-living
Cytoskeleton Absent Present structure.
Flagella Not arranged 9 + 2 arrangement with l
Prokaryotic cells like bacteria, cyanobacteria and
differentiation into eukaryotic cells like algae, fungi and plants contain a cell
axoneme and sheath. wall outside the cell membrane.
Cell wall Present with Without muramic acid l
The cell wall is rigid, which maintains shape and size of
muramic acid the cell apart from providing mechanical support.
l
In certain fungi, most algae and higher plants, cellulose
(a polymer of glucose, in which glucose molecules are joined
Types of Cells on the Basis of by β, 1-4-glycosidic bonds) is the main component of cell
Capability of Division wall.
Generally in the body following three types of functional cells l
In eubacteria, the characteristic cell wall material is
are found peptidoglycan or murein, a complex of oligosaccharide
l
Undifferentiated cells or Stem cells are unspecialised and proteins.
cells, which give rise to new cells by mitotic divisions. l
In bacteria, the cell wall is made up of peptidoglycans.
These go to form new tissues or in the maintenance of The sugars found in bacterial cell wall are N-acetyl
existing tissues. Examples for these are the Malpighian glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid.
layer in the epidermis of skin, the germinal epithelium l
N-Acetyl Glucosamine (NAG) and N-Acetyl Muramic acid
found in the gonads, the stem cells in the bone marrow, (NAM) are linked by β, 1,4-linkage.
the meristematic tissue in plants, etc.
l
D-amino acids which are present in bacterial cell wall,
l
Differentiated cells are specialised cells, that carry on render it resistant to the action of proteases, which acts on
specific functions. They have a specific form, structure and more commonly occurring L-amino acids.
function, which normally do not change. Differentiation l
In fungi, a cell wall is composed of chitin, a nitrogen
increases the functional efficiency through division of labour.
containing polysaccharide.
l
Dedifferentiated cells are cells which can revert back to an l
Chitin is a structural polymer, which consists of N-acetyl
embryonic or undifferentiated state. Dedifferentiation is glucosamine monomers.
seen in dicot plants, particularly at the time of secondary
growth. It is also seen in the process of regeneration that Structure of Cell Wall
involves the ability of an animal to develop the lost parts of
In plants, the cell wall is composed of four layers
its body. Such a phenomenon is seen in coelenterates and
echinoderms. The capacity of cells to undergo 1. Middle lamella is the outermost layer of cell wall that
separates the wall of two adjacent cells.
dedifferentiation indicates that cells retain their complete
genetic information. l
It is made up of calcium pectate and magnesium
pectate.
NOTE • Undifferentiated cells are also called the meristematic cells. l
The basic chemical unit of pectin is the
• Differentiated cells are post-mitotic specialised cells. carbohydrate, galacturonic acid, which is capable of
• Cellular totipotency is the ability of a living cell to develop forming salts with Ca and Mg.
into complete organism. l
The fruit softens and attains maturity due to the
• Steward (1957) first provided the evidence of cellular loss of pectate in middle lamella.
totipotency.
2. Primary cell wall is initial wall, which develops on
both sides of middle lamella.
Components of a Cell l
It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and
The component of a cell can be broadly categorised in lignin. Hemicellulose is made up of pentoses, i.e.
following three categories arabinose, xylose and hexoses (i.e. mannose and galactose).
1. Outer covering, i.e. cell wall and cell membrane. l
Cellulose and hemicellulose are synthesised by
2. Protoplasm, i.e. the fluid content of cell. Golgi apparatus.
3. Cell organelles, i.e. structures that float within the 3. The primary cell wall is followed by secondary cell
protoplasm like, mitochondria, chloroplast, ribosome, wall which is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose
etc. and lignin.
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 115

l
In wood, secondary wall is impregnated by lignin. l
Robertson’s model failed to explain permeability and
Lignin is a coniferyl alcohol. It is the main constituent transport properties of membrane.
of woody tissues. In cork cells, suberin is impregnated
in secondary wall and forms it impervious to water. 3. Fluid Mosaic Model
l
Cutin is also a secondary wall material, generally found l
Fluid mosaic model was proposed by SJ Singer and GL
on epidermal cells of leaf and stem. Nicolson in 1970. As per this model, plasma membrane is
4. Tertiary cell wall is found beneath the secondary cell composed of phospholipids, extrinsic proteins (peripheral
wall in tracheids. proteins) and intrinsic proteins (integral proteins). The
Singer and Nicolson fluid mosaic model differs from
l
The continuity of cytoplasm from cell to cell is
Robertson’s model in the arrangement of proteins.
maintained through cytoplasmic connections called
plasmodesmata. Plasmodesmata facilitate movement
l
As per fluid mosaic model, the correct sequence of
of molecules between adjoining cells. plasmalemma is P (protein), L (lipid). Fluid mosaic model
is the most reasonable explanation of the structure of
l
Cell wall is formed from cell plate, which is also
plasma membrane.
referred as phragmoplast during cytokinesis.
l
There are two types of proteins in plasma membrane, i.e.
Functions of Cell Wall extrinsic and intrinsic proteins.
l
Cell wall reduces the rate of transpiration, this happens l
The peripheral or extrinsic proteins are loosely bound at
due to the deposition of cuticle which makes it the polar surface of lipid bilayer while intrinsic or integral
impermeable to water. proteins penetrate deeply into the lipid layers.
l
Intercellular movement of materials and cytoplasmic l
The integral proteins which project on both surfaces are
continuity is maintained with the help of pits that are called transmembrane or tunnel proteins.
present in the cell wall. l
Selective permeability of the membrane can be explained
l
It provides shape and mechanical strength to the cell. It by this model. Plasma membrane is generally made up of
protects the cell from chemical actions. protein, lipid and small amount of carbohydrates.
Structural They form the back
Cell or Plasma Membrane proteins bone of membranes.

l
It is a thin, delicate, elastic and living boundary. The term These are catalytic
Membrane Enzymatic proteins found in
‘cell membrane’ was given by C Nageli and C Cramer (1855). mitochondria, ER and
proteins proteins
plasma membranes.
l
This term is used when cell is observed under simple
microscope. However, when this boundary was observed Permeases transport
Carrier
under electron microscope, a clear differentiation of 2 layers proteins
substances across
the membrane.
was noticed. Out of these, one layer was the real membrane
(called plasma membrane or plasmalemma by Plower in Classification of membrane proteins
1931) which was surrounded by layer of cell cement. l
Plasma membrane contains about 40% lipid and 60%
protein.
Structure of Plasma Membrane Triglycerides – Storage
lipid
To explain the arrangement of constituents of plasma – Non-polar
Sterols
membrane following models have been proposed membrane lipid
Lecithin – Glycerophospho
1. Bilayer Model lipid
l
Bilayer model of cell membrane was proposed by Danielli Cephalin – Phospholipid of
Membrane bacteria
and Davson in 1935.
lipids Cholesterol – Plasma membrane
l
As per Danielli and Davson model, plasma membrane is
made up of three layers, i.e. a bimolecular lipid layer is Cardiolipin – Mitochondria,
chloroplast and
sandwiched between two layers of proteins. bacteria
l
This model is the oldest model of plasma membrane
Glycerophospholipid – Polar
structure. It is based upon the surface tension studies. and membrane
Sphingophospholipid lipids
2. Unit Membrane Model Classification of membrane lipids
l
Robertson (1959) proposed unit membrane concept based
l
The carbohydrates of plasma membranes are mainly
upon the electron microscopic study on myelin.
hexose, hexosamine, fructose and sialic acid, which are
l
As per Robertson model, all the biological membranes have present in the form of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
a unit membrane construction.
116 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

l
Phytosterol is the major component of plant cell 2. Non-membranous cell organelles suspended in the
membrane. Cholesterol is the major component of animal cytoplasm and associated with the membranous
cell membrane. organelles are various kinds of structures that are
not composed of phospholipids and proteins
Functions of Cell Membrane arranged in sheets. It includes ribosomes, centrosomes,
The cell membrane performs following important functions microbodies, microtubules and microfilaments.
l
Exocytosis is the ejection or secretion of a substance from a Different cell organelles are discussed below
cell. This substance is enclosed in a membranous vesicle,
which fuses with the plasma membrane and ruptures, 1.Mitochondria
releasing the substance to the exterior. l
These were first observed by Kolliker in 1850. R Altman
l
Endocytosis (pinocytosis) takes place when plasma named mitochondria as the bioblast.
membrane sink beneath an external fluid drop. Membrane l
The present name mitochondria was coined by C Benda.
edges fuse, forming a fluid- filled vesicle.
l
Mitochondria are cylindrical bodies with an average
l
Phagocytosis (cell eating) takes place when a large external
diameter of 0.2-1 µ and ordinarily 3-10 µ in length.
particle is surrounded and becomes enclosed in a vesicle
(clathrin–coated).
l
Yeast cells have one giant, branched mitochondria. An
average cell may have 200 to 800 mitochondria. In some
l
Passive transport takes place when a substance moves
protozoans, e.g. Chaos chaos there may be as many as
across the membrane from higher to lower concentration.
5,00,000 mitochondria in a cell. A single mitochondrion is
Here, no energy is used.
found in Microsterias, an unicellular green alga.
l
Active transport is said to take place when a substance l
Mitochondria show variable shapes, so they show
moves against the concentration gradient and ATP is
pleomorphism. Mitochondria remain absent in prokaryotic
utilised in the process.
cells and mature human RBCs.
Mitochondria are oval and rod-shaped organelles formed by
Protoplasm (Proto–first; plasm–fluid)
l

a double membrane. The inner membrane is folded into

l
The complex fluid part of the cell is called protoplasm. projections called cristae, which contain numerous tiny
Protoplasm is viscous and colourless. It is the living part of particles called oxysomes or F1 particles.
a cell, i.e. it can perform all the vital activities. l
Mitochondrial DNA is small, simple, double-stranded
l
Protoplasm can be differentiated into two regions, namely circular or linear. The size of mitochondrial genome is very
nucleoplasm, i.e. protoplasm of the nucleus and cytoplasm, much large in plants than in animals.
i.e. extranuclear protoplasm. l
These are semi-autonomous cell organelles because they
l
Cytoplasm occupies the major part of the cell. It is limited contain DNA as well as ribosomes and are able to
on outside by plasma membrane and on the inside by synthesise proteins.
nuclear membrane. l
According to scientific observation, the new mitochondria
l
Cell organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic have originated by the growth and division of pre-existing
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc., are found embedded in the mitochondria.
cytoplasm.
l
Mitochondria are believed to be evolved by a process of
• Some non-living substances that lack biological properties endosymbiosis from ancient symbiotic bacteria capable of
NOTE and are produced by the protoplasm itself constitute the carrying out oxidative metabolism. Mesosome of bacteria is
deutoplasm, e.g. yolk bodies, lipid droplets, secretory
granules, pigments, etc. analogous to mitochondria.
• Protoplast It is the cell without cell wall. l
The number of mitochondria correlates with the metabolic
activity of cell. The active cells have more mitochondria
Cell Organelles : Structure and compared to the less active. Plant cells have fewer
mitochondria than animal cells.
Functions l
Krebs’ cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
Cell organelles are mainly of two types
Circular DNA and 70 S ribosomes are present in the matrix.
1. A membrane bound organelle is an organised cellular
structure that carries out a unique function. It includes
l
In mammalian mitochondria, 55 S ribosomes are
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, found. Inner membrane of cristae bears F1 particles or
chloroplasts and lysosomes. oxysomes, which have a spherical head, subtended by a
stalk and a base (F0 ). F1 subunit of oxysome is an integral
The endomembrane system consists of nuclear
protein embedded in the membrane lipid. F1 -F0 combination
envelope endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
lysosomes and vacuoles suspended in the cytoplasm. functions as ATP synthetase catalysing ATP synthesis.
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 117

l
Outer mitochondrial membrane contains less amount of (iii) Chloroplasts (green plastids) are double membrane
cardiolipin and more amount of phosphatidyl inositol and structure. Both membranes are smooth. The inner
cholesterol. It also contains stalkless particles called membrane is less permeable than outer but rich in
sub-units of Parson. proteins, especially carrier proteins.
l
Inner membrane contains cytochromes of respiratory chain l
Space between the outer and inner membrane is
cyt.-b, c, a - a3 , quinone, ubiquinone, FMN, NAD, DPN and called periplastidial space. Matrix is present in the
FAD, etc. centre. Thylakoids are closed flat bags of membranes
containing pigments.
l
Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration, oxidative
phosphorylation, synthesis of heme protein, cytochrome, l
Many membranous tubules are found in stroma
myoglobin, etc. called stroma lamellae or fret channels, which
interconnect thylakoids of different grana.
l
Life of mitochondria is not more than 5 days.
l
Mitochondria are yellowish due to riboflavin.
l
Plastids show cytoplasmic inheritance or organellar
inheritance or extrachromosomal inheritance.
l
The DNA of mitochondria is rich in G : C ratio. 70% of total
enzymes of a cell are found in mitochondria.
l
Chloroplast have a double helical, circular DNA
called cp DNA with an average lenght of 45 µm
Functions of Mitochondria (about 135000 basepairs).
l
Main sites for cellular respiration (oxidative phosphorylation), l
Chloroplast genome is larger than mitochondrial
also called ATP mills of the cells. genome. Chloroplast DNA have split genes but their
introns differ from nuclear genes of eukaryotes.
l
Regulate calcium ion concentration in the cell.
Chloroplasts have 70S ribosomes, which are inhibited
l
Provide intermediate for synthesis of chlorophyll, by chloramphenicol as in bacteria and do not inhibited
cytochrome, steroids, etc. by cyclohexamide, which inhibits 80S ribosomes.
Initiation of protein synthesis takes place in
2. Plastid
l

chloroplasts by methionyl tRNA.

This term was given by E Haeckel (1865). They are the largest l
Chloroplasts are semi-autonomous cell organelles,
cell organelles.
which contain the four components necessary for
These are double membrane bound structures, mainly used
autonomy, i.e. DNA, DNA polymerase, RNA
for trapping radiations and storage purposes. Plastids are
polymerase and a protein synthesizing system.
small bodies found freely in most plant cells. These are absent
in fungi, certain bacteria, algae and multicellular animals. The l
The chloroplasts never originated de novo.
plastids can be categorised into Chloroplasts multiply by fission. Chloroplasts are
(i) Leucoplast (colourless plastids) are of three types believed to be originated from cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae) due to endosymbiosis followed by
l
Aleuroplasts or Proteinoplasts, which store proteins,
extensive endosymbiotic gene transfer from
e.g. in maize.
cyanobacterium to the eukaryotic host nucleus.
l
Elaioplasts or Oleosomes, which store lipid or fats, l
DNA of chloroplast is called plastidome.
e.g. in endosperm cells of castor seeds.
l
Amyloplasts, which store starch, e.g. in potato tubers. Functions of Plastids
(ii) Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) are responsible for the l
All important processes of photosynthesis (light and dark
process other than photosynthesis. The various forms reaction) occur within the chloroplast.
found in algae are as follows l
The granum is the site of light reaction and the stroma is
l
Rhodoplasts are found in red algae (Rhodophyceae), the site for dark reaction.
which contain chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-d, l
Chloroplast participate in photorespiration and is the seat
r-phycoerythrin and r-phycocyanin. of glycolic acid synthesis.
l
Phaeoplasts are found in brown algae l
In certain cases, they get metamorphosed into
(Phaeophyceae), which contain chlorophyll-a, chromoplasts, e.g. in fruits of tomato.
chlorophyll-c and fucoxanthin (brown pigment).
l
Chromatophores are found in cyanobacteria 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
(blue-green algae) and bacteria. l
It is a branched membranous network spread all over the
l
Chromatophores of blue-green algae contain cell, connecting at places to the cell membrane and nuclear
chlorophyll-a, c-phycocyanin (phycobilins) and membrane also.
c-phycoerythrin. Chromatophores of photosynthetic l
It was discovered by Porter et al, in 1945. It is of two
bacteria contain bacteriochlorophyll types–smooth ER (sarcoplasm), i.e. without ribosomes and
(C 55 H74 O 6 N 4 Mg) or chlorobium chlorophyll. rough ER (ergastoplasm), i.e. with ribosomes.
118 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

l
ER functions mainly as an intracellular transport channel. l
Plant cells have several hundred Golgi bodies.
l
ER consists of an intercommunicating system of channels, Collectively, the Golgi bodies are referred to as Golgi
made up of membranous sacs, i.e. cisternae, vesicles and complex.
narrow tubules. l
There are three major components of Golgi body, i.e.
l
ER helps in protein synthesis indirectly as it provides space flattened sacs or cisternae, clusters of tubules and vesicles
for ribosomes. The protein synthesised, enters into the ER and and large vacuoles filled with amorphous or glandular
then to Golgi complex or directly secreted out of the cell. content.
Nuclear membrane → Pores → ER → Golgi complex → l
According to Dalton and Felix (1954), Golgi vesicles have
Plasmalemma → Outside. three regions, i.e. the cis, the medial and the trans region.
l
About 30-60% of total membranous system is made up of l
The vesicles fuse with cis region of Golgi complex and
endoplasmic reticulum. protein progress from cis to medial and finally to the trans
l
Microsomes are the microbodies formed by the breakage of region. The secretory vesicles leave the trans region and
ER ends. move towards plasma membrane.
Differences between SER and RER l
The cisternae, closest to the plasma membrane are called
SER RER trans face and the cisternae closet to the centre of the cell
(Smooth Endoplasmic (Rough Endoplasmic are called cis face. The medial cisternae are in between
Reticulum) Reticulum) the trans and cis cisternae.
It is mainly formed of It is mainly formed of cisternae and
vesicles and tubules. a few tubules. Functions of Golgi Body
It is engaged in the The reticulum takes part in the l
Golgi bodies perform several functions, these include
synthesis of glycogen, lipids synthesis of proteins and enzymes. absorption of toxic compounds, synthesis of
and steroids. polysaccharides, acrosome formation, glycolipid
SER gives rise to It helps in the formation of synthesis, fluid regulation and lysosome formation.
spherosomes. lysosomes through the agency of l
Also, protein transfer, secretion of glycoprotein, fluid
Golgi apparatus.
regulation, cell wall formation, egg covering, absorption of
Pores are absent so that RER possesses narrow pores below lipids are some other functions that are completed with
materials synthesised by its ribosomes for the passage of the help of Golgi bodies.
SER do not pass into its synthesised polypeptides into ER
channels. channels.
SER is often peripheral. It It is often internal and connected 5. Lysosomes
may be connected with with nuclear envelope. l
These were discovered by de Duve in 1949 biochemically
plasmalemma. in rat liver, homogenate by ultracentrifugation. He also
Ribophorins are absent. RER contains ribophorins for introduced term lysosome and said them suicidal bags of
providing attachment to ribosomes. cell as they contain hydrolytic enzymes.
It may develop from RER It may develop from outer l
They are organelles bound by a single membrane, found
through loss of ribosomes. membrane of nuclear envelope.
in all animal cells except mature mammalian RBCs.
Generally, they are absent in plant cells.
Functions of ER l
They enclose lytic enzymes (i.e. about 50 hydrolases),
l
Lipid, protein and glycogen synthesis. which can dissolve old and worn out cell organelles and if
l
It is involved in the formation of glycosomes and necessary the entire cell itself. They bring about digestion
peroxisomes. of useful organic substances present in the cell (i.e.
l
ER helps in membrane biosynthesis, cell secretions, intracellular digestion).
transport of ions and molecules. l
Most hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes function at acidic
l
Other functions include synthesis of cholesterol and steroid, pH, i.e. approximately 4.6-5.0, which is maintained by a
detoxification of toxins, giving mechanical strength to the proton pump that accumulates H+ inside the lysosome.
cell. l
Lysosomes may bud off from M face (maturing face) of
Golgi complex. They are common in WBC, liver, spleen,
4. Golgi Body etc.
l
Lysosomes release hydrolases in damaging and ageing
l
It was discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898), an Italian
cells to digest them by a process called autolysis. Thus,
scientist, while studying the nerve cell in Barn Owl. Golgi
lysosomes are called autophagosomes or scavenger of
complex of plants is known as dictyosome. Term
cells. They also help in cell division.
‘dictyosome’ was coined by Perroncito in 1910.
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 119

In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole is important for

6. Ribosomes
l

excretion and osmoregulation. In many cells as in protists

l
These are granule-like non-membranous cell organelles, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.
discovered by Palade (1955) in animal cell but Robinson l
Several types of enzymes including hydrolases are found
and Brown (1953) in plant cells and the term ‘ribosome’
in vacuoles. These play an important role in cell
was introduced by Roberts in 1958.
metabolism and may act as storage compartments and also
l
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic as lysosomes.
cells. In a eukaryotic cell, ribosomes occur freely in the l
These are also involved in turgor and detoxification.
cytoplasm, attached to the surface of Endoplasmic
Reticulum (ER), in the matrix of organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts. These are also found
8. Microbodies
attached to the nuclear membrane and inside the nucleolus. These are small cell organelles bound by single membrane,
which absorb molecular oxygen and take part in oxidation
l
S stands for Svedberg unit, which is a measure of particle other than those involved in respiration. They are of two types
size related to the speed at which the particles are settled
when subjected to centrifugation (S =1 × 10 −13 second). l
Peroxisomes were discovered by de Duve (1965).
l
Each ribosome consists of two sub-units. The sub-units n Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelles. The
occur separately in the cytoplasm and join to form a presence of large amount of the enzyme catalase in the
ribosome particle only at the time of protein synthesis. peroxisomes rapidly converts the toxic hydrogen
Ribosome Sub-unit peroxide into harmless H2O and O2 .
Source
Type Small Large Catalase
2H2O2 → 2H2O+O2
Prokaryotes 70S 30S 50S
n In mesophyll cells of leaves, peroxisomes, interact with
Eukaryotic cytosol 80S 40S 60S mitochondria and chloroplast to take part in
Mitochondria 55S 30S 40S photorespiration.
Chloroplast 70S 33S 50S
n Unusual substances or xenobiotics, which cannot be
metabolised by normal enzymes are broken down inside
l
The two subunits of ribosomes are associated with the help peroxisome.
of Mg2+ ions (at 0.001 m concentration). If the Mg2+ l
Glyoxysomes were discovered by Beevers (1919) in
concentration is less in cytoplasm, the two units of ribosome endosperm of germinating seeds. They are found in fat-rich
separate. Whereas, if Mg2+ concentration is increased ten plant cells and are involved with fat metabolism through
times, the ribosomes unite and form a Dimer (120 S). glyoxylate cycle.
l
The larger subunit of each ribosome has two cavities, i.e,
− P (Polypeptidyl site) and A (Aminoacyl site). 9. Cytoskeleton
l
Ribosomes found in the cytoplasm in free form are called
l
The cytoskeletal fibres include microtubules (25 nm in
monosomes. Many ribosomes may be associated with diameter), intermediate filaments (10 nm in diameter) and
mRNA to form polyribosomes or polysomes. microfilaments (8 nm in diameter). Microtubules are hollow
cylindrical structures built from tubulin (α and β) protein.
l
Ribosomes are called as organelles within an organelle.
The mitotic spindle involved in separating the replicated
l
Ribosomes are chemically composed of rRNA and proteins.
chromosomes during mitosis is assembly of microtubules.
Lipids are absent in ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of
protein synthesis (translation); hence they are commonly
l
Microtubules have many functions, such as chromosomal
described as protein factories of cell. In eukaryotes, the site movement, intracellular transport of materials, cellular
of synthesis of most rRNA is the nucleolus. motility, ciliary and flagellar movement of organelles
within cell and they establish asymmetrics, polarities and
changes of shape in higher plants.
7.Vacuoles l
The drug colchicine inhibits the polymerisation of
l
These are the single membrane bound structures found in microtubules, thus blocking cell processes such as cell
the cytoplasm. It contains water, sap, excretory products, division that depends on functioning of microtubules.
other materials which are not useful for the cell. It is l
Microfilaments are made of actin and have a mechanically
bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
supportive function. Through their interaction with
l
In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the myosin, the microfilaments form contractile assemblies
volume of cell. Anthocyanin and anthoxanthins are found that are involved in various intracellular movements such
in plant vacuoles. Gas vacuoles have been reported in as cytoplasmic streaming and the formation of membrane
prokaryotes. invaginations.
120 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

perinuclear space. The continuity of nuclear envelope

10. Cilia and Flagella is broken by minute pores called nuclear pores.
l
These are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane with
(ii) Nuclear sap or nucleoplasm consists of nucleic acids,
the 9+2 pattern organisation.
enzymes, lipids, minerals and proteins (histone and
l
Cilia are small structures, which work like oars, causing the non-histone). It contains nucleolus and chromatin
movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid. material.
l
Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell Nucleoplasm is the site of enzyme activities and
movement. synthesis of DNA, RNA and ribosomal sub-units.
l
The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are (iii) Nucleolus is a dense, spherical colloidal body without
structurally different from that of eukaryotic flagella. any limiting membrane, which remains attached with
l
The cilium (sing.) and flagellum (sing.) are covered with nuclear organising chromosomes.
plasma membrane. l
It was discovered by Fontana (1781) and termed as
l
Their core is called axoneme. nucleolus by Bowman (1840).
l
Cilia and flagella originate from basal bodies or l
The main function of nucleolus is the synthesis of
blepharoplast.
ribosomal RNA, hence it is called storehouse of
11. Centrosome RNA. It also plays an important role in cell
l
It is a cell organelle containing two cylindrical structures division.
called centrioles. (iv) Chromatin The chromatin (meaning coloured fibres)
l
Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to are fine fibres composed of DNA, some proteins and
transcribing RNA.
each other in which each has an organisation like the
cartwheel. They are made up of nine, evenly spaced l
The proteins associated with chromatin are mainly
peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein. histone proteins. These are positively charged basic
l
The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is proteins mainly composed of lysine and arginine.
also proteinaceous and called the hub, which is connected However, in certain types of sperms, histones are
with the tubules of the peripheral triplet by radial spokes replaced with protamines.
made of protein. l
During cell division, the chromatin condenses and
l
The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella and becomes thick enough to form specialised structures
spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell called chromosomes.
division in animal cells. l
It was observed that when chromosomes are stained
with basic dyes like acetocarmine or fuelgen stain,
Nucleus two types of regions can be observed hetero-
l
It was discovered by Robert Brown (1853), its study is chromatin region and euchromatin region.
known as Karyology. Differences between heterochromatin
l
German biologist J Hammerling (1934) proved that nucleus is and euchromatin
the controlling centre of cell, based on grafting experiment by Heterochromatin Euchromatin
using two species of unicellular, green algae Acetabularia.
They are the compactly coiled They are loosely coiled
l
Based on the number of nucleus present, cells may be regions of the chromatin. regions of the chromatin.
mononucleate, binucleate or polynucleate. It stains deeply. It stains less deeply.
l
Polynucleate condition may be because of fusion of a
It contains more DNA and It contains less DNA and
number of cells, which resulted into syncytium replicates at the end of replicates during the early
(e.g. coconut endosperm) or by free nuclear divisions S-phase of mitotic cycle. stages of S-phase.
without cytokinesis which resulted into coenocyte
It is less stable being affected It is more stable.
(commonly found in plants). by temperature, sex, age (of
l
In mammalian erythrocytes (RBCs) and sieve tubes of parents), proximity to the
plants, nucleus is present during early stage but degenerates centromere, etc.
at maturity. It is genetically inert and does It is genetically active and
not transcribe. Thus, not is usually under active
Structure of Nucleus involved in protein synthesis. transcription. Thus,
actively participates in
The four main parts of nucleus are
protein synthesis.
(i) Nuclear membrane is a membrane enclosing
It has low crossover frequency. It has high crossover
nucleoplasm, which is made up of two unit membranes. frequency.
The space between these two membranes is called
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 121

Acentric without centromere.

Chromosome l

l
Monocentric with a single centromere.
l
The size and number of chromosomes vary from species to
species and genera to genera. Usually, within a species,
l
Dicentric with two centromeres.
these remain constant. l
Polycentric with many centromeres diffused along the
entire length.
l
The length and thickness of a normal chromosome varies
from 1-30 µ and 0.2-2 µ, respectively. The shape of (ii) On the basis of position of centromere, the chromosomes
chromosomes varies according to the stages of cell are categorised as
division. l
Metacentric chromosomes The centromere is median
l
Somatic cells always possess two sets of chromosomes. in position. It appears V-shaped during anaphasic
Thus, they are diploid (2n). On the other hand, gametic movement.
cells usually possess one set of chromosomes, i.e. l
Submetacentric chromosomes The position of
haploid (n). centromere is submedian. Thus, one arm of
l
In humans, there are 46 chromosomes (i.e. 22 pairs chromosome is smaller and the other one is larger. It
somatic chromosomes +X and Y-sex chromosomes). appears ‘L-shaped’ during anaphasic movement.
X-chromosome is partly euchromatic and partly l
Acrocentric chromosomes Centromere is subterminal
heterochromatic, whereas Y-chromosome is in position. Thus, one arm is very small and other is
heterochromatic. very long.
l
Chemically, chromosomes are nucleoproteins containing
l
Telocentric chromosomes Centromere is terminal, in
DNA (about 40%), RNA (1-10%), histones or basic proteins position, i.e. situated in the telomeric region.
(40-50%) and non-histone proteins (about 10%). Telocentric chromosomes are very rare. In humans,
none of the chromosome is telocentric.
Structure of Chromosome
Some Special Types of Chromosomes
Each chromosome have two halves or chromatids, which are
attached to each other by centromere or primary constriction. These are given below
Telomere (i) Lampbrush chromosomes are present in primary oocyte
Acts as origin of replication, nuclei of vertebrates as well as of invertebrates. These are
prevents breakage of DNA 800-1000 µ long and maximum length of these
ends and sticking of
chromosomal ends.
chromosomes were observed in urodele amphibians,
Secondary constriction II i.e. 1 mm (1000 µ).
Location is constant for a l
The main axis of chromosome consists of DNA on
particular chromosome, found on
the long arms of 1, 10, 13, 16 which chromomeres are present. From each
and Y-chromosome of humans. Chromonema chromomere, 1-9 loops arise in pairs. The loop axis is
Coiled chromatin, containing again made up of DNA, which is surrounded by a
a single molecule of DNA
duplex.
matrix on both sides made of RNA and proteins.
Primary constriction
(centromere)
l
Due to the presence of paired loops, these
Central constricted region chromosomes appear like lampbrush and hence,
containing specific DNA sequence called lampbrush chromosomes.
to which a disc of protein called
kinetochore is bounded. Nucleolus (ii) Polytene chromosomes or Salivary gland chromosomes
Formed by nucleolar organiser were discovered by EG Balbiani (1881).
during the reconstruction phase
Secondary constriction I after mitosis. l
These are found in salivary gland cells of insects of
(nucleolar organiser) Satellite order–Diptera.
Contains rDNA and present
on chromosome
Short part of chromosome, l
These are Giant chromosomes (up to 2000 µ or 2 mm),
do not contain thymine in
number 13, 14, 15, 21, 22 their nucleic acid. characterised by somatic pairing due to which the
and Y in humans. Chromosomes containing satellite number of chromosomes appears half of normal
are called SAT chromosomes.
somatic cells. Polytene chromosomes have distinct
Outline structure of a typical chromosome dark bands and light bands. Polytene chromosomes
form puffs or loops (in region of dark bands), which
Classification of Chromosome are called Balbiani puffs or Balbiani rings, where
(i) On the basis of number of centromere, the synthesis of mRNA takes place.
chromosomes are
122 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Which among the following is not a prokaryote? 11 The membrane is selectively permeable. Many
(a) Nostoc (b) Mycobacterium molecules can move across the membrane without any
(c) Saccharomyces (d) Oscillatoria requirement of energy, this is called
2 Which of the following cell organelles are non- (a) active transport (b) osmosis
(c) passive transport (d) diffusion
membranous and found in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells? 12 Fluid mosaic model is the most accepted model for
(a) Lysosomes (b) Microbodies plasma membrane structure. It shows that
(c) Ribosomes (d) Vacuoles (a) quasi fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
3 In eubacteria, a cellular component that resembles proteins within the overall bilayer
eukaryotic cells is (b) lateral movement within the membrane is measured as
(a) nucleus (b) ribosomes its fluidity
(c) cell wall (d) plasma membrane (c) fluid nature of membrane is important for growth
formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,
4 Which of the following is not true of a eukaryotic cell?
endocytosis, cell division, etc
(a) It has 40S type of ribosome present in the mitochondria
(b) It has 40S type of ribosome present in the cytoplasm (d) All of the above
(c) Mitochondria contain circular DNA 13 Which of the following cell organelles is responsible for
(d) Membrane bound organelles are present extracting energy from carbohydrates to form ATP?
5 Genes present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells are ’ NEET 2017
found in (a) Lysosome (b) Ribosome
(a) mitochondria and inherited via egg cytoplasm (c) Chloroplast (d) Mitochondrion
(b) lysosomes and peroxisomes 14 Enzymes found attached to inner membrane of
(c) Golgi bodies and smooth endoplasmic reticulum mitochondria instead of matrix is/are
(d) plastids and inherited via male gamete
(a) succinic dehydrogenase
6 Select the mismatch. ’ NEET-II 2016 (b) cytochrome oxidase
(a) Gas vacuoles – Green bacteria cells (c) Both (a) and (b)
(b) Large central vacuoles – Animal cells (d) malic dehydrogenase
(c) Protists – Eukaryotes 15 Which of the following statements regarding
(d) Methanogens – Prokaryotes mitochondrial membrane is not correct?
7 Which of the following components provides sticky (a) The outer membrane is permeable to all kinds of
character to the bacteria? ’ NEET 2017 molecules
(a) Cell wall (b) Nuclear membrane (b) The enzymes of the electron transfer chain are
(c) Plasma membrane (d) Glycocalyx embedded in the outer membrane
8 Secondary cell wall grows by (c) The inner membrane is highly convoluted forming a
series of infoldings
(a) deamination (b) calcitonin
(d) The outer membrane resembles a sieve
(c) opposition (d) None of these
16 In chloroplasts, chlorophyll is present in the
9 Which of the following is not correctly matched for the
(a) outer membrane
organism and its cell wall degrading enzyme?
(b) inner membrane
’ NEET 2013
(c) thylakoids
(a) Plant cells–Cellulase (b) Algae–Methylase (d) stroma
(c) Fungi–Chitinase (d) Bacteria–Lysozyme
17 Which of the following is not correctly matched?
10 The plasma membrane consists mainly of
(a) Amyloplast – Store fats
(a) phospholipids embedded in protein bilayer
(b) Elaioplasts – Store oils
(b) protein embedded in a phospholipid bilayer
(c) protein embedded in a polymer of glucose molecules (c) Aleuroplasts – Store proteins
(d) protein embedded in carbohydrate bilayer (d) Chloroplasts – Contain photosynthetic pigments
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 123

18 The structures that are formed by stacking of organised 28 Which of the following organelles in the figure correctly
flattened membranous sacs in the chloroplasts are matches with its function? ’ NEET 2013
’ CBSE-AIPMT 2015
Nucleus Cell membrane
(a) cristae (b) grana Nuclear pore
Protein expelled
Rough
(c) stroma lamellae (d) stroma endoplasmic
reticulum
19 The osmotic expansion of a cell kept in water is chiefly
regulated by ’ CBSE-AIPMT 2014
Secretory
(a) mitochondria (b) vacuoles vesicle
(c) plastids (d) ribosomes Ci
Ribosome ste
r na
e
20 Water soluble pigments found in plant cell vacuoles are
’ NEET-I 2016
(a) chlorophylls (b) carotenoids Cis face
(c) anthocyanins (d) xanthophylls Proteins
Transport Trans face
21 The Golgi complex participates in vesicle
Golgi
(a) respiration in bacteria Smooth
apparatus
endoplasmic
(b) formation of secretory vesicles reticulum
(c) fatty acid breakdown
(d) activation of amino acid (a) Golgi apparatus, protein synthesis
22 Important site for the formation of glycoproteins and (b) Golgi apparatus, formation of glycolipids
glycolipids is (c) Rough endoplasmic reticulum, protein synthesis
(a) Golgi apparatus (b) plastid (d) Rough endoplasmic reticulum, formation of
(c) lysosome (d) vacuole glycoproteins

23 Mitochondria and chloroplast are 29 A cell organelle containing hydrolytic enzyme is

’ NEET-II 2016
I. semi-autonomous organelles. (a) lysosome (b) microsome
II. formed by division of pre-existing organelles and they (c) ribosome (d) mesosome
contain DNA but lack protein synthesising machinery. 30 Which one of the following cell organelles is enclosed by
Which one of the following options is true? a single membrane? ’ NEET-II 2016
’ NEET-I 2016 (a) Chloroplast (b) Lysosome
(a) II is true, but I is false (b) I is true, but II is false (c) Nucleus (d) Mitochondria
(c) Both I and II are false (d) Both I and II are true
31 Three of the following statements regarding cell
24 Select the correct matching in the following pairs. organelles are correct, while one is incorrect. Identify the
’ CBSE-AIPMT 2015 incorrect statement.
(a) Smooth ER – Oxidation of phospholipids (a) Lysosomes are double membraned vesicles budded off
(b) Smooth ER – Synthesis of lipids from Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes
(c) Rough ER – Synthesis of glycogen (b) ER consists of a network of membranous tubules and
(d) Rough ER – Oxidation of fatty acids helps in transport, synthesis and secretion
25 The Golgi complex plays a major role ’ NEET 2013 (c) Leucoplasts are bounded by two membranes, lack
pigment but contain their own DNA and protein
(a) in digesting proteins and carbohydrates
synthesising machinery
(b) as energy transferring organelles
(d) Spherosomes are single membrane bound and are
(c) in post-translation modification of proteins and
associated with synthesis and storage of lipids
glycosidation of lipids
(d) in trapping the light and transforming it into chemical 32 What is true about ribosome?
energy (a) The prokaryotic ribosomes are 80S, where S stands for
its sedimentation coefficient
26 Major site for synthesis of lipid is ’ NEET 2013
(b) These are composed of ribonucleic acid and proteins
(a) SER (b) Symplast
(c) nucleoplasm (d) RER (c) These are found only in eukaryotic cells
(d) These are self-splicing introns of some RNAs
27 Mechanical support, enzyme circulation, protein synthesis
and detoxification of drugs are functions of 33 Flagella of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in
(a) type of movement and placement in cell
(a) ER
(b) location in cell and mode of functioning
(b) ribosomes
(c) microtubular organisation and type of movement
(c) dictyosomes
(d) microtubular organisation and function
(d) chloroplast
124 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

34 The solid linear cytoskeletal elements having a diameter 43 Chromatin contains

of 6 nm and made up of a single type of monomere are (a) only DNA
known as ’ CBSE-AIPMT 2014 (b) basic proteins called histones only
(a) microtubules (b) microfilaments (c) non-histone proteins
(c) intermediate filaments (d) lamins (d) All of the above
35 Microtubules are the constituents of ’ NEET-I 2016 44 DNA is denatured by
(a) spindle fibres, centrioles and cilia (a) heat (b) acid
(b) centrioles, spindle fibres and chromatin (c) DNA polymerase (d) Both (a) and (b)
(c) centrosome, nucleosome and centrioles 45 Match the following columns. ’ CBSE-AIPMT 2014
(d) cilia, flagella and peroxisomes
Column I Column II
36 Microtubule is involved in the
(a) cell division A. Centriole 1. Infoldings in mitochondria
(b) membrane architecture B. Chlorophyll 2. Thylakoids
(c) muscle contraction
(d) DNA recognition C. Cristae 3. Nucleic acids

37 Microtubules are absent in D. Ribozymes 4. Basal body cilia or flagella

(a) mitochondria (b) flagella Codes
(c) spindle firbes (d) centriole A B C D
38 Bacterial cell may be motile or non-motile. The surface (a) 4 2 1 3
structure, which plays major role in motility is (b) 1 2 4 3
(a) flagellum (b) pili (c) 1 3 2 4
(c) fimbriae (d) All of these (d) 4 3 1 2
39 Select the incorrect statement. ’ NEET-II 2016 Directions (Q. Nos. 46-47) In each of the following
(a) Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
(b) Pili and fimbriae are mainly involved in motility of corresponding statement of Reason just below it. Of the
bacterial cells statements, mark the correct answer as
(c) Cyanobacteria lack flagellated cells (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the
(d) Mycoplasma is a wall-less microorganism correct explanation of Assertion
40 Which of the following is not a function of cytoskeleton in (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
a cell? the correct explanation of Assertion
(c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
(a) Intracellular transport
(b) Maintenance of cell shape and structure (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
(c) Support of the organelle 46 Assertion The true nucleus is generally absent in E. coli
(d) Cell motility and other prokaryotes.
41 Centriole is a reproducing organelle in the cytoplasm of
Reason An undifferentiated, unorganised fibrillar nucleus
(a) plant cells
without any limiting membrane is observed in prokaryotic
(b) animal cells
cells.
(c) Euphorbia cells
(d) Chrysanthemum cells 47 Assertion Eukaryotic cells are provided with tremendous
42 Which of the following is true for nucleolus? ’ NEET 2018 mechanical support and are able to carry out directed
(a) It takes part in spindle formation movements.
(b) It is a membrane-bound structure
Reason There are three principal types of protein
(c) Larger nucleoli are present in dividing cells
filaments– actin filament, microtubules and intermediate
(d) It is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis
filaments, which give the mechanical support to cell.
DAY NINE CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 125

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 A chromosome whose terminal centromere is capped by 9 A phospholipid molecule is amphipathic and produces
telomere is two layers coming in contact with H2O. The head of
(a) metacentric (b) telocentric phospholipid molecule is
(c) submetacentric (d) acrocentric (a) at an angle of 40°
(b) towards the outer side
2 Satellite of chromosomes is
(c) between the surfaces
(a) rich in RNA and deficient in DNA
(b) rich in DNA and deficient in RNA (d) embedded in protein molecules
(c) rich protein
10 Which of the following is not true for a eukaryotic cell?
(d) lacks DNA
(a) It has 80S type of ribosome present in the mitochondria
3 The prokaryotic flagella possess (b) It has 80S type of ribosome present in the cytoplasm
(a) unit membrane enclosed fibre
(c) Mitochondria contain circular DNA
(b) protein membrane enclosed fibre
(c) ‘9 + 2’ membrane enclosed structure (d) Membrane bound organelles are present
(d) helically arranged protein molecule 11 Which of the following statements is true for a secretory
4 Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and cell?
form a chain called (a) Golgi apparatus is absent
(a) polysome or polyribosome (b) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is easily observed
(b) monosome or monoribosome in the cell
(c) mesosome or inclusion bodies
(c) Only Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) is present
(d) cyanophycean granules or gas vacuoles
(d) Secretory granules are formed in nucleus
5 In an animal cell, the synthesis of proteins occurs
12 Identify the incorrect statement.
(a) exclusively on ribosomes present in cytosol
(a) Glycoprotein and glycolipids of plasma membrane
(b) on ribosomes present in nucleolus
facilitate cellular recognition and adhesion
(c) exclusively on ribosomes attached to nuclear envelope
and ER (b) The semipermeable membrane surrounding the vacuole
(d) on ribosomes present in cytosol and the mitochondria is called tonoplast
(c) Gametes of plants are without cell wall
6 Comparing small and large cells, which statement is correct?
(d) Ingestion of solid particles is called pinocytosis
(a) Small cells have a small surface area per volume ratio
(b) Exchange rate of nutrients is fast with large cells 13 GERL system is formed of
(c) Small cells have a large surface area per volume ratio
(a) Golgi body, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosome and
(d) Exchange rate of nutrients is slow with small cells
Lysosome
7 Extranuclear inheritance is a consequence of the (b) Golgi body, Endoplasmic Reticulum and Lysosome
presence of genes in (c) Golgi body, Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosome
(a) mitochondria and chloroplast
(d) Golgi body, Ribosome and Lysosome
(b) endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
(c) ribosomes and chloroplast 14 Which of the following is not a difference between
(d) lysosomes and ribosomes euchromatin and heterochromatin?
8 Which of the following statements is correct? (a) Heterochromatin stains deeply while euchromatin lightly
(a) The genetic material of prokaryotes is not enclosed in a (b) Heterochromatin is more condensed than euchromatin
cell (c) Heterochromatin is transcriptionally inactive while
(b) Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in plant cells euchromatin is active
(c) Ribosomes are DNA–protein complexes (d) Heterochromatin lies close to the nucleolus while
(d) Balbiani’s rings are found in polytene chromosomes euchromatin to nucelar lamina
126 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY NINE

15 Identify A, B, C and D in the given figure. 18 In prokaryotes, chromatophores are

C (a) specialised granules responsible for colouration of cells
(b) structures responsible for organising the shape of the
A organism
(c) inclusion bodies lying free inside the cells for carrying
B
out various metabolic activities
(d) internal membrane systems that may become extensive
D and complex in photosynthetic bacteria
19 According to widely accepted ‘fluid mosaic model’, cell
(a) A–Nucleoplasm, B–Nucleolus, C–Nuclear pore,
membranes are semi-fluid, where lipids and integral
D–Nuclear membrane
proteins can diffuse randomly. In recent years, this
(b) A–Nucleolus, B–Nucleoplasm, C–Nuclear membrane,
model has been modified in several respects. In this
D–Nuclear pore
regard, which of the following statements is incorrect?
(c) A–Nuclear pore, B–Nuclear membrane, C–Nucleoplasm,
(a) Proteins in cell membranes can travel within the lipid
D–Nucleolus
bilayer
(d) A–Nucleolus, B–Nucleoplasm, C–Nuclear pore,
(b) Proteins can remain confined within certain domain of
D–Nuclear membrane
the membrane
16 In the view of current status of our knowledge about the (c) Proteins can also undergo flip-flop movements in the
cell structure, which of the following statements about lipid bilayer
cell theory is correct? (d) Many proteins remain completely embedded within the
(a) The cell theory needed modification due to the lipid bilayer
discovery of subcellular structures such as chloroplasts
and mitochondria
20 Match the following columns.
(b) The cell theory does not hold good, since all living Column I Column II
organisms are not cellular in their organisation, e.g. virus
A. Endoplasmic 1. Stack of cisternae
(c) The cell theory in its modified form, means that all living reticulum
objects are made of cells capable of reproducing
(d) The cell theory means that all living objects of cell, B. Spherosome 2. Store oils or fats
whether or not capable of reproducing C. Dictyosome 3. Synthesis and storage of lipids
17 Which of the following correctly explains mitochondrial D. Peroxisome 4. Photorespiration
function and results?
E. Elaioplasts 5. Detoxification of drugs
(a) Oxidative phosphorylation, dephosphorylation,
metabolic water production Codes
(b) Dephosphorylation, metabolic water production, CO2 A B C D E
production (a) 5 3 1 4 2
(c) Oxidative phsophorylation, metabolic water production, (b) 5 3 2 4 1
CO2 production (c) 2 3 1 4 5
(d) Oxidative phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, CO2 (d) 4 3 1 5 2
production

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (c) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (b) 7 (d) 8 (d) 9 (b) 10 (b)
11 (c) 12 (d) 13 (d) 14 (c) 15 (b) 16 (c) 17 (a) 18 (b) 19 (b) 20 (c)
21 (b) 22 (a) 23 (b) 24 (b) 25 (c) 26 (a) 27 (a) 28 (c) 29 (a) 30 (b)
31 (a) 32 (b) 33 (c) 34 (b) 35 (a) 36 (a) 37 (a) 38 (a) 39 (b) 40 (b)
41 (b) 42 (d) 43 (c) 44 (d) 45 (a) 46 (a) 47 (a)

SESSION 2 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (d) 6 (c) 7 (a) 8 (d) 9 (b) 10 (a)
11 (b) 12 (d) 13 (b) 14 (d) 15 (a) 16 (c) 17 (c) 18 (d) 19 (c) 20 (a)
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DAY TEN

Biomolecules
and Enzymes
Learning & Revision for the Day
u Metabolites u Proteins u Nucleic Acids
u Biomolecules u Lipids u Enzymes
u Carbohydrates

Chemicals or molecules present in the living organisms are essential for the maintenance
of their physiological processes. These are known as biomolecules. These include large
molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids and small molecules like
metabolites.
Mineral Elements and Their Functions in the Body
Element Percentage Function
Oxygen 65% Cellular respiration and component of water.
Carbon 18% Backbone of organic molecules.
Hydrogen 9.5% Electron carrier, component of water and most organic molecules.
Nitrogen 3.3% Component of protein and nucleic acid.
Calcium 1.5% Component of bone, teeth, trigger for muscle contraction and enzyme
activator.
Phosphorus 1.0% Backbone of nucleic acid and energy transfer.
PREP
Potassium
Sulphur
0.4%
0.3%
Important in nerve function and stomatal movement.
Component of most proteins.
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
Chlorine 0.2% Principal negative ion in the cells.
u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
Sodium 0.2% Principal positive ion bathing cell and important in nerve function.
u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
Magnesium 0.1% Component of many energy transferring enzyme and chlorophyll. u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
Iron Trace Critical component of haemoglobin and important in chlorophyll synthesis. (Without referring Explanations)

u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—

Metabolites u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—

These are those biomolecules which are either utilised in metabolic functions or In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
synthesised by the cellular machinery. These are of two types Accuracy Level should be above 85
& Prep Level should be above 75.
1. The primary metabolites in an animal tissue are sugars, amino acids, fatty acids,
fats and oils, nucleosides and nucleotides.
2. In plants, fungal and microbial cells, there are thousands of compounds other than
primary metabolites, e.g. alkaloides, flavonoides, rubber, essential oils, antibiotics,
128 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

coloured pigments, scents, gums, spices. These are called

secondary metabolites.
Types of Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups on
Some Secondary Metabolites the basis of hydrolysis products as follows
Group Metabolite
Types of Carbohydrates
Pigments Carotenoids, anthocyanins, etc.
Occurrence
Alkaloids Morphine, codeine, etc. CHO Type Compound Sub-unit in Living
Terpenoides Monoterpenes, diterpenes, etc. Thing
Monosaccharide Glucose — Widespread
Essential oils Lemon grasss oil, etc.
Fructose — Sweet fruits
Toxins Abrin and ricin.
Galactose — Milk
Lectins Concanavalin A. Oligosaccharide Maltose 2 × Glucose Germinating
Drugs Vinblastin, curcumin, etc. seeds
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Sugarcane
Polymeric substances Rubber, gums and cellulose.
Lactose Glucose + Galactose Milk
l
Secondary metabolites are organic compounds that are Raffinose Glucose + Fructose Plants
not directly involved in the normal growth and + Galactose
development or reproduction of an organism. Polysaccharide Starch Glucose Plants
(storage)
l
These are often restricted to a narrow set of species
Glycogen Glucose Animals
within a phylogenetic group.
(storage)
l
Secondary metabolites often play an important role in Cellulose Glucose Plant cell
plant defence against herbivory and other interspecies walls
defences. Chitin Glucosamine Arthropod
exoskeletons

Biomolecules (i) Monosaccharides

These chemical compounds found in living organisms are of l
These are the simplest group of carbohydrate and cannot
two types be hydrolysed further to give simpler units of
polyhydroxyaldehyde or ketone.
(i) Microbiomolecules The molecules, which have
molecular weights less than one thousand dalton are l
They are referred as simple sugars. They are sweet in tast,
usually referred to as micromolecules or simply colourless solids having solubility in water, but sparingly
biomolecules. soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether.
(ii) Macrobiomolecules The molecules which are found in l
These have atleast one asymmetric carbon atom, hence
the acid insoluble fraction are called biomacromolecules. they exist in different isomeric forms.
The chemical composition of living tissue from l
The term ‘reducing’ reflects the fact that some sugars have
abundance point of view is given below carbonyl groups (C == O), which can be oxidised to
carboxylic acids (  COOH), reducing other chemicals in
Average Composition of Cells the process.
Component Percentage of the Total Cellular Mass l
A standard test for a reducing sugar is Benedict’s solution,
Water 70-90 a blue solution that contains copper sulphate. If a
Proteins 10-15 reducing sugar is present, the Cu (I) ions result in an
orange precipitate.
Carbohydrates 3
l
Glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and lactose are all
Lipids 2
reducing sugars but sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Nucleic acids 5-7 However, after sucrose is boiled with dilute acid to
Ions 1 hydrolyse it into its monosaccharides, it produces a
positive result.
O–
Carbohydrates H
—
—

C==O
C==O
—

They are the basic component of food and principal source of

+2Cu2+ + 5OH–
—

energy, which are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and H—C—OH + 2Cu
H—C—OH
—

+
—

oxygen (O) in the approximate ratio of 1 : 2 : 1. CH2OH 3H O

CH2OH 2
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 129

D-Glyceraldehyde is a three carbon, aldotriose (aldose sugar + (b) Maltose or Malt sugar It is not common in nature
triose sugar). It is also the smallest carbohydrate. except in germinating starchy seeds.
l
D-Ribose is an important sugar used in genetic material. This It is referred to as β–maltose because the unreacted
sugar is not used as an energy source but is a part of the C-1 on β-D glucose is in the β position.
backbone of RNA. CH2OH CH2OH
l
When OH group of C-2 position is removed (H in place of O O
H H H OH
OH) from ribose, the sugar becomes deoxyribose, which is
H H
used in the backbone of DNA. OH H O OH H
HO H
l
Pentose sugar ribose is found in every animal cell. It is the
main constituent of ATP, ADP, riboflavin and RNA. H OH H OH
α-D-glucose β-D-glucose
(ii) Oligosaccharides Maltose, α (1-4) linkage
l
These are the group of compounds, which on hydrolysis
produce two or more molecules of same or different
l
Maltose is produced commercially from starch by a
monosaccharide unit held together by a glycosidic bond. starch hydrolysing enzyme diastase.
l
They are crystalline, water soluble and sweet to taste. They (c) Lactose or Milk sugar It is a dimer of β-D galactose
can be disaccharide, trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide and so on. and either the α or β-D glucose.
l
The carbon that carries the aldehyde or the ketone can react CH2OH CH2OH
with any hydroxyl group on a second sugar molecule to form O O
a bond called glycosidic bond. HO H OH
β-Lactose H H
l
Based on the position of the C − 1 OH, glycosidic bonds may H O OH
OH H
be H H
H
(a) α- glycosidic bond linkage between a C − 1 α OH and a
H OH H OH
C − 4 OH. β-galactose β-D-glucose
(b) β − glycosidic bond linkage between a C-1 β OH and a Lactose, β-(1-4) linkage, β-disaccharide
C-4OH.
l
Lactose does not occur in nature except as a
α-bonds β-bonds
product of the mammary gland. Compared to milk
O O O O of cow, buffalo and goat, lactose quantity is highest
in the human milk.
l
C-4 end can be either up or down depending on the
orientation of the monosaccharide.
(iii) Polysaccharides
l
Cellobiose consists of two molecules of β-D glucose.
l
These are long chains of sugars. They are threads
containing different monosaccharide units as building
l
It is similar to maltose except in the presence of β (1 − 4)
blocks.
linkage in cellobiose instead of α(1-4) in maltose.
l
For example, cellulose is a polymeric polysaccharide
l
Due to the presence of β (1-4) linkage, cellobiose is
consisting of only one type of monosaccharide, i.e.
undigestible.
glucose.
Examples of oligosaccharides are as follows l
The major polysaccharides of interest in nutrition are
(a) Sucrose or Table sugar It is found in sugarcane and glycogen, found in certain animal tissues and starch and
sugarbeet up to 20 % by mass. cellulose, both of plant origin.
CH2OH l
All these polysaccharides consist of only glucose units.
H
O l
They may be either homopolysaccharides (i.e.
H
H containing a single type of monomers, e.g. starch,
Glucose
unit OH H glycogen, cellulose, chitin) or heteropolysaccharides (i.e.
HO containing two or more different units), e.g.
O α (1-2) hemicellulose, pectic substances, some gums, etc.
H OH Glycosidic
CH2OHO linkage Some of the complex carbohydrates present in nature are as
Fructose follows
unit H HO 1. Glucans are polymers of glucose monomers,
H
CH2OH e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.
OH H 2. Galactans are polymers of galactose monomers,
Sucrose e.g. agar-agar, pectin, galacton from snails.
 130 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

3. Mannans are polymers of mannose monomers, e.g. yeast l

D-fructose (levulose) is a ketohexose and sweetest of all
mannan. sugars.
4. Xylans are polymers of xylose monomers, l
Erythrose is raw material for synthesis of anthocyanin and
e.g. hemicellulose xylan. lignin.
5. Fructans are polymers of fructose monomers, e.g. inulin. l
Galactose in milk is a component of milk sugar lactose.
6. Agar-agar is a galactan consisting of both D-and- l
Galactosides are compounds of galactose. They occur in
L-galactose. It is used as a mircrobial culture medium. brain and nervous tissue. Galactose is a constituent of
7. Pectin contains arabinose, galactose and galacturonic agar-agar.
acid. Pectins are abundant in fruits such as orange,
lemon, etc.
Proteins
8. Pectic acid is a homopolymer of the methyl ester of
The term ‘protein’ was coined by Berzelius (1837) and Mulder
D-galacturonic acid.
(1838). Though approximately 300 amino acids occur in
9. Glycogen (animal starch) is commonly found in fungi
nature but only 20 make the composition of proteins. Proteins
and animals. It is water soluble, which gives a red
are polymers of amino acids.
colour with iodine. A starving man first consumes
reserve glycogen. Structure of Amino Acid
10. Human cannot digest cellulose. It is digested by termites l
All amino acids have a common structure. The only
and sheeps by harbouring bacteria and protozoans that difference between the different amino acids lies with
synthesise the necessary enzyme cellulase. R-groups in general formula. The R-group have quite
11. Inulin (Dahlia starch) is a polymer of fructose units diverse chemical properties.
linked by β-1, 2 glycosidic linkages.
The ‘R’ group varies in
12. Hyaluronic acid found in skin, vitreous humor of the chemical make-up with
each type of amino acid
eye, umbilical cord as a coating around the ovum and in
certain bacteria as mucopolysaccharides. Carbon R
atom R
13. Chondriotin sulphates, predominant in cornea,
O
cartilage, tendons, skin, heart valves and saliva are also
NH2 C COOH NH2 C C
mucopolysaccharides.
Amino OH
14. Callose is a polymer of glucose. It occurs in the sieve
group H
tubes of phloem (in plants) and is formed often as a Carboxyl group
Hydrogen H makes the molecule
response to wounds. atom behave like a weak acid
15. Hemicellulose is a polymer of pentoses and sugar acids. General structure of
It occurs in the plant cell wall and functions as cell wall an amino acid

matrix. l
All amino acids (except glycine) show optical isomerism.
16. Lignin is composed of glucose. It is found in dead cells This can result in two different arrangements as shown in
like sclerenchyma of plant cell walls. the diagram.
17. Chitin is also a polymer of glucose, which functions as COOH COOH
exoskeleton of arthropods. Carbon
atom
18. Murein is polysaccharides cross linked with amino
C NH2 C
acids. It occurs in the connective tissue matrix and outer R
coat of mammalian eggs. H 2N
R
19. Heparin is related to chondroitin and is found in H
H
connective tissue cells. It functions as an anticoagulant. Carbon’s tetrahedral D-forms L-forms
bonding arrangement
20. Gums and mucilages are polymers of sugars and sugar
acids. These are found in the bark of trees and l
Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA), histamine, serotonin,
mucilages of flowers. They help in retaining water ornithine, citruline and β-alanine are the amino acids,
during the dry season. which are not found in proteins.
l
Glycine is the simplest amino acid with lowest molecular
Functions of Various Carbohydrates weight and absence of asymmetrical carbon atom. It is
l
Glucose is the most important sugar in our diet, which is involved in the formation of haeme.
used as immediate source of energy. It is also called l
Tryptophan is the most complex amino acid containing
dextrose. indole ring.
l
It is stored as glycogen in liver and muscles. Level in blood l
Methionine and cysteine are sulphur containing amino
can be as high as 0.1 %. acids.
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 131

l
In proline and hydroxyproline, instead of NH2 (amino) Depending on the number of peptide bonds present in a
group, NH (imino) group is present. These amino acids are protein molecule, it may be a
called imino acids.
(i) Dipeptide When two amino acids are joined
l
Proteins contain L-(Levorotatory) isomers of amino acids. together via a peptide bond, a dipeptide is formed.
D-(Dextrorotatory) isomers of amino acids are found only
(ii) Oligopeptide It is a long, unbranched chain of 2-25
in bacterial cell walls.
amino acids residues, which are linked by peptide
l
Isoleucine is an amino acid with two asymmetrical carbon bonds.
atoms. Tyrosine gives rise to dopamine, melanin, (iii) Polypeptide It is a long chain of many amino acids
thyroxine, adrenaline and nor-adrenaline. (>25 amino acid residues) linked end to end by
l
Lysine and arginine are basic amino acids, which contain peptide bond.
more than one amino groups. Glutamic acid and aspartic
acid are acidic amino acids, which contain more than one
acidic groups.
Classification of Proteins
l
Tryptophan amino acid forms the vitamin nicotinamide Proteins are classified on the basis of increasing complexity in
and a plant hormone Indole Acetic Acid (IAA). Amino their structure. These can be of following types
acids that cannot be synthesised in the body are called Proteins
essential amino acids, while those which can be
synthesised in the body and need not be supplied through
diet are called non-essential amino acids.
l
For human beings, eight amino acids are essential. Infants Simple Conjugated
require arginine and histidine in addition.
Only amino acids form their Complex compounds consisting of
Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids structure, e.g., hordein of globular proteins tightly-bound
barley, gliadin and glutanin non-protein material, the non-protein
Essential Non-Essential of wheat, zeatin of maize, material called a prosthetic group,
*Arginine Glycine oryzanin of rice. e.g., nucleoproteins, metalloprotein,
lipoprotein.
*Histidine Alanine
Isoleucine Serine Some Conjugated Proteins, their Prosthetic
Leucine Aspartic acid Groups and Location
Methionine Asparagine Prosthetic
Name Location
Phenylalanine Cysteine Group
Threonine Glutamic acid Phosphoprotein Phosphoric acid Casein of milk, vitelline of egg
Tryptophan Glutamine yolk.

Lysine Proline Glycoprotein Carbohydrate Membrane structure, mucin

Valine Tyrosine (component of saliva).

*Arginine and histidine are considered semi-indispensable amino Nucleoprotein Nucleic acid Component of viruses,
acids. These two are not essential in the adult organisms. chromosomes, ribosome
structure.

Peptide Bond Chromoprotein Pigment Haemoglobin -haeme

(iron-containing pigment),
Proteins are the linear sequence of amino acids phytochrome (plant pigment),
linked together by peptide bonds. This bond is chemically a cytochrome (respiratory
covalent bond formed between the α-amino group of one pigment).
amino acid and the α-carboxylic group of another.
Lipoprotein Lipid Membrane structure, lipid
Peptides transported in blood as
N-terminal C-terminal lipoprotein.
residue residue
Flavoprotein FAD (Flavine Important in electron transport
O O O
Adenine chain in respiration.
H2N—C—C—N—C—C—N—C—C—OH Dinucleotide)

H R′ H R′′ Metal proteins Metal Nitrate reductase, the enzyme in

plants, which converts nitrate
Peptide linkages into nitrite.

Formation of peptide bond

132 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

Types of Proteins Based on Structure Type Example Occurrence/ Function

Type Nature Function Protective Antibodies Form complexes with foreign
Fibrous Secondary structure is Perform structural function proteins.
most important (little or in cell and organisms, e.g.
Fibrinogen Forms fibrin in blood clotting.
no tertiary structure), collagen (tendons, bone
insoluble in water, and connective tissue), Thrombin Involved in blood clotting
physically tough, long myosin (in muscle), silk mechanism.
parallel polypeptide (spider’s webs), keratin
chains cross-linked at (hair, horn, nails and Contractile Myosin Moving filaments in myofibrils
intervals forming long feathers). of muscle.
fibres or sheets.
Actin Stationary filaments in
Globular Tertiary structure is most Form enzymes, antibodies myofibrils of muscle.
important. Polypeptide and some hormones, e.g.
chains tightly folded to insulin. Storage Ovalbumin Egg white protein.
form spherical-shape.
Casein Milk protein.
Easily soluble.
Intermediate Fibrous but soluble. Fibrinogen-forms insoluble Toxins Snake venom Enzymes
fibrin when blood clots. Diphtheria toxin Toxin made by diphtheria
bacteria.
Structural Collagen Component of connective
tissue, bone, tendons and
cartilage. Structural Organisation in Proteins
Keratin Skin, feathers, nails, hair and There are following types of structural organisation in
horn. proteins.
Elastin Elastic connective tissue 1. Primary structure It consists of the linear sequence of
(ligaments). amino acid residues in a polypeptide chain.
Viral coat proteins ‘Wraps up’ nucleic acid of • The enzyme ribonuclease and the protein myoglobin
virus. function only in their primary structure.
Types of Proteins Based on their Functions • Primary structure determines the higher levels of
organisation in protein and its biological functions.
Type Example Occurrence/ Function
2. Secondary structure It is regular folding patterns of
Enzymes Trypsin Catalyses hydrolysis of protein. continuous portions of the polypeptide chains, e.g.
Ribulose Catalyses carboxylation α-helix and β-pleated sheets. Secondary structures are
bisphosphate (addition of CO2) of ribulose stabilised by hydrogen bonds. Most globular proteins
carboxylase bisphosphate in contain region of α-helices together with β-sheet.
photosynthesis.
(i) α-Helix chains are coiled spirally in right-handed
Glutamine synthetase Catalyses synthesis of the manner. At places, the helix is less regular forming
amino acid glutamine from random coils. The helix is stabilised by H–bond
glutamic acid + ammonia. between oxygen [or carboxylic group (  CO)] of one
Hormones Insulin Helps to regulate glucose amino acid residue and > NH group of next fourth
metabolism. amino acid residue. This secondary structure is found
in several proteins like keratin, myosin, topomyosin,
Glucagon Stimulates growth and activity
of the adrenal cortex.
fibrin.
(ii) In β–Pleated sheets, two or more α chains are joined
ACTH Stimulates secretion of
glucocorticoids. by intermolecular bond, hydrogen bond. They can be
of following types
Respiratory Haemoglobin Transports O2 in vertebrate
β– parallel sheets Adjacent strand of polypeptide
n

pigment blood.
runs in the same direction, e.g. β–keratin.
Myoglobin Stores O2 in muscles. β–antiparallel sheets Adjacent strand of
n

Transport Serum albumin Transport of fatty acids and polypeptide runs in the opposite direction, e.g.
lipids in blood. fibroin of silk.
n
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 133

3. Tertiary structure Three dimensional structure formed l

Monellin, a protein is the sweetest chemical obtained from
by the folding of the secondary structure into a complex an African berry.
shape.
• The interactions involved in folding include weak
ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic
Lipids
interactions and strong disulphide bonds between l
The term ‘lipid’ was first used by Bloor (1943).
neighbouring cysteine amino acids. l
Lipids are water insoluble and consist of C, H and O but
• Enzymes are functional with a tertiary structure only. the ratio of H and O is more than 2 : 1.
4, Quarternary structure Proteins consist of two or more l
Lipids are less dense than water and therefore they float on
polypeptide chains. Haemoglobin, a globular protein it.
composed of four polypeptide chains (i.e. two β-chains
+ two α-chains) each having a haeme group at the centre Classification of Lipids
of chain.
On the basis of their chemical structure, the lipids are
Some Important Points Related to Proteins classified into following classes:
l
Proteins constitute about 10 to 12% of the cell contents. Simple Lipids (True Lipids)
l
Proteins are made up of carbon (51%), oxygen (25%), Simple lipid like triglycerides, fats, wax, suberin and cutin are
nitrogen (16%), hydrogen (7%), sulphur (0.4%) and formed from fatty acids and alcohol. A brief account of
sometimes phosphorus is also present in traces. triglycerides and waxes are
l
Insulin (human) has 53 amino acids arranged in two l
Triglycerides (Neutral fats) Neutral fats such as butter
polypeptide chains of 22 and 31 amino acids. and vegetables oils are mostly triglycerides. Each has three
Human serum albumin has 582 amino acids in its fatty acids linked to a glycerol (glycerine or trihydroxy
polypeptide chain. propane).
l
Proteins show enormous diversity because of different In fats when all three fatty acids are similar they are called
proportions and sequence of amino acids. pure fats and when these fatty acids are dissimilar they
l
The number and variety of proteins vary from species to termed as mixed fat.
species and within a species from cell to cell. l
Waxes These are long chain fatty acid linked to long
l
A bacterium Escherichia coli may have about 3000 types of chain of alcohol or carbon ring. All waxes have firm
proteins. consistency and repel water.
In plants, they cover the surface of leaf and other aerial
l
A human liver cell may have millions of proteins.
surfaces to avoid excess transpiration. In animals,
However, all these proteins are synthesised from the same
cutaneous glands secretes wax (lanolin) for forming a
20 amino acids.
protective water insoluble coating on animal fur.
l
Proteins and amino acids are amphoteric in nature.
It means they can react with both acids and bases. Compound Lipids (Conjugated Lipids)
l
Proteins are oxidised by putrefaction process and produce Complex or compound lipids contain an additional group in
bad smell. addition with alcohol and fatty acids. These are
l
Denaturation refers to the loss of three-dimensional l
Glycolipids These contains sphingosine (alcohol) with a
structure of a protein. fatty acid and monosaccharide sugar, i.e. cerebrosides,
l
Strong acids and alkalis, heavy metals, heat, UV radiations terpenes and gangliosides.
and detergents can denature a protein. l
Phospholipids (Common membrane lipid) These are
l
Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world triglyceride lipids with one fatty acid replaced by
and Ribulose Biphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase phosphoric acid which is often linked to additional
(RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of nitrogenous group like choline, ethanolamine, etc.
the biosphere. l
Lipoproteins These are the complex of lipids and proteins
l
P-proteins are involved in the transport of organic and are present in blood, milk and egg yolk.
compounds through phloem. On the basis of compactness, these can be divided into:
l
Snake venom, ricin of castor and bacterial toxins are n LDL Low Density Lipoprotein also called as bad
proteinaceous in nature. cholesterol.
l
Protamines are basic proteins associated with DNA of n HDL High Density Lipoprotein which removes bad
chromosomes, these are rich in lysine and arginine. cholesterol.
 134 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

Derived Lipids Empirical Formulae of Unsaturated Fatty Acids

These are derivative of lipid (steroid) or its chemicals Common Name
Empirical
Symbol
Number of
(prostaglandins). Formula Double Bond
l
Steroids The group of complex lipids that possess a rigid Palmitoleic acid C16H30O2 16 : 1 1
backbone of four fused-together carbon rings. Sterols are Oleic acid C18H34O2 18 : 1 1
the components of every eukaryotic cell membrane, e.g.
cholesterol. Linoleic acid C18H32O2 18 : 2 2

l
Palmitic acid (C16H32O2 ) saturated fatty acid, found in Linolenic acid C18H30O2 18 : 3 3

coconut, etc. Arachidonic acid C20H32O2 20 : 4 4

l
Arachidonic acid (C20 H32O2 ) An unsaturated fatty acid
l
If a fatty acid has more than one double bonds (2 in linoleic
found in ground nut, etc.
acid, 3 in linolenic acid and 4 in arachidonic acid), it is
said to be polyunsaturated.
Complex Lipids
l
Unsaturated fatty acids are slightly more abundant in
The complex lipids may be of following types
nature than saturated fatty acids, especially in higher
(i) Chylomicrons which transport triglycerides from plants.
intestine to other tissues except kidneys.
l
Oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and have low
(ii) Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) which bind
melting point. In hydrogenation, the unsaturated fatty
triglycerides in liver and carry them to fat tissue.
acids become saturated and oil becomes solid fat.
(iii) Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) which carrry l
Fat is a molecule used by most animals for long term
cholesterol to peripheral tissues.
energy storage.
(iv) High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) which bind to plasma
cholesterol and transport it to liver.
l
Rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet is
vegetable oils.
Sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid and minimum fatty
Fatty Acids
l

acid content is in coconut oil. Mustard oil is one of the

l
Most of the fatty acids found in nature have an even most unsaturated.
number of carbon atoms (usually 14 to 24).
l
The general formula of a saturated fatty acid is Essential Fatty Acids
CH3 (CH2 )nCOOH. l
These serve as a precursor for synthesis of prostaglandins.
l
Fatty acids may be classified into following two types l
These acids are some polyunsaturated fatty acids, which
(i) Saturated fatty acids have single bonds only, they are cannot be synthesised in the animal body and must be
solid at room temperature, and their melting point is supply with food to avoid their deficiency.
high. These are straight chain compounds, found more l
Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids are essential fatty
commonly in animal tissues, e.g. palmitic acid. acids for man.
(ii) Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds, l
Maximum number of double bonds present in essential
they are liquid at room temperature and have a low fatty acids is four.
melting point. These compounds show more bending in l
Phospholipids are main constituents of plasma membrane
their chains and are more common in plant tissues, e.g. because they contain both polar and non-polar portions.
oleic acid. l
They may be divided into following types
Empirical Formulae of Saturated Fatty Acids (i) Sphingophospholipids These are a complex family of
Empirical Number of compounds, i.e., phosphoric acid with amine alcohol
Common Name Symbol
Formula Double Bond 4–sphingamine (or sphingosine) instead of glycerol in
Capric acid C10H20O2 10 : 0 0 addition to fatty acids and chlorine.
(ii) Glycolipids These contain sphingosine (alcohol) with a
Lauric acid C12 H24O2 12 : 0 0
fatty acid and a monosaccharide sugar (usually
Myristic acid C14 H28O2 14 : 0 0 galactose, glucose, etc.), e.g. cerebrosides and
Palmitic acid C16H32O2 16 : 0 0 gangliosides.

Stearic acid C18H36O2 18 : 0 0

l
Cerebroside They are the glycolipid with galactose as the
main sugar (sometimes glucose may be found). They are
Arachidic acid C20H 40O2 20 : 0 0 abundant in myelin sheath of nerves and white matter of
brain.
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 135

l
Gangliosides They are made up of sphingosine or l
Fats absorb shocks, organs that are prone to bumps and
dihydrosphingosine, fatty acid, glucose, galactose, shocks (e.g. kidneys) are cushioned with a relatively thick
N–acetyl galactosamine and sialic acid. layer of fat.
l
They are involved in the ion transport and form receptor l
Lipids are a source of metabolic water. During respiration,
for viral particles and toxin, e.g., cholera toxin. stored lipids are metabolised for energy, producing water
l
Lecithin is a phospholipid. It is an excellent emulsifying and carbon dioxide.
agent, which is produced commercially from soyabean l
Lipid constructed from five carbon compound isoprene are
(Glycine max) seeds. called terpenes.
l
Steroids are derivatives of a four membered ring known as l
Isoprene and its derivatives are joined in various
phenanthrene. combination to produce substances such as vitamin-A and
carotenoids.
l
A diet rich in saturated fats in one of several factors that
may contribute to the human cardiovascular disease
l
Carotenoids are isoprenoid hydrocarbon, a plant pigment
known as atherosclerosis. containing 40 carbon atoms.
l
A layer of fat beneath the skin insulates the body. This
l
Natural rubber is a polyterpenes.
subcutaneous layer is especially thick in whales, seal and
most other marine mammals.
Nucleic Acids
l
Cholesterol is insoluble in water and chemically l
They are polymers of nucleotides and hence known as
unreactive. It is synthesised from acetyl Co-A or acetate in
polynucleotides. A molecule of a nucleotide is composed of
liver.
three smaller molecules, i.e. phosphate (P), sugar (S) and a
l
Phytosterol is a steroid found in plants. nitrogen base (N).
l
Cholesterol content is minimum in vegetable oils. l
The phosphate group is represented by phosphoric acid
l
Diosgenin is a steroid obtained from the plant called (H3 PO 4 ). The sugar molecule in the nucleotide is a 5-carbon
Dioscorea. It is used for manufacturing antifertility pills. pentose sugar.
l
Animal hormones such as androgens, oestrogens, l
It is represented by either ribose sugar (C 5H10O 5) or
progesterons, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, etc, are deoxyribose sugar (C 5H10O 4 ). Both the sugars have a furanose
steroids, which are derived from cholesterol. ring structure.
l
Bile salts are derivatives of cholesterol, which are l
The two types of nitrogen bases present are
synthesised in liver. They help in emulsification of fat in
n Purines, which have a double ring structure.
small intestine.
n Pyrimidines, which have a single ring structure.
l
Saponins are glycoside having steroids (e.g. sapogenin)
which form foam when their watery solution is shaken.
l
Purines are of two types, adenine (A) and guanine (G).
l
They are widely distributed in plants (e.g. Saponaria,
l
Pyrimidines are of three types, cytosine (C), thymine (T) and
Quillaja). They can dissolve RBCs even in high uracil (U).
dilution. l
The nitrogen base molecule is attached to the sugar
l
Prostaglandins are derivatives of arachidonic acid and molecule by a glycosidic bond.
other C20 fatty acids, which have several functions like l
A combination of nitrogen base with sugar is called
vasodilation, vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, acid nucleoside.
production in stomach, cell communication and hormone l
Nucleosides involving ribose sugars are called
modulation. ribonucleosides.
l
In most fungi, ergosterol replaces cholesterol in the l
Similarly, nucleosides involving deoxyribose sugars are
cell membranes. Ergosterol inhibitors are antifungal
called deoxyribonucleosides.
compounds.
l
Nucleotides formed by ribonucleosides are called
ribonucleotides.
Functions of Lipids l
They form the monomers of Ribose Nucleic Acid (RNA).
l
Waxes and oils are secreted on surfaces to provide l
Nucleotides formed by deoxyribonucleosides are called
waterproofing in plants and animals.
deoxyribonucleotides.
 136 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

They form the monomers of Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA). Comparison of Major Forms of DNA

Nucleosides Nucleotides Character A-DNA B-DNA C-DNA D-DNA Z-DNA

NH2
O Base pair per turn of 11 10 9.33 8 12
C N the helix
C N C
H N C H C H Tilt of base pairs (y) 20.2º 6.3º –7.8º –16.7º 7º
H C C 9
O C 1 C H N
N O
N Axial rise (h) 2.56 Å 3.37 Å 3.32 Å 3.03 Å 3.7 Å
5'
–O P O CH2 Helical diameter (Å) 23 Å 19 Å 19 Å – 18 Å
HOCH2 O
O
O– C C1' Handedness of the Right- Right- Right- Right- Left-
C C1’ H
H H double helical handed handed handed handed handed
H H H
H H C C
C C structure
OH H
OH OH Deoxyadenylic acid
Uridine l
Among purines, adenine (A) pairs only with the pyrimidine
Ribonucleosides Ribonucleotides Deoxyribonucleosides Deoxyribonucleotides
Adenosine Adenylic acid Deoxyadenosine Deoxyadenylic acid
thymine (T) and vice-versa. Similarly, guanine (G) pairs
Cytidine Cytidylic acid Deoxycytidine Deoxycytidylic acid only with cytosine (C) and vice-versa.
Guanosine Guanylic acid Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanylic acid
Uridine Uridylic acid Deoxythymidine Deoxythymidylic acid
l
There are two weak hydrogen bonds between A and T or T
Nucleosides and nucleotides of RNA and DNA and A and three weak hydrogen bonds between G and C or
C and G.
DNA l
The total amount of purines is equal to the total amount of
l
It is the genetic material in all living organisms except pyrimidines (A + G) = (C + T). The two polynucleotide
viruses, where genetic material may be either DNA or RNA. chains of DNA molecule are not identical to each other but
l
A small amount of DNA is also found in the cytoplasm (in complementary to each other. The fact that the
cell organelles like mitochondria and plastids, known as total amount of purines will be equal to the total amount of
extra-nuclear DNA). pyrimidines, was first enunciated by Chargaff (1950).
l
Uracil nucleotides are absent in DNA.
l
The DNA strand, which serves as a template for RNA
synthesis is known as template strand, minus (–) strand or
l
The DNA molecule is composed of two polynucleotide
sense strand. Its complementary strand is named
chains.
non-template strand, plus (+) strand or antisense strand.
l
This structure is well-explained by the double helix model
proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953. Functions of DNA
l
The two polynucleotide chains are coiled around each l
It is the genetic material in all prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
other like a spiral staircase (double helix). l
It is capable of replication through which it can be
l
The cross-rungs (steps) are formed by the nitrogen bases, faithfully passed on to successive generations.
while phosphates and sugars form the uprights. l
It is involved in the synthesis of RNA.
l
The two-polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions l
It provides the code for protein biosynthesis.
(antiparallel). l
It is involved in mutations and genetic recombinations,
l
One chain runs in the 3′–5′ direction, while the other chain which bring about variations.
is in 5′–3′ direction.
l
The average distance between the two chains (B−DNA) is RNA
20 Å. l
It occurs mostly in the cytoplasm in the eukaryotic cells.
l
One full turn of the helix, called gyre, measures 34 Å in l
A small amount occurs in the nucleus of the cell, as a
length. The distance between two successive sugar constituent of nucleolus.
molecules is 3.4 Å. Thus, each gyre accommodates 10
nucleotides.
l
RNA is a single polynucleotide chain composed of
nucleotides of adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
l
The nitrogen bases of the two opposite chains exhibit
Thymine nucleotides are absent.
highly specific base pairing.
l
There are three types of RNA, i.e. ribosomal RNA (rRNA),
l
A purine in one chain always pairs with a pyrimidine in
messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
the opposite chain.
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 137

Comparison of Different Types of RNA

Character Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Messenger RNA (mRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Description A type of molecule that combines The ‘blueprint’ (a linear sequence of An adaptor molecule. It can pick up
with certain proteins to form the specific nucleotides) that is delivered one type of amino acid and pair with
ribosome (the structural work bench, to the ribosome for translation into a an mRNA ‘code word’ (a specific
on which a polypeptide chain is polypeptide chain. sequence of three bases calling for that
assembled). amino acid).
Percentage of total RNA of ~80% 3-5% 10-20%
cell
Sedimentation coeficient 28S, 18S, 5.8S, 5S, 23S, 16S, S 8S 3.8S
Number of 5 S RNA : 120 nucleotides. 16.18S E. coli : 900-1,500 nucleotides 73-93 nucleotides
nucleotides RNA : 1,600–2,500 nucleotides 23-28
S RNA : 3,200 to 5,000 nucleotides
Molecular weight 23 S RNA : 1.1 × 106 5,00,000 25,000-30,000
6
30 S RNA : 0.55 × 10
Unusual bases Small amount of methylated bases Small amount of unusual bases. High content of unusual bases
(E. coli : 1 per 100-150 nucleotides). (E. coli : 1 per 30-40 nucleotides).
Site of synthesis Derived from nucleolar DNA. Synthesised in nucleus on DNA Synthesised in nucleus on DNA
template. template.
Beginning of Synthesis begins at gastrulation and Some mRNA is found in the ovum. tRNA synthesis occurs at the end of
synthesis increases as development proceeds. New mRNA is synthesised during adaptor for attaching amino acids to
early cleavage. cleavage stages.
Base of No obvious base relationship to DNA. mRNA shows bases relationship to Same as in rRNA.
relationship to DNA rRNA is formed from only small DNA. It is formed from all sections of
section of DNA. DNA.
Function Helps in protein synthesis during Conveys genetic information from Adaptor for attaching amino acids to
translation. ribosomes, where it takes part in mRNA template.
protein synthesis.

Enzymes
l
The term ‘Enzyme’ was coined by Kuhne (1878). There are approximately 3000 enzymes present in a cell.
l
The molecular weight of enzymes ranges from 10,000 to more than 1,00,000 daltons.
l
Enzyme zymase was discovered by Buchner, he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1907 for his studies based on yeast extract.
l
Approximately, all enzymes are proteins (ribozymes are exception). Being proteins, they are coded by DNA.
l
Enzymes are biocatalysts having prominent active sites. These are very efficient, i.e. a very small amount of catalyst brings
about the change of a large amount of substrate.
l
They are highly specific, i.e. an enzyme will generally catalyse only a single reaction.
l
Metabolic reactions are catalysed reaction. There is no uncatalysed, metabolic conversion in living systems.
l
The constant making and breaking of biomolecules in a living cell through chemical reactions is called metabolism. Each of
the metabolic reactions results in transformation of biomolecules.
l
The flow of metabolites through the metabolic pathway has a definite rate and direction. This metabolic flow is called the
dynamic state of body constituents.
l
Enzymes are also used for therapeutic means to treat diseases, e.g. streptokinase is used in cleaning blood clots inside blood
vessels.
l
Peroxidase is the smallest enzyme.
l
Diastase is the earliest known enzyme.
l
Catalase is a non-porphyrin, antiageing enzyme.

Cofactors
l
Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains. The cofactors are bound to the enzyme to make the enzyme
catalytically active. Three kinds of cofactors may be identified as prosthetic groups, coenzymes and metal ions.
 138 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

l
A complete enzyme is called a holoenzyme it consists Action of Some Selected Enzymes
of an apoenzyme and a prosthetic group. Enzyme Reaction Catalysed pH Optimum
l
Enzymes are thermolabile, amphoteric, colloidal and Pepsin (stomach) Digestion of protein 2.0
substrate specific.
Acid phosphatase (prostate) Removal of 5.5
l
If working inside the cell, in which they are produced, phosphate group
they are called endoenzymes. Salivary amylase (saliva) Digestion of starch 6.8
l
Enzymes secreted outside the cell and act on external Lipase (pancreatic juice) Digestion of fat 7.0
medium are called exoenzymes. Alkaline phosphatase Removal of 9.0
l
Most human enzymes function best within a relatively (bone) phosphate group
narrow temperature range between 35 and 40°C (close Trypsin (pancreatic juice) Digestion of protein 9.5
to body temperature). Monoamine oxidase (nerve Removal of amine 9.8
l
Below this temperature range, the bonds that determine endings) group from
enzyme shape are not flexible enough to permit the norepinephrine
induced-fit change sometimes necessary for catalysis.
l
Above this temperature range, the bonds are too Naming and Classification of Enzyme
weak to hold the enzyme’s peptide chains in the l
Enzymes are named by adding a suffix-ase to the root word of
proper position. the substrate, on which that enzymes acts, e.g. lipase (fat
l
Bacteria that live in hot springs have enzymes with hydrolysing enzyme), sucrase (breaking down sucrose).
stronger bonding between their peptide chains and l
Sometimes the enzymes are named on the basis of the
therefore, can function at temperatures of 70°C or reaction that they catalyse, e.g. polymerase (aids in
higher. polymerisation), dehydrogenase (removal of H-atoms).
l
The temperature coefficient (0-10) of enzyme is 2-3 l
Some enzymes have been named on the basis of source from
within optimum range, that is rate of reaction increases which they were first identified, e.g. papain from papaya.
from 2-3 times for 10°C increment. l
The names of some enzymes ends with an ‘in’ indicating that
The Categories of Cofactors they are basically proteins, e.g., pepsin, trypsin, etc.
l
Thomas Cech and Sydney Altmann were awarded Nobel Prize
Cofactor
Property Example for the discovery of enzymatic activity of ribonuclease
Type
(ribozyme). They are non-proteinaceous enzymes.
Prosthetic These are always Haeme is the prosthetic
groups organic in nature. group and is part of
l
Mainly enzymes are classified into six classes.
Tightly bound to the active site of catalase Classification of Enzymes
apoenzyme. enzyme, which
hydrolyses H2O2 Group
Reaction Catalysed Example
of Enzyme
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Oxidoreductases Transfer of hydrogen and Dehydrogenases
Coenzymes Always organic in FAD (from Riboflavin-B 2) oxygen atoms or electrons oxidases
nature. for Succinate DHase. from one substrate to another
Associated with NAD (from Niacin-B5) for Transferases Transfer of a specific group Transaminase kinases
apoenzyme only during Malate DHase. (a phosphate or methyl, etc)
the course of catalysis. TPP (from Thiamine-B ) from one substrate to another
1
Generally derived from for Decarboxylases. Hydrolases Hydrolysis of a substrate Esterases digestive
the vitamins. enzymes
Act as carriers of
Isomerases Change of the molecular Phosphohexo isomerase,
chemical groups or
form of the substrate fumarase
atoms or electrons.
Lyases Non-hydrolytic removal of a Decarboxylases
Metal ions Always inorganic in Fe cytochrome oxidase, group or addition of a group aldolases
nature. catalase, peroxidase to a substrate
Form a functional part Mg hexokinase, glucose Ligases Joining of two molecules Citric acid synthetases
of active site of enzyme. 6-phosphatase, pyruvate (synthetases) by the formation of new bonds
Form coordination kinase
bonds with the side Cu cytochrome oxidase
chains at the active Zn carbonic Mechanism of Enzyme Action
sites. dehydrogenase, alcohol l
Enzymes possess active sites, where the reaction takes place.
dehydrogenase Mo These have specific shapes. Enzymes remain unaltered up to
nitrogenase, Ni urease
the end of chemical reactions therefore, it can be used again
and again.
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 139

l
Enzyme works by lowering the activation energy (energy l
There are some enzymes, which have slightly different
required to start a reaction). molecular structure but exert similar catalytic action.
l
An enzyme combines with its substrate (S) to form a short Such enzymes are called isoenzymes or isozymes. More
lived Enzyme Substrate (ES) complex, which breaks up into than 100 isozymes have been identified.
products and enzyme. l
The enzyme Lactic Dehydrogenase (LDH) in human
l
Only a small portion (4-12 amimo acids) of the large enzyme skeletal muscle has five isozymes.
molecule comes in direct contact with the substrate, this
portion is called active site. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
l
Fisher (1980) suggested the lock and key hypothesis The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in
(template theory) for enzyme action on the basis of the conditions which can alter the tertiary structure of
specificity. the protein.
l
According to this theory, the enzyme has a particular shape l
Substrate concentration Enzyme activity increase with
(lock) into which particular substrate (key) fits.
increase in concentration of the substrate to a maximum
l
Koshland (1959) proposed induced fit hypothesis. This states and then it levels off.
that combination of a substrate with enzyme induces changes l
Enzyme concentration In general the rate of reaction
in the enzyme structure, which enables the enzyme to
will increase with increasing enzyme concentration, due
perform its catalytic function effectively.
to availability of more active sites for reaction.
l
On increasing the subsrate concentration, the catalytic l
Temperature and pH In most of the enzymatic
activity of given concentration of an enzyme will increase to
reactions, rise of 10°C in the temperature doubles the
approach maximum rate Vmax .
rate of reaction between 5-40°C.
l
The substrate concentration at which the chemical reaction Enzymes are denatured (secondary and above level of
attains half its maximum velocity is called Michaelis Menten structures degraded) at higher temperature due to their
constant ( Km) . proteinaceous nature and rate of reaction drops.
l
EC number is called Enzymes Commission number. It gives a l
Redox potential Enzymes are sensitive to
code number to an enzyme, which is in 4 digits. redox-potential of the cell. Many enzymes are affected
l
First digit of EC number denotes class, second digit denotes by redox potential due to the presence of oxidisable
sub-class, third digit denotes sub-sub-class and the fourth-one SH-group.
denotes enzyme number in sub-sub-class.
l
Specificity of an enzyme is due to apoenzyme position. Enzyme Inhibition
Apoenzyme is a protein composed of α amino acid units.
Reduction or stoppage of enzyme activity due to certain
l
Tertiary structure of enzymatic protein is folded in such a
adverse conditions or chemicals is called enzyme
way as to create a region called active site that has correct
inhibition and the chemicals which interferes or inhibits
molecular dimension and topology to accommodate and bind
the process are called inhibitor. Enzyme inhibition can be
with a specific substance.
of following types
l
Enzymes useful in hydrolysing fats and lipids are known as l
Competitive inhibition It is a reversible process due to
esterases.
substrate or enzyme analogue in which K m increases,
Diagnostic Value of Some Enzymes but Vmax remains the same.
Diseases Associated with Abnormal Plasma l
Non-competitive inhibition In this inhibitor forms a
Enzymes
Enzymes Concentrations
complex with enzyme other than the active site and Vmax
Alkaline phosphatase Obstructive jaundice, Paget’s disease decreases.
(osteitis deformans) and carcinoma of bone.
Acid phosphatase Benign hypertrophy of prostate and cancer of
l
Feedback inhibition Where the end product or
prostate. intermediates functions as temporary inhibitor which
Amylase Pancreatitis and perforated peptic ulcer. combines with a regulatory site (also known as
Aldolase Muscular dystrophy.
allosteric site) of the enzyme and thus, functions as
negative modulator. This is also called allosteric
Creatine kinase Muscular dystrophy and myocardial infarction.
(or creatine modulation.
phosphokinase-CPK)
Lactate dehydrogenase Myocardial infarction, liver disease, renal
NOTE Being large sized protein molecule, enzyme exists as
(LDH) disease and pernicious anaemia. colloid. Substrate molecule changed per minute into
Transaminase Myocardial infarction, hepatitis and muscular product is called turnover number, e.g. 36 millions for
dystrophy. carbonic anhydrase, 5 millions for catalase, etc.
140 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Which two functional groups are characteristic of sugars? 10 Which of the following sugars is found in nucleic acid?
NEET 2018
j
(a) Dextrose (b) Glucose
(a) Carbonyl and phosphate (b) Carbonyl and methyl (c) Levulose (d) Deoxyribose
(c) Hydroxyl and methyl (d) Carbonyl and hydroxyl 11 Cellulose is a polymer of
2 The chitinous exoskeleton of arthropods is formed by the (a) α-glucose (b) β-glucose
polymerisation of j CBSE-AIPMT 2015 (c) α-fructose (d) β -fructose
(a) keratin sulphate and chondroitin sulphate 12 Which of the following is the least likely to be involved in
(b) D–glucosamine stabilising the three-dimensional folding of most proteins?
(c) N–acetyl glucosamine j NEET-II 2016
(d) lipoglycans
(a) Hydrogen bonds
3 Which one of the following is a non-reducing (b) Electrostatic interaction
carbohydrate? j CBSE-AIPMT 2014 (c) Hydrophobic interaction
(a) Maltose (b) Sucrose (d) Ester bonds
(c) Lactose (d) Ribose 5-phosphate 13 Which one is the most abundant protein in the animal
4 Which of the following is not correct? world?
(a) Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose (a) Trypsin (b) Haemoglobin
(b) Paper made from plant pulp is cellulose (c) Collagen (d) Insulin
(c) Cotton fibre is cellulose 14 Which of the following is not correct?
(d) Cellulose gives blue colour with iodine test (a) Peptide bond is formed when R-group of one amino
5 Which of the following is not correct? acid reacts with carboxyl (COOH) group of another
(a) All monosaccharides are reducing sugars amino acid
(b) Fehling’s test is used for detecting reducing sugars (b) Glycosidic bond is formed by dehydration between two
(c) Maltose and lactose are non-reducing sugars carbon atoms of two adjacent monosaccharides
(d) Sucrose occurs in sugarcane and sugarbeet, is a (c) The bond between the phosphate and hydroxyl group
non-reducing sugars of sugar is an ester bond
(d) None of the above
6 Sugars are technically called carbohydrates, referring to
the fact that their formulae are only multiple of C(H 2O ). 15 Which of the following is correct?
Hexoses therefore have six carbons, twelve hydrogens (a) Peptide bond is the linkage between two amino acids of
and six oxygen atoms. Glucose is a hexose. Choose from protein
among the following another hexose. (b) Glycosidic bond is the linkage between two
monosaccharides in a polysaccharide
(a) Fructose (b) Erythrose
(c) Phosphodiester bond is the linkage between two
(c) Ribulose (d) Ribose
nucleotides
7 Cellulose is a homoglycan hexosan. Almost pure (d) All of the above
cellulose is found in
16 Amino acids as the name suggests have both an amino
(a) cotton (b) apple group and a carboxyl in their structure. In addition, all
(c) orange (d) jute naturally occurring amino acids (those which are found in
8 Carbohydrates, the most abundant biomolecules on protiens) are called L-amino acids. From this, can you
earth are produced by guess from which compound can the simplest amino
(a) all bacteria, fungi and algae acid be made?
(b) fungi, algae and green plant cells (a) Formic acid (b) Methane
(c) some bacteria, algae and green plant cells (c) Phenol (d) Glycine
(d) viruses, fungi and bacteria
17 GLUT-4 is a protein, which
9 The covalent linkage of a carbohydrate to a protein or
(a) fights against infectious agents
lipid is termed as (b) enables glucose transport into cells
(a) glycoprotein (b) glycolipid (c) acts as enzyme
(c) proteoglycan (d) glycoconjugate (d) acts as hormone
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 141

18 Which of the following macromolecules constitute the (c) a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid esterified to a
major portion of cellular mass? phosphate group which is also attached to a glycerol
(a) Proteins (b) Carbohydrates molecule
(c) Lipids (d) Nucleic acids (d) only a saturated fatty acid esterified to a glycerol
molecule to which a phosphate group is also attached
19 Many organic substances are negatively charged, e.g.
acetic acid, while others are positively charged, e.g. 30 Which of the following is an essential fatty acid in
ammonium ion. An amino acid under certain conditions mammals?
would have both positive and negative charges (a) Stearic acid
simultaneously in the same molecule. Such a form of (b) Acetic acid
amino acid is called (c) Palmitic acid
(a) positively charged form (b) negatively charged form (d) Gamma linolenic acid
(c) neutral form (d) zwitter ionic form 31 Paraffin wax is
20 Hydrogen bonds play an important role in (a) ester (b) acid
(a) α-helix (c) monohydric alcohol (d) cholesterol
(b) β-pleated sheets 32 Which of the following biomolecules does have a
(c) between two strands of DNA phosphodiester bond? j CBSE-AIPMT 2015
(d) All of the above (a) Fatty acids in a diglyceride
21 Basic structure of protein was given by (b) Monosaccharides in a polysaccharide
(a) WM Stanley (b) Nicholson (c) Amino acids in a polypeptide
(c) Watson (d) F Sanger (d) Nucleic acids in a nucleotide

22 Which of the following is the most abundant protein in the 33 Purines and pyrimidines occur in equal proportion in
whole of the biosphere? (a) DNA (b) RNA
(a) Collagen (b) Insulin (c) carbohydrates (d) lipids
(c) RuBisCO (d) Trypsin 34 The two polynucleotide chains in DNA are
23 The tertiary structure of the proteins containing amino (a) parallel (b) discontinuous
acid cysteine is achieved through (c) antiparallel (d) semiconservative
(a) hydrogen bonds (b) disulphide bonds 35 RNA differs from DNA in having
(c) covalent bonds (d) ionic bonds (a) uracil (b) thymine (c) adenine (d) guanine
24 A pure protein should normally have 36 When you take cells or tissue pieces and grind them with
(a) two ends (b) one end an acid in a mortar and pestle, all the small biomolecules
(c) three ends (d) no ends dissolve in the acid. Proteins, polysaccharides and
25 Even after disruption of all the hydrogen bonds, which nucleic acids are insoluble in mineral acid and get
structural level of a protein molecule still remains intact? precipitated. The acid soluble compounds include amino
(a) Tertiary structure (b) Primary structure acids, nucleosides, small sugars, etc. When one adds a
(c) Secondary structure (d) Quaternary structure phosphate group to all nucleosides, one gets another
acid soluble biomolecule called
26 Which of the following are not polymeric? j
NEET 2017
(a) nitrogen base (b) adenine
(a) Nucleic acid (b) Proteins (c) sugar phosphate (d) nucleotide
(c) Polysaccharides (d) Lipids
37 Nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids.
27 A typical fat molecule is made up of j
NEET-I 2016 Nucleotide is a composite molecule formed by
(a) one glycerol and three fatty acid molecules (a) (base – sugar – phosphate)n
(b) one glycerol and one fatty acid molecule (b) base – sugar –OH
(c) three glycerol and three fatty acid molecules (c) base – sugar – phosphate
(d) three glycerol molecules and one fatty acid molecule (d) sugar – phosphate
28 Phospholipids are j
NEET 2013 38 Which of the following is not correct about DNA
(a) amphipathic (b) amphibolic structure?
(c) hydrophobic (d) hydrophilic (a) DNA double helical model was proposed by Watson
29 A phosphoglyceride is always made up of j
NEET 2013 and Crick
(b) Two strands of DNA are antiparallel, i.e. run in opposite
(a) only an unsaturated fatty acid esterified to a glycerol
directions
molecule to which a phosphate group is also attached.
(c) The DNA backbone is formed by the sugar-phosphate-
(b) a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid esterified to a
sugar chain
glycerol molecule to which a phosphate group is also
attached (d) There are three hydrogen bonds between A and T,
while two between G and C
142 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

39 RNA and DNA are similar in 49 Select the option which is not correct with respect to
(a) having similar sugars enzyme action. j CBSE-AIPMT 2014
(b) having similar pyrimidine base (a) Substrate binds with enzyme as its active site
(c) being capable to replicate
(d) being polymers of nucleotides (b) Addition of lot of succinate does not reverse the
inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate
40 Antiparallel strands of a DNA molecule means that (c) A non-competitive inhibitor binds the enzyme at a site
(a) one strand turns anti-clockwise distinct from that which binds the substrate
(b) the phosphate groups of two DNA strands, at their ends (d) Malonate is a competitive inhibitor of succinic
share the same position dehydrogenase
(c) the phosphate groups at the starting of two DNA
50 Which statement is not true about the effects of various
strands are in opposite position (pole)
conditions on the activity of an enzyme?
(d) one strand turns clockwise
(a) Higher temperatures generally increase the activity of
41 DNA of which of the following organisms has no ends? an enzyme up to a point
(a) Human DNA (b) Above a certain range of temperatures, the protein of
(b) E. coli DNA an enzyme is denatured
(c) Monkey DNA
(c) A change in pH can cause an enzyme to be inactivated
(d) Fruitfly DNA
(d) An enzyme’s activity is generally reduced by an
42 DNA molecules that make up the centromere and increase in substrate concentration
telomeres are
51 Which of the following statements about enzymes is not
(a) coding DNA (b) non-coding DNA true?
(c) circular DNA (d) None of these
(a) Competitive inhibitors act away from the active site
43 Which form of RNA has a structure resembling clover
(b) Allosteric inhibitors act away from the active site
leaf?
(c) Allosteric inhibitors can change the size of the active site
(a) rRNA (b) hnRNA
(c) mRNA (d) tRNA (d) Competitive inhibitors usually resemble the substrate

44 Induced fit theory of enzyme activity was given by 52 Enzymes isolated from thermophilic organisms found in
(a) Fischer hot vents and sulphur springs are stable and retain their
(b) Summer catalytic power even at high temperature up to
(c) Northrop (a) 80-90°C
(d) Koshland (b) 100-200°C
(c) 300-500°C
45 A non-proteinaceous enzyme is j
NEET-II 2016 (d) 900-1000°C
(a) lysozyme
(b) ribozyme 53 Which statement describes the currently accepted theory
(c) ligase of how an enzyme and its substrate fit together?
(d) deoxyribonuclease (a) As the product is released, the enzyme breaks down
46 Transition state structure of the substrate formed during (b) The enzyme is like a key that fits into the substrate,
which is like a lock
an enzymatic reaction is j
NEET 2013
(a) transient but stable (c) The active site is permanently changed by its
(b) permanent but unstable interaction with the substrate
(c) transient and unstable (d) As the substrate binds to the enzyme, the shape of the
(d) permanent and stable enzyme site changes to accommodate the reaction

47 The essential chemical components of many coenzymes 54 As per the rule of thumb, rate of chemical reaction
are j
NEET 2013 doubles or decreases by half for every
(a) proteins (b) nucleic acids (a) 10°C change in temperature
(c) carbohydrates (d) vitamins (b) 20°C change in temperature
(c) 30°C change in temperature
48 Which one of the following statements is correct, with (d) 40°C change in temperature
reference to enzymes? j
NEET 2017
55 In non-competitive inhibition, the allosteric inhibitor
(a) Apoenzyme = Holoenzyme + Coenzyme
(a) attaches to the substrate, preventing it from attaching to
(b) Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Coenzyme
the active site
(c) Coenzyme = Apoenzyme + Holoenzyme
(b) changes the pH of the environment, thus preventing
(d) Holoenzyme = Coenzyme + Cofactor
enzyme-substrate complex formation
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 143

(c) causes the substrates to polymerise, preventing 57 Match the following columns.
individual enzyme-substrate attachment
Column I Column II
(d) attaches to the enzyme at a site away from the active
site, altering the shape of the enzyme A. tRNA 1. Linking of amino acids

56 Match the following columns. B. mRNA 2. Transfer of genetic information

C. rRNA 3. Nucleolar organising region
Column I Column II
D. Peptidyl transferase 4. Transfer of amino acid from
A. Carbonic anhydrase 1. Sugar alcohol cytoplasm of ribosome

B. Creatinine phosphate 2. Non-reducing sugar Codes

A B C D A B C D
C. Mannitol 3. High energy phosphate (a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 1 3 2 4
D. Sucrose 4. Reducing sugar
58 Assertion Sucrose is a reducing sugar.
5. Red blood cells Reason All disaccharides are reducing sugars.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the
Codes correct explanation of Assertion
A B C D (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
(a) 5 3 1 2 the correct explanation of Assertion
(b) 1 2 3 4 (c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
(d) 5 4 1 2

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Choose the type of enzyme involved in the following 5 A homopolymer has only one type of building block called
reaction monomer repeated ‘n’ number of times. A heteropolymer
S  G + S' → S + S  G has more than one type of monomer. Proteins are
(a) Dehydrogenase (b) Transferase heteropolymers usually made of
(c) Hydrolase (d) Isomerase (a) 20 types of monomers (b) 40 types of monomers
2 Which of the following scientists discovered the triple (c) 30 types of monomers (d) only one type of monomer
helical structure of collagen? 6 The melting point of unsaturated fatty acids
(a) GN Ramchandran (a) increases with increase in double bonds
(b) Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (b) decreases with increase in double bonds
(c) Matthias Schleiden (c) rises in some and falls in others
(d) Theodar Schwann (d) there is no relationship between unsaturation and melting
3 Amino acids have both an amino group and a carboxyl point
group in their structure. Which amongst the following is 7 Proteins perform many physiological functions. For
an amino acid? example, some function as enzymes. One of the following
(a) Formic acid (b) Glycerol represents an additional function that some proteins
(c) Glycolic acid (d) Glycine discharge
4 A mucopolysaccharide is (a) antibiotics
(a) smile, physocolloid and pectin (b) pigment conferring colour to skin
(b) mucin, callose and heparin (c) pigments making colour of flowers
(c) hemicellulose, pectin and mucin (d) hormones
(d) hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate and keratin
144 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

8 Which of the following statements regarding fats is true? 13 Cellulose, the most important constituent of plant cell
(a) Arachidonic acid has 20 carbons excluding the wall is made up of
carbonyl carbon (a) branched chain of glucose molecules linked by a α-1, 6
(b) Glycerol is trihydroxy propane glycosidic bond at the site of branching
(c) Palmitic acid has 18 carbons including the carboxyl (b) unbranched chain of glucose molecules linked by β-1, 4
carbon glycosidic bond
(d) Oils have higher melting point than fats (c) branched chain of glucose molecules linked by β-1,4
(e) Lipids are generally water soluble glycosidic bond in straight chain and α-1, 6 glycosidic
bond at the site of branching
9 Which one of the following combinations of all these fatty (d) unbranched chain of glucose molecules linked by β-1, 4
acids are essential for human beings? glycosidic bond
(a) Oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid
14 Identify the correct pair of statements.
(b) Palmitic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid
I. Alternate name of thymine is 5-methyl uracil.
(c) Oleic acid, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid
II. Arachidonic acid molecule contains less number of
(d) Linoleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid carbons than palmitic acid.
10 Match the following columns. III. Cellulose contains complex halices.
IV. Aquaporin is a polypeptide.
Column I Column II
(a) II and II (b) I and II (c) II and IV (d) I and IV
A. Oxidoreductases 1. Linking of two compounds 15 The equation shows how the enzyme glutamine synthetase
B. Isomerases 2. Removal of group from substrates
removes the ammonia produced during plant metabolism.
Ammonia + Glutamate  Glutamine
 → Glutamine
Synthetase
C. Ligases 3. Interconversion of isomers
Some herbicides contain an active agent, which resembles
D. Lyases 4. Dehydrogenases glutamate. What is likely the mode of action of this agent?
(a) It acts as an end-product inhibitor
5. Hydrolysis
(b) It acts as a competitive inhibitor
(c) It decreases levels of ammonia
A B C D
(d) It increases levels of glutamate
(a) 4 1 3 2
(b) 4 3 1 5 16 Match the following columns.
(c) 3 4 2 5 Column I Column II
(d) 2 5 3 1
A. Triglycerides 1. Galactose
11 Which of the following can bring about the denaturation
B. Lactose 2. Glycerol
of proteins?
I. Exposure to salts of heavy metal ions. C. RNA 3. Palmitic acid
II. Exposure to acid and bases. D. β-pleats 4. Uracil
III. Exposure to inorganic neutral salts. E. Beeswax 5. Secondary structure
IV. Exposure to temperature below − 5°C.
Codes Codes
(a) Only I (b) Only II A B C D E
(c) None of these (d) I and III (a) 4 1 5 2 3
(b) 5 1 4 2 3
12 Coenzymes (c) 3 1 4 5 2
I. are needed for the function of particular enzymes. (d) 2 1 4 5 3
II. are inorganic molecules. 17 In a protein molecule, amino acids are linked by a
III. are organic molecules. peptide bond, which is formed by the reaction of
IV. FAD and FMN contain niacin, while NAD and NADP (a)  COOH group of one amino acid with NH2 group of
contain riboflavin. next amino acid
Codes (b) NH2 group of one amino acid with  COOH group of
(a) I next amino acid
(b) II and IV (c)  COOH group of two amino acids
(c) IV (d) NH2 group of two amino acids
(d) I and III
DAY TEN BIOMOLECULES AND ENZYMES 145

18 Which of the following statements are correct? (a) A — Triglyceride — Major source of energy
I. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates. (b) B — Uracil — A component of DNA
II. Oligosaccharides on hydrolysis yield 3-9 (c) A — Lecithin — A component of cell
monosaccharide units. membrane
III. Polysaccharides on hydrolysis give 10-15 (d) B — Adenine — A nucleotide that makes
monosaccharide units. up nucleic acids
IV. Polysaccharides on hydrolysis yield many
23 Which of the following describes the given graph
oligosaccharide units.
correctly?
Codes
(a) Only I (b) Only III
(c) I and II (d) I and III
B
19 Find out the mismatched pair.
A

Potential energy
(a) Agar – Polymer of glucose and sulphur containing
carbohydrates
(b) Chitin – Polymer of glucosamine Substrate
(c) Peptidoglycan–Polysaccharide linked to peptides
(d) Lipopolysaccharides–a complex of lipid and
polysaccharide
20 Which of the following statements is/are not true? Product
I. Glycerol is a 3 carbon alcohol with 3  OH groups
that serve as binding sites. Reaction
II. Waxes are esters formed between a long chain alcohol
and saturated fatty acids. (a) Endothermic reaction with energy A in the presence of
III. The term protein was coined by Gerardus Johannes enzyme and B in the absence of enzyme
Mulder. (b) Exothermic reaction with energy A in the presence of
IV. Agar is an indispensable polysaccharide and it is a enzyme and B in the absence of enzyme
complex polymer of glucose and sulphur containing (c) Endothermic reaction with energy A in the absence of
carbohydrates. enzyme and B in the presence of enzyme
(a) I and III (b) I and IV (c) I, II and IV (d) Only IV (d) Exothermic reaction with energy A in the absence of
21 Arrange the steps of catalytic action of an enzyme in enzyme and B in the presence of enzyme
order and choose the correct option. 24 The figure given below shows three curves, i.e. velocity,
I. The enzyme releases the products of the reaction and substrate, concentration curves for an enzyme reaction.
the enzyme is free for another substrate. What do the curves A, B and C depict respectively?
II. The active site of enzyme is in close proximity of the
substrate and breaks of chemical bonds of the substrate.
III. The binding of substrate induces the enzyme to alter A
B C
Initial velocity V0

its shape fitting more tightly around the substrate.

IV. The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme
fitting into the active site.
(a) IV, III, II, I (b) III, II, I, IV
(c) IV, II, I, III (d) II, I, IV, III
22 Which one of the following structural formulae of two
organic compounds is correctly identified along with its Substrate concentration (S)
related function?
O (a) A–Normal enzyme reaction, B–Competitive inhibition,
C–Non-competitive inhibition
O CH2—O—C—R
(b) A–Enzyme with an allosteric modulator added,
NH2
R2—C—O—CH O B–Normal enzyme activity, C–Competitive inhibition
N
N (c) A–Enzyme with an allosteric stimulus, B–Competitive
CH2—O—P—OCH2—CH2
inhibitor added, C–Normal enzyme reaction
OH N N NH
(d) A–Normal enzyme reaction, B–Non-competitive inhibitor
CH3 CH (B) added, C–Allosteric inhibitor added
(A ) CH2 3
146 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TEN

Directions (Q. No. 25-26) In each of the following 25 Assertion Amino acids are amphoteric in their function.
questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
Reason All amino acids are necessary for our body.
corresponding statement of Reason just below it. Of the
statements, mark the correct answer as 26 Assertion A coenzyme or metal ion that is very tightly
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the bound to enzyme protein is called prosthetic group.
correct explanation of Assertion
Reason A complete catalytically active enzyme
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
the correct explanation of Assertion
together with its bound prosthetic group is called
(c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false apoenzyme.
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (d) 5 (c) 6 (a) 7 (a) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10 (d)
11 (b) 12 (d) 13 (c) 14 (d) 15 (d) 16 (b) 17 (d) 18 (a) 19 (d) 20 (d)
21 (d) 22 (c) 23 (b) 24 (a) 25 (b) 26 (d) 27 (a) 28 (a) 29 (b) 30 (d)
31 (a) 32 (d) 33 (a) 34 (c) 35 (a) 36 (d) 37 (c) 38 (d) 39 (d) 40 (c)
41 (b) 42 (b) 43 (d) 44 (d) 45 (b) 46 (c) 47 (d) 48 (b) 49 (b) 50 (d)
51 (a) 52 (a) 53 (d) 54 (a) 55 (d) 56 (a) 57 (a) 58 (d)

SESSION 2 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (d) 4 (d) 5 (a) 6 (a) 7 (d) 8 (b) 9 (d) 10 (b)
11 (d) 12 (d) 13 (d) 14 (d) 15 (b) 16 (d) 17 (a) 18 (c) 19 (a) 20 (d)
21 (a) 22 (a) 23 (b) 24 (a) 25 (a) 26 (c)
DAY ELEVEN

Cell Cycle and

Cell Division
Learning & Revision for the Day

u Cell Cycle u Mitosis u Other Terms Related to Cell

u Amitosis u Meiosis Division

Growth and reproduction are the important characteristics of all living organisms. Life of
all multicellular organisms starts with a single cell which is formed by the growth and
division of parental cells.
Thus, cell division forms the basis of continuity of life. A cell remains either in dividing
phase or in non-dividing phase.

Cell Cycle
Cell cycle was first described by Howard and Pelc in 1953. Scientifically the sequence of
events by which a cell duplicates its genome and synthesises other cell contents and
eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed as cell cycle. Cell cycle is regulated by
cyclin dependent protein kinase. Cyclins are proteins that activate protein kinases to
regulate eukaryotic cell cycle.
Inte
rpha
PREP
se
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
G 1 -phase
Period of cell S-phase
growth before Period when
u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
the DNA is the DNA is duplicated
duplicated u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
(that is, when
(interphase begins chromosomes u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
in daughter cells) are duplicated)
(Without referring Explanations)
Cytoplasm
divided
Telophas
e u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
se
A n a pha e
s
u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
p ha G2 -phase
ll) ds

ta
Me e
ce en

as Period after
M-

h
nt e

op DNA is In order to expect good rank in NEET, your

re as

Pr
ph

pa rph

duplicated. Accuracy Level should be above 85

as

Cell prepares
in nte

& Prep Level should be above 75.

e

(I

for divison

Cell cycle
148 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY ELEVEN

Phases of Cell Cycle Amitosis (Direct Cell Division)

A cell cycle has two phases, i.e. interphase and dividing phase. l
It was first discovered by Remak in the RBCs of chicken
Both the phases have substages. In the average duration of embryo.
24 hours, dividing phase lasts for approximately one hour and l
It is the method of asexual reproduction, which occurs in
interphase lasts for 10-20 hours. lower organisms like bacteria, protozoans, diseased cells,
old cells, mammalian cells and in foetal membranes.
Complete description of different
phases of cell cycle
l
In this division, there is no spindle formation and no
distinct chromosome formation.
Phase of cell
Description l
During amitosis, the nucleus of the cell elongates.
cycle
A constriction appears in the nucleus which gradually
l
It is an extension of G1 -phase and is also known deepens and divides the nucleus into two daughter
as quiescent stage. nuclei.
l
During G 0 -phase, the cell neither divides nor l
Then, a constriction appears in the cytoplasm which
synthesises organelles, but its metabolic activity
G0 divides the cytoplasm with the nuclei into two daughter
continues.
cells, each with a nucleus. Nuclear envelope remains
l
Cells present in the G 0 -phase function as
reserve cells, which can join the cell cycle any
intact. The daughter cells thus formed are approximately
time. two equal halves of the parental cell.

It is the primary growth phase of the cell.

Mitosis
l

l
The centriole divides during this phase. No
G1 change occurs in the DNA content of the cell. l
It was first observed by Strasburger (1870) in plant cells.
(post-mitotic This phase is involved in the synthesis of major l
The term ‘mitosis’ was coined by Flemming (1882).
gap phase) molecules (synthetic phase) like RNA, proteins,
lipids, nucleotides, ATP, etc., and
l
Mitosis occurs in two stages, i.e. karyokinesis, the division
multiplication of organelles. of nucleus and cytokinesis, the division of cytoplasm.

It is the synthesis phase in which the cell

Karyokinesis
l

synthesises a replica of its genome, i.e. DNA

replication (via enzyme DNA polymerase) The substages of karyokinesis (nuclear division) with their
S occurs along with the synthesis of histone
(synthetic
events are as follows
proteins which ultimately results into the
phase) duplication of chromosomal material. 1. Prophase
l
A cell normally proceeds to mitosis once it has
entered the S-phase.
l
It is the longest phase of division. Chromosomes are
shortened and thickened by coiling and form tighter
l
The period after DNA synthesis is the G 2 -phase packaging of their components.
or second gap phase. It is the gap between DNA l
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids held
synthesis and next division. In this phase, the
together by a centromere.
preparations are made for genomic separations.
G2 l
In animal cells, the centrioles move to opposite poles of
l
This particular phase is spent in synthesising
(pre-mitotic the cell.
molecules other than DNA, which are required
gap phase)
for cell division, e.g. RNA and proteins l
Short microtubules may be seen radiating from centriole.
mitochondria and other organelles replicate, These are called asters.
chromosomes condense and microtubules begin l
Centrioles are responsible for the formation of spindle
to assemble to form spindles.
fibres.
M The M phase represents the phase when the l
In this stage, the nucleoli disappear and at the end of
(Mitotic phase) actual cell division occurs.
prophase the nuclear envelope is no longer visible.
Cell Division is a dynamic, complex and continuous process in l
Cell organelles like Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum
all organisms. In unicellular organisms, cell division is the are not present in this phase.
fundamental requirement to increase in number and to
maintain the continuity of life.
2. Metaphase
l
It is marked by the complete disintegration of nuclear
l
While, in multicellular organisms, it brings about growth,
envelope. It lasts for 2-10 minutes.
development, repair and reproduction. Cell division
occurs in three ways : amitosis, mitosis and meiosis.
l
Spindle fibres get attached to the chromosomes by their
In each case, division of the nucleus, called karyokinesis, kinetochore and bring the chromosomes on the equator of
occurs before the division of the cytoplasm, termed as the spindle. This phenomenon is called congression.
cytokinesis.
DAY ELEVEN CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 149

The centromeres of all the chromosomes lie on the equator

Cytokinesis
l

which forms an apparent plate called equatorial plate.

It occurs by two methods. These are given below:
3. Anaphase
(i) Cell furrow method (characteristic of animal cell) In
l
It is very rapid and lasts for 2-3 minutes only. The this method, a furrow appears in plasma membrane at
centromere splits and the spindle fibres pull the daughter centre of equator, which deepens gradually and finally
centromeres to opposite poles. two daughter cells are separated.
l
The pulled chromosomes become V-shaped with their arms
(ii) Cell plate method (characteristic of plant cells) In
directed towards centre as they move away from the centre
this method, vesicles provided by Golgi apparatus
during anaphase.
unite to form phragmoplasts, which join to form cell
NOTE • Anaphase Promoting Complex (APC) Its main function is to plate.
trigger the transition from metaphase to anaphase by Cell plate is first laid down in centre and then proceeds
tagging specific proteins for degradation. towards periphery, (i.e. centrifugal plate formation).
• The three major targets for degradation by the APC are Cell wall materials are now laid down on both sides of
securin and S and M cyclins. cell plate, resulting in two daughter cells.
• Securin releases separase after being degraded. The
separase triggers the cleavage of cohesin, the protein
complex that binds sister chromatids together. Thus, sister Significance of Mitosis
chromatids become free to move to opposite poles for l
It is restricted to the diploid cells only. However, in some
anaphase. plants and social insects, haploid cells also divide by
mitosis.
4. Telophase
l
The chromatids reach the poles of the cell, uncoil and
l
It results in the production of diploid daughter cells with
lengthen to form chromatin again. identical genetic combination usually, resulting in genetic
stability.
l
The spindle fibres disintegrate and the centrioles replicate.
l
The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis, it
l
Nuclear envelope reforms around the chromosomes at each
also restores the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and surface
pole and the nucleoli, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum
volume ratio of cells.
reappear.
l
Mitosis in meristematic tissues like apical and lateral
l
Telophase is the last phase of karyokinesis. It is followed by
cambium, results in a continuous growth of plants
cytokinesis which takes place through cell plate formation
throughout their life.
in plant cells and by cleavage or furrow in animal cells.
l
The number of cells within an organism also increases by
l
Mitosis helps in cell repair and regeneration of injured and
mitosis and this process is called hyperplasia. It forms the lost body parts.
basis for growth. l
It forms the basis of asexual reproduction in both plants
l
If mitotic division goes uncontrolled in any part of the body, and animals.
it results in the formation of malignant cells. These cells Differences between Mitosis in
continue to divide resulting in the formation of malignant Animal and Plant Cells
tumours. This condition is called cancer.
Mitosis in Animal Cell Mitosis in Plant Cell
Aster Centrioles are involved. Centrioles are absent.
Centriole Spindle fibres
Nuclear (microtubules) Spindle is anastral. Spindle is amphiaster (astral).
envelope Centromeres on
Pair of ‘equator’ of Cytokinesis occurs by Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate
chromatids spindle furrowing of cytoplasm. formation.
(chromosome)
Centromere Occurs in tissues Occurs mainly in the meristems.
throughout the body.
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase

Pair of centrioles
Nucleolus
Chromatin threads
Meiosis
Chromatids Nuclear envelope l
The term meiosis was coined by Farmer and Moore in
are pulled Cytokinesis beginning
apart
1905. It is a two stage process of cell division in
sexually reproducing organisms that results in cell
having half the chromosome number of the original cell,
Interzonal
thus bringing about a reduction in the chromosome
(c) Anaphase fibres (d) Telophase number from a diploid (2n) condition to a haploid (n)
Substages of mitosis condition.
150 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY ELEVEN

l
Such a reduction becomes necessary for maintaining the The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane
chromosome number during sexual reproduction. Meiosis is breaks completely.
necessary for the formation of gametes in animals and spores (ii) After this stage, metaphase-I occurs where the
(microspores and megaspores) in plants. bivalents get arranged around the equator of the
l
Meiosis is completed by two divisions. These two divisions are spindle, attached by their centromeres.
known as meiosis-I and meiosis-II. (iii) Next, in anaphase-I, the spindle fibres pull the
homologous chromosomes towards the opposite
Meiosis-I poles of the spindle.
Meiosis-I division is called heterotypic or reduction division. It This separates the chromosomes into two haploid
includes the following stages sets or dyads, one set at each end of the spindle.
Chromosome number becomes half in this stage.
(i) Prophase-I It is the longest phase and requires 90% of the
total time required by entire meiosis process. It is (iv) In telophase-I, the chromatids usually uncoil and a
subdivided into following stages nuclear envelope reforms at each pole and the
nucleus enters into interphase.
(a) Leptotene Chromosomes shorten and become
thread-like visible structures. These chromosomes may l
Cleavage (animal cell) or cell wall formation (plant
be irregularly arranged or may be polarised towards the cell) takes place similar to mitosis.
centriole. l
Normally, interphase is not seen between two
During this stage, the cytoplasm has many meiotic divisions. Even if it occurs, no DNA
polyribosomes, but endoplasmic vesicles are few. replication takes place.
Hence, the chromosomes of this stage appear as beaded
structures.
Meiosis-II
(b) In zygotene phase, homologous chromosomes pair up in
a process known as synapsis and form a complex Meiosis-II leads to the separation of chromatids and
bivalent structure. centromere. It is also known as homotypic or equational
Each pair of bivalent is the association of 4 chromatids division and involves the following substages
and 2 centromeres. One chromosome of the pair l
In prophase-II, nucleoli and nuclear envelope disperse
comes from the male parent and one from the female and the chromatids shorten and thicken. Centrioles if
parent. present move to opposite poles of the cells. At the end of
(c) Pachytene phase begins when synapsis is completed. It prophase-II, new spindle fibres appear.
is characterised by the appearance of recombination l
These are arranged at right angles to the spindle of
nodule between the chromosomes pair. meiosis-I.
l
This stage shows the beginning of crossing over l
Chromosomes line up separately around the equator of
process. At this stage, bivalent chromosomes appear the spindle during metaphase-II.
as tetrad. l
These chromosomes are arranged in a row with the
l
In crossing over, non-sister chromatids of homologous attachment of microtubules to kinetochores. A
chromosomes exchange segments between metaphasic plate is formed.
themselves. It is an enzyme-mediated process
involving enzyme recombinase.
l
This phase is followed by anaphase-II, where the
centromere divide and the spindle fibres pull the
(d) Diplotene stage is marked by the dissolution of the
chromatids to opposite poles.
synaptonemal complex and chiasma terminalisation.
l
Four groups of chromosomes are formed at the end of
l
Chiasma is the result of the fact that the
anaphase-II.
chromosomal parts begin to repel each other except
in the region where these are in contact. It is an l
Telophase-II is similar to that in mitosis. But here four
X-shaped structure. haploid daughter cells are formed.
l
It is necessary for the separation of homologous l
The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen and become very
chromosomes, which have undergone crossing over. indistinct. The spindle fibres disappear and the
(e) The stage diakinesis is marked by the terminalisation of centrioles replicate.
chiasmata. The chromosomes become more condensed l
Zygotic or initial meiosis is a type of meiosis, which
and bivalent remain evenly distributed in the nucleus. occurs immediately after fertilisation.
DAY ELEVEN CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 151

Centrioles This signals the cell to enter the next stage of cell cycle.
Nuclear membrane But, Cdks are dependent on cyclins for their activation.
Nucleolus
Chromosomes
Cyclins are activating proteins that bind to Cdks to form a
Bivalent
Cell membrane Homologous
cyclin-Cdk complex. The exit from a particular phase of
chromosome cell cycle takes place when cyclin gets degraded thereby
Centromeres deactivating Cdks.
(a) Leptotene (prophase-I)
(b) Zygotene (prophase-I)
The checkpoints, Cdks and cyclins involved in cell cycle
regulation are
Centrioles Centrioles
divides
(i) G1-checkpoint It is present at G1 /S boundary and
divides Nucleolus
disintegrates regulated by Cdk4 /cyclin-D, Cdk6 /cyclin-D, etc. It is
Synaptonemal
controlled by cell size, growth factors and cell
complex
Nuclear environment, etc.
Non-sister membrane
chromatids disapper (ii) G2-checkpoint It is present at G2/M boundary and
showing
Bivalent regulated by Cdk2/cyclin B also, known as MPF
crossing over
(c) Crossing over in (d) Diplotene (prophase-I) (M-phase Promoting Factor). It is controlled by
pachytene (prophase-I)
completion of DNA replication, DNA
Spindle damage/mutation, cell size, etc.
fibres
Spindle fibres (iii) Metaphase checkpoint It is present at
Bivalent metaphase/anaphase boundary and is regulated by
showing cyclin-B degradation.
crossing
over in It is controlled by spindle fibre (microtubule)
two attachment to chromosomes.
places
(e) Diakinesis (Prophase-I) (f) Metaphase-I

Cell Cell
Other Terms Related to Cell
membrane membrane Division
1. Mitotic poisons These are substances that inhibit
mitosis, e.g. colchicine, chalones, cyanides and azides.
Nuclear 2. Phragmoplast Persistent part of spindle apparatus
membrane with an interdigitated array of microtubules at the
(g) Anaphase-I (h) Telophase-I equator.

Meiosis-I showing its different substages (a-h)

3. Endomitosis (Endoduplication) It is the replication of
chromosomes without corresponding division of
nucleus.
Significance of Meiosis 4. Free nuclear division It is the division of nucleus
l
It is the mechanism of conversion of specific chromosome without being followed by cytokinesis, it gives rise to
number of each species in sexually reproducing organisms. multinucleate condition.
l
It provides chance for the appearance of new gene 5. Internuclear spindle formation In fungi, many algae,
combinations, owing to crossing over. Amoeba, etc., the nuclear envelope does not
l
It increases the genetic variability in the population of degenerate. However, polar pores may appear. An
organisms from one generation to the next. Variations help in internal spindle, called intranuclear spindle is
evolution. formed which helps in equitable distribution of
chromosomes.
Control of Cell Cycle 6. Dinomitosis Dinoflagellates possess condensed
chromosomes even in interphase. Their nucleus is
The cell cycle is controlled by certain proteins at certain points
called mesokaryon. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
in a cell cycle called check points. These proteins are called
persist during mitosis. An intranuclear spindle is also
Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks) and cyclins.
not formed. Instead, cytoplasmic channels develop in
A Cdk is infact an enzyme that adds negatively charged the nucleus to help in the passage of replicated
phosphate groups to other molecules through phosphorylation chromosomes to the two ends along the nuclear
process. envelope.
152 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY ELEVEN

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Which is the shortest phase in the cell cycle? 10 Cells which are not dividing they are likely to be at
(a) G1-phase (b) G2 -phase (a) G1-phase (b) G2 -phase
(c) S-phase (d) M-phase (c) G0 -phase (d) S-phase
2 Synthesis of RNA and protein takes place in which phase 11 Match the following columns.
of the cell cycle ?
Column I Column II
(a) S - phase (b) M - phase
A. G 2 - phase 1. Centrioles absent
(c) G1 and G2 -phase (d) None of these
B. G 0 - phase 2. Centrioles present
3 During cell growth, DNA synthesis takes place in
C. Plant cells 3. Preparation for division
j NEET-II 2016
(a) S-phase (b) G1-phase D. Regulation of cell cycle 4. Quiescent phase
(c) G2 -phase (d) M-phase 5. Cyclins
4 In S-phase of the cell cycle j CBSE-AIPMT 2014 Codes
(a) amount of DNA doubles in each cell A B C D A B C D
(b) amount of DNA remains same in each cell (a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 5 2 3 1
(c) chromosome number is increased (c) 3 4 1 5 (d) 4 2 1 3
(d) amount of DNA is reduced to half in each cell 12 During mitosis, ER and nucleolus begin to disappear at
5 At what stage of the cell cycle is histone proteins (a) late prophase (b) early metaphase
synthesised in a eukaryotic cell? (c) late metaphase (d) early prophase
(a) During prophase 13 Which of the following options gives the correct
(b) During telophase sequences of events during mitosis? j
NEET 2017
(c) During S-phase
(a) Condensation → Nuclear membrane disassembly →
(d) During G2 -stage of prophase
Crossing over → Segregation → Telophase
6 A certain species of animal has six pairs of (b) Condensation → Nuclear membrane disassembly →
chromosomes. How many molecules of DNA do the Arrangement at equator → Centromere division →
nuclei of these animals have during G 2-phase? Segregation → Telophase
(a) 12 (b) 48 (c) 6 (d) 24 (c) Condensation → Crossing over → Nuclear membrane
Disassembly → Segregation → Telophase
7 During which phase(s) of cell cycle, amount of DNA in a
(d) Condensation → Arrangement at equator → Centromere
cell remains at 4C level if the initial amount is denoted as
division → Segregation → Telophase
2C ? j
CBSE-AIPMT 2014
14 If you are provided with root tips of onion in your class
(a) G0 and G1 (b) G1 and S
(c) Only G2 (d) G2 and M and are asked to count the chromosomes which of the
following stages can you most conveniently look into?
8 The DNA content of a cell is measured in the G 2-phase.
(a) Metaphase (b) Telophase
After meiosis-I, the DNA content of one of the cells
(c) Anaphase (d) Prophase
produced is
15 Spindle fibres attach on to
(a) equal to that of the G2 cell
(b) twice that of the G2 cell (a) kinetochore of the chromosome
(c) 1/2 that of the G2 cell (b) centromere of the chromosome
(d) 1/4 that of the G2 cell (c) kinetosome of the chromosome
(d) telomere of the chromosome
9 When cell has stalled DNA replication fork, which
checkpoint should be predominantly activated ? 16 Centromere is required for
j
NEET-II 2016
(a) movement of chromosomes towards poles
(b) cytoplasmic cleavage
(a) G1/S (b) G2 /M
(c) crossing over
(c) M (d) Both G2 /M and M
(d) transcription
DAY ELEVEN CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 153

17 A diploid cell was treated with an inhibitor extracted from 23 The enzyme recombinase is required at which stage of
the corms of Colchicum autumnale . On microscopic meiosis?
observation, the cell will appear as a (a) Pachytene (b) Zygotene
(a) triploid (b) tetraploid (c) Diplotene (d) Diakinesis
(c) diploid (d) pentaploid 24 In meiosis, crossing over is initiated at j NEET-I 2016
18 Select the correct option with respect to mitosis. (a) leptotene
(a) Chromatids start moving towards opposite poles in (b) zygotene
telophase (c) diplotene
(b) Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum are still (d) pachytene
visible at the end of prophase
(c) Chromosomes move to the spindle equator and get 25 The stage during which separation of the paired
aligned along equatorial plate in metaphase homologous chromosomes begins is j NEET 2018
(d) Chromatids separate but remains in the centre of the (a) diakinesis (b) diplotene
cell in anaphase
(c) pachytene (d) zygotene
19 Which stages of cell division do the following figures A 26 Match the following columns. j NEET-II 2016
and B represent respectively?
Column I Column II
(Stages of (Characteristic
meiosis) feature)
A. Pachytene 1. Pairing of homologous
chromosomes
B. Metaphase - I 2. Terminalisation of chiasmata
C. Diakinesis 3. Crossing over takes place
B
A
A B D. Zygotene 4. Chromosomes align at equatorial
plate
(a) Metaphase _ Telophase
(b) Telophase _ Metaphase Codes
(c) Late anaphase _ Prophase A B C D A B C D
(d) Prophase _ Anaphase (a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 1 4 2 3
20 Which of the following is not a characteristic feature (c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 3 2 1
during mitosis in somatic cells? j
NEET-I 2016 27 Meiosis occurs in organisms during
(a) Disappearance of nucleolus (a) sexual reproduction
(b) Chromosome movement (b) vegetative reproduction
(c) Synapsis (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) Spindle fibres (d) None of the above
21 Meiosis - I is reductional division. Meiosis-II is equational 28 ……… only occur(s) in the gonads to produce gametes.
division due to
(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis
(a) pairing of homologous chromosomes (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Sporogony
(b) crossing over
(c) separation of chromatids 29 Meiosis results in
(d) disjunction of homologous chromosomes (a) production of gametes
22 Arrange the following events of meiosis in correct (b) reduction in the number of chromosomes
(c) introduction of variation
sequences. j
CBSE-AIPMT 2015
(d) All of the above
I. Crossing over
II. Synapsis 30 Meiosis has evolutionary significance because it results in
III. Terminalisation of chiasmata (a) genetically similar daughters
IV. Disappearance of nucleolus (b) four daughter cells
(a) II, I, IV, III (b) II, I, III, IV (c) eggs and sperms
(c) I, II, III, IV (d) II, III, IV, I (d) recombinations
154 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY ELEVEN

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Synapsis occurs between 7 The exchange of genetic material between chromatids of
(a) a male and a female gamete paired homologous chromosomes during first meiotic
(b) mRNA and ribosomes division is called
(c) spindle fibres and centromere (a) transformation (b) chiasmata
(d) two homologous chromosomes (c) crossing over (d) synapsis
2 Crossing over that results in genetic recombination in 8 Progression through the cell cycle is regulated by
higher organisms occurs between oscillations in the concentration of which type of molecule?
(a) sister chromatids of bivalent (a) Centrosomes
(b) non-sister chromatids of a bivalent (b) Cyclin dependent kinases
(c) two daughter nuclei
(c) Cyclins
(d) two different bivalents
(d) Both (b) and (c)
3 The ……… occurs between non-sister chromatids,
9 Which one of the following precedes reformation of the
results in genetic exchange between chromosomes,
nuclear envelope during M-phase of the cell cycle?
which provides new combinations of genes that are
different from either of the parent. (a) Decondensation from chromosomes and reassembly of
the nuclear lamina
(a) cytokinesis (b) crossing over
(b) Transcription from chromosomes and reassembly of the
(c) mitosis (d) cell division nuclear lamina
4 Given below is the representation of certain event at a (c) Formation of the contractile ring and formation of the
particular stage of a type of cell division. Which is this phragmoplast
stage? (d) Formation of the contractile ring and transcription from
chromosomes
123
(a) Prophase - I during meiosis
(b) Prophase - II during meiosis 10 Anaphase Promoting Complex (APC) is a protein
(c) Prophase of mitosis degradation machinery necessary for proper mitosis of
(d) Both prophase and metaphase animal cells. If APC is defective in a human cell, which of
of mitosis
the following is expected to occur?
5 In the somatic cell cycle, (a) Chromosomes will not condense
(a) in G1-phase DNA content is double the amount of DNA (b) Chromosomes will be fragmented
present in the original cell (c) Chromosomes will not segregate
(b) DNA replication takes place in S-phase
(d) Recombination of chromosome arms will occur
(c) a short interphase is followed by a long mitotic phase
(d) G2 -phase follows mitotic phase 11 During mitosis, it is necessary for the nuclear envelope of
6 Given below is a schematic breakup of the the parent cell to dissolve. This is accomplished, at least
phases / stage of cell cycle in part, by phosphorylation of proteins associated with
the nuclear envelope. If the enzyme responsible for the
A phosphorylation event is inhibited, at which phase of
B mitosis are cells likely to arrest?
C
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase
(c) Telophase (d) Anaphase
Mitosis
12 Although the process of chromosome partitioning during
Interphase mitosis is visible through the light microscope, the
process of DNA replication is not. Why?
D (a) Chromosomes do not contain protein until mitosis
(b) Chromosomes are too extended during S-phase to be
Which one of the following is the correct indication of the seen by light microscopy
stage / phase in the cell cycle? (c) Chromosomes are visible only after DNA has been
duplicated
(a) B – Metaphase (b) C – Karyokinesis
(d) Chromosomes form only during mitosis
(c) D – Synthetic phase (d) A – Cytokinesis
DAY ELEVEN CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 155

13 How would the daughter cells at the end of mitosis and 16 The true statement for mitosis is
cytokinesis compare with the parent cell when it was in (a) the cells formed by it performs diverse functions, i.e.
G1 of the cell cycle? show division of labour than the parent cells
(a) The daughter cells have half amount of cytoplasm and (b) two cells formed as a result of this division are identical
half amount of DNA in all respects
(b) The daughter cells have half number of chromosomes (c) cells formed by it have half number of chromosomes
and half amount of DNA than that of parent cell
(d) cells formed as a result of mitosis have different genetic
(c) The daughter cells have the same number of
characters
chromosomes and half amount of DNA
(d) The daughter cells have the same number of 17 Taxol is a drug that stabilises microtubules and prevents
chromosomes and same amount of DNA them from depolymerising. Consequently, treated cells
14 What are the two most important structures involved in fail to complete mitosis. At which phase of mitosis are
moving chromosomes during mitosis ? cells treated with taxol likely to arrest?
(a) Kinetochores and chromosomes (a) Telophase (b) Prophase
(b) Kinetochores and mitotic spindle fibres (c) Metaphase (d) Anaphase
(c) Centrosomes and chromosomes 18 Match the following columns.
(d) Centrosomes and mitotic spindle fibres
Column I Column II
15 Match the following columns.
A. Synapsis aligns homologous 1. Anaphase-II
Column I Column II B. Synthesis of RNA and protein 2. Zygotene
A. Meiosis 1. Cancer
C. Action of enzyme recombinase 3. G 2-phase
B. p 53 mutation 2. Basis of asexual reproduction
D. Centromeres do not separate, 4. Anaphase-I
C. p 27 levels 3. Diabetes but chromatids move towards
D. Mitosis 4. Reduction division opposite poles
5. Breast cancer 5. Pachytene

Codes Codes
A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D
(a) 5 1 2 4 (b) 1 2 3 4 (a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 2 3 5 4
(c) 4 1 5 2 (d) 2 1 3 4 (c) 1 2 5 4 (d) 2 3 4 5

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (d) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7 (c) 8 (c) 9 (b) 10 (c)
11 (c) 12 (d) 13 (b) 14 (a) 15 (a) 16 (a) 17 (b) 18 (c) 19 (c) 20 (c)
21 (c) 22 (b) 23 (a) 24 (d) 25 (b) 26 (a) 27 (a) 28 (b) 29 (d) 30 (d)
1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 (a) 10 (c)
SESSION 2
11 (a) 12 (b) 13 (d) 14 (b) 15 (c) 16 (b) 17 (d) 18 (b)
DAY TWELVE

Unit Test 3
(Cell Structure and Function)
1 Of the following organelles associated with the 7 A researcher made an interesting observation about a
endomembrane system, which group is primarily protein made by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
involved in synthesising molecules needed by the cell? eventually used to build a cell’s plasma membrane. The
(a) Lysosome, vacuole and ribosome protein in the plasma membrane was actually slightly
(b) Ribosome, rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth different from the protein made in the ER. The protein
endoplasmic reticulum was probably altered in the
(c) Vacuole, rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth (a) Golgi apparatus
endoplasmic reticulum (b) mitochondria
(d) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome and vacuole (c) plasma membrane
(d) transport vesicles
2 The enzyme ribonuclease acts as a poison in
(a) prophase (b) metaphase(c) anaphase (d) telophase 8 Enzymes are basically made up of
(a) nucleic acids (b) proteins
3 The stage characterised by the appearance of (c) fats (d) vitamins
recombination nodule is
(a) zygotene (b) pachytene (c) leptotene (d) diplotene
9 During diplotene, bivalents
(a) form synaptonemal complex
4 Fill in the blanks. (b) shows bouquet arrangement
ADP + Pi → ATP is an ….....A…reaction. (c) repel each other
ATP → ADP + Pi is an …B… reaction and the conversion (d) attract each other
of ADP + Pi to ATP …C…energy.
10 Enzyme inhibition caused by a product of enzyme
Here A, B and C refers to
catalysed reaction is
(a) A – endergonic;B – exergonic; C – requires
(a) feedback inhibition
(b) A – exergonic; B – endergonic; C – requires
(b) competitive inhibition
(c) A – exergonic; B – endergonic; C – does not require
(c) metabolic antagonism
(d) A – exergonic; B – endergonic; C – releases (d) non-competitive inhibition
5 Amitosis occurs in 11 How many mitotic divisions are required for a single cell
(a) meristematic cells to produce 128 cells?
(b) spore mother cells
(a) 32 (b) 28
(c) prokaryotic cells
(c) 14 (d) 7
(d) Both (b) and (c)
12 Basal bodies are most closely associated with which one
6 The complex carbohydrate that is used in microbial
of the following cell components?
culture medium is
(a) Nucleus (b) Mitochondria
(a) agar-agar (b) glucose
(c) Cilia (d) Central vacuole
(c) micronutrients (d) coconut milk
DAY TWELVE UNIT TEST 3 (CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION) 157

13 The ash analysis of living tissues is performed to 22 Microsomes as discrete entities

(a) ascertain the molecular formula of organic compounds (a) are found in all living cells
(b) analyse the chemical composition of elements and (b) are found only in the nucleolus and revealed by
compounds electron microscope
(c) study the structure of retentate acid insoluble fraction (c) are found always attached to the outer surface of
(d) to calculate the total number of biomolecules in a cell rough ER
(d) are not found in the intact cell but formed due to
14 Cupric ions of Benedict’s solution can be reduced by
fragmentation of most of the cytoplasmic membranous
ribose sugar due to the presence of
components
(a) free aldehydic group (b) free acidic group
(c) free phosphate ion (d) free ester group 23 The fibrous protein present in the spider’s web is
(a) collagen (b) keratin (c) silk (d) myosin
15 Which process is most likely to be affected by
colchicine? 24 Number of chromonemata in each chromosome during
(a) DNA replication (b) formation of cell plate synapsis is
(c) spindle formation (d) All of these (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 12

16 The observation that chloroplasts and mitochondria 25 The wall-free protoplasts can be obtained by the
contain their own DNA and synthesise some of the enzymes
proteins that function in these organelles suggests that (a) cellulase and proteinase (b) cellulase and pectinase
chloroplasts and mitochondria (c) cellulase and lipase (d) cellulase and amylase
(a) are produced by the nucleus of the cell 26 An unknown liquid collected from a food sample was
(b) must divide each time the cell containing them divides added to a test tube containing water. The mixture was
(c) are part of the endomembrane system
vigorously shaken to mix them well. After standing for a
(d) are involved in energy metabolism of the cell
while, two distinct layers were formed in the test tube. To
17 The ‘amphoteric’ nature of amino acid is because which class does the unknown liquid most likely belong?
(a) α- carbon atom bears an amino group and an acidic (a) Proteins (b) Monosaccharides
group (c) Esters (d) Lipids
(b) chemical activity of amino acids is unproductive
27 The type of protein present in microtubule is
(c) The ‘H’ group present on the C-atom, inhibits the
(a) collagen (b) myosin (c) tubulin (d) actin
reactivity
(d) The ‘H’ group present on the C-atom, accelerates the 28 Which one of the following organelles is unlikely to show
reactivity enhanced abundance in the pancreatic cells that secrete
large amount of digestive enzymes?
18 Predict the number of cells undergoing meiotic division,
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
if the total number of spermatids produced are 32.
(b) Free cytoplasmic ribosomes
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) Golgi apparatus
(c) 16 (d) 32 (d) Transport vesicles
19 Which type of cell is most likely to have the most 29 During cell division, condensation of chromatin results in
mitochondria? (a) increased heterochromatin content
(a) Muscle cells in the legs of a Marathon runner (b) decreased differentiation of heterochromatin and
(b) Photosynthetic cells in the leaves of a tree euchromatin
(c) Bacterial cells that are growing on sugars (c) increased euchromatin content
(d) Inactive yeast cells that are stored for future use (d) increased differentiation of heterochromatin and
20 Which of the following is not a true statement about euchromatin
chloroplasts and mitochondria? 30 Consider a protein that is made in the rough
(a) Each contains a small amount of DNA endoplasmic reticulum. You observe that when the
(b) Both are components of the endomembrane system synthesis of the protein is completed, the protein is
(c) Both are composed of two separate membranes located in the ER membrane. Where else in the cell might
(d) Each organelle synthesises some of its own proteins this protein be found?
21 Chiasmata are first seen during (a) In the aqueous interior of a lysosome functioning as a
(a) zygotene (b) pachytene digestive enzyme
(c) leptotene (d) diplotene (b) In the cytoplasm, functioning as an enzyme in
carbohydrate synthesis
158 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TWELVE

(c) Embedded in the plasma membrane functioning in the (a) free in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes
transport of molecules into the cell (b) on the rough ER
(d) In the internal space of the Golgi apparatus, being (c) Both (a) and (b)
modified before the protein is excreted (d) in bacterial cells

31 Which cell division occurs during cleavage? 39 A plant was grown in a test tube containing radioactive
nucleotides, the molecules from which DNA is built. Later
(a) Amitosis (b) Mitosis
(c) Closed mitosis (d) Meiosis examination of dividing cells in the plant showed the
majority of the radioactivity to be concentrated in the
32 Which of the following sequences represents the order,
(a) lysosome
in which a protein made in the rough endoplasmic (b) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
reticulum might move through the endomembrane (c) central vacuole
system? (d) nucleus
(a) Golgi apparatus – Residual body 40 Enzymes are biocatalysts. They catalyse biochemical
(b) Golgi apparatus – Vacuole reactions. In general, they reduce activation energy of
(c) Plasma membrane – Nuclear envelope
reactions. Many physico-chemical processes are
(d) Nuclear envelope – Lysosome
enzyme-mediated. Some examples of enzyme- mediated
33 The ‘R’ group in the amino acid alanine consists of reactions are given below. Choose the incorrect entry.
(a) hydrogen (b) methyl group (a) Dissolving CO2 in water
(c) hydroxyl group (d) carboxyl group (b) Untwining the two strands of DNA
(c) Hydrolysis of sucrose
34 A homopolymer has only one type of building block
(d) Formation of peptide bond
called monomer repeated ‘n’ number of times. A
heteropolymer has more than one type of monomer. 41 Which amongst the following biomacromolecules is a
Proteins are heteropolymers made of amino acids while a heteropolymer?
nucleic acid like DNA or RNA is made of only 4 types of (a) Starch (b) Insulin (c) Protein (d) Cellulose
nucleotide monomers. Proteins are made of 42 Essential amino acids are those
(a) 20 types of monomer (b) 40 types of monomer (a) that can be synthesised in our body
(c) 3 types of monomer (d) only one type of monomer (b) essential for health
(c) has to be supplemented in our diet
35 Glycerol upon esterification with fatty acids forms
(d) Both (b) and (c)
(a) monoglyceride (b) diglyceride
(c) triglyceride (d) All of these 43 The enzymes and proteins required for the DNA
replication are synthesised during
36 Proteins perform many physiological functions. For
(a) G0 -phase (b) G1-phase (c) G2 -phase (d) S- phase
example, some function as enzymes. One of the
following represents an additional function that some 44 You would expect a cell with an extensive Golgi
proteins discharge. apparatus to
(a) Antibiotics (a) make a lot of ATP (b) secrete a lot of protein
(b) Pigment conferring colour to skin (c) move rapidly (d) perform photosynthesis
(c) Pigments making colours of flowers 45 The site of duplication of centriole in the animal cell is
(d) Hormones (a) nucleus (b) cytoplasm
(c) nucleolus (d) mitochondria
37 Palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid shows which of the
following properties? 46 The transient stage for the product formation in a
(a) Solid at room temperature and have double bonds in reaction catalysed by an enzyme is
their carbon chains (a) enzyme substrate complex
(b) Solid at room temperature and do not have double bond (b) enzyme product complex
in their carbon chain (c) enzyme inhibitor complex
(c) Occurs in most plant fats (d) drastic increase in pH levels
(d) Have very low melting point 47 Which of the following is not a characteristic of
38 Chloroplasts and mitochondria are thought to be of mitochondria?
prokaryotic origin. One piece of evidence that supports (a) Mitochondria are involved in energy metabolism
this hypothesis is that these organelles contain (b) Mitochondria contain DNA and ribosomes
(c) Mitochondria are independent of the endomembrane
prokaryotic like ribosomes. These ribosomes are system
probably most similar to ribosomes found (d) None of the above
DAY TWELVE UNIT TEST 3 (CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION) 159

48 Carcinogenic cells divide continuously as they lack 59 Which of the following cellular processes or
(a) leptotene phase (b) quiescent phase characteristics is not related to the cytoskeleton?
(c) interphase (d) diakinesis (a) Movement of the chromosomes during cell division
49 On hydrolysis, nucleoside does not yield (b) Movement of cilia or flagella
(c) Contraction of muscle cells
(a) phosphoric acid (b) pentose sugar
(d) None of the above
(c) purine (d) pyrimidine

50 Where would you expect to find proteins involved with 60 Chromosome carrying centromeres at one end is
movement of structures within a cell? (a) metacentric
(b) submetacentric
(a) Muscles (b) Cytoskeleton
(c) acrocentric
(c) Cell wall (d) Plasma membrane
(d) telocentric
51 Vitamins remain undigested in the alimentary canal, yet 61 Enzyme amylase belongs to category
form a very essential part of our diet because they
(a) oxidoreductase
(a) act as apoenzyme (b) act as coenzyme
(b) transferases
(c) act as holoenzyme (d) act as prosthetic group
(c) hydrolases
52 Cytokinesis in plant cell does not occur by furrowing (d) isomerases
method due to the presence of solid, rigid cell wall on the 62 The beaded appearance on the chromosomes is due to
outside of cell. They divide by cell plate method in which the presence of
the cell plate represents
(a) chromatids (b) chromomeres
(a) cell wall (b) cell membrane (c) kinetochores (d) centromere
(c) middle lamella (d) nucleolus
63 Synaptonemal complex, which is the site of chromosomal
53 Identify the incorrect option for ribosome? alignment and recombination was discovered by
(a) Made of two subunits
(a) King (b) Moses
(b) Form polysome (c) Griffith (d) Balbiani
(c) May attach to mRNA
(d) Have no role in protein synthesis 64 The cell that does not remain in permanent G 0 phase is
(a) nerve (b) heart
54 α-helix and β -pleated structures represent
(c) fibroblast cell (d) skin cell
(a) primary structure of proteins
(b) secondary structure of proteins 65 Which of the following is (are) most likely to be involved
(c) tertiary structure of proteins in the process of producing proteins for a chloroplast or
(d) quarternary structure of proteins mitochondrion, neither of which is part of the
endomembrane system?
55 Phase of cell cycle when DNA polymerase is active
(a) Transport vesicles
(a) G1 (b) G 2
(b) Free cytoplasmic ribosomes
(c) S (d) M
(c) Golgi apparatus
56 Hyaluronic acid, which is a polysaccharide, plays a very (d) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
significant role in living organism as 66 Glycogen is a homopolymer made up of
(a) it acts as a structural compound in cell wall (a) glucose units
(b) it helps in coagulation (b) galactose units
(c) it helps in lubrication of joints between bones (c) ribose units
(d) it is used in tissue culture (d) amino acids
57 Which of the following dyes is best suited for staining 67 Which of the following categories best describes the
chromosomes? function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
(a) Basic Fuchsin (b) Safranin (a) Breakdown of complex foods
(c) Methylene blue (d) Acetocarmine (b) Energy processing
(c) Manufacturing
58 Crossing over process, during which exchange of
(d) Structural support of cells
genetic material takes place occurs between
(a) sister chromatids of two homologous chromosomes 68 Which of the following organelles is involved in mitosis of
(b) non-sister chromatids of two homologous chromosomes animals but not in plants?
(c) recombinant homologous chromosomes (a) Nucleus (b) Nucleolus
(d) sister chromatids of non-homologous chromosomes (c) Centriole (d) Cytoplasm
160 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY TWELVE

69 Mitosis results in increasing the number of cells within an 78 Identify the components labelled A to E in the given
organism. This process is called diagram of cell membrane from the list 1 to 7 given along
(a) hyperplasia (b) polyembryony with it.
(c) polyploidy (d) heterozygous A
70 Which of the following are possible sites of protein
synthesis in a typical eukaryotic cell? B C
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(c) Mitochondria
(d) All of the above

71 Enzyme complex involved in alcoholic fermentation is

(a) urease (b) zymase D
(c) diastase (d) dehydrogenase
E
72 In nucleic acids, purines and pyrimidines are
(a) always in equal proportion in DNA Components
(b) always in equal proportion in RNA 1. Sugar 2. Protein
(c) their proportions may vary depending upon the stage of 3. Lipid bilayer 4. Integral protein
cell cycle 5. Cytoplasm 6. Cell wall
(d) their proportions may vary in prokaryotes only 7. External protein
73 Dye injected into a plant cell might be able to enter an The correct components are
adjacent cell through a A B C D E A B C D E
(a) tight junction (a) 1 2 3 4 5 (b) 2 1 3 4 5
(b) microtubule (c) 1 2 3 6 4 (d) 1 2 3 7 5
(c) cell wall 79 Chemically enzymes are
(d) plamodesmata
(a) hydrocarbons (b) amino acids
74 Select the correctly matched option. (c) fats (d) proteins
(a) Meiosis – Strasburger 80 ‘Apoptosis’, which occurs in case of irreparable damage
(b) Mitosis – Fleming
to the cell, is caused by,
(c) Nucleolus – P Outlet
(d) Chromosome – Farmer and Moore (a) P 27 protein (b) P 53 protein
(c) cyclins (d) GLUT-4 proteins
75 Glycocalyx (mucilage sheath) of a bacterial cell may
occur in the form of a loose sheath called …A… or it may 81 The concept of cell lineage (cells arise from pre-existing
be thick and tough called …B… . cell only) was propounded by
(a) Purkinje (b) Virchow
Choose the correct pair from the given options.
(c) Swammerdam (d) Robert Hooke
(a) A – capsule B – slime layer
(b) A – slime layer B – capsule 82 Which one of the following four membranes is most likely
(c) A – mesosome B – capsule to have a lipid composition that is distinct from the other
(d) A – mesosome B – slime layer
three?
76 CdC2 and CdK 2 are (a) Endoplasmic reticulum
(a) cofactors that are frequently conjugated with enzymes (b) Mitochondrial outer membrane
(c) Lysosome membrane
(b) protein factories involved in synthesis of proteins and
(d) Golgi apparatus
polypeptides
(c) enzymes that are involved in regulation of cell cycle 83 The spindle fibres appear during early prophase and
(d) proteins that function to block the cell cycle disappear in telophase because
77 The bond formed by dehydration at the bond formation (a) they are absorbed in the cytoplasm
site is (b) they are disintegrated and used up during the process
of mitosis
(a) peptide bond
(b) glycosidic bond (c) they are phagocyted by the cell to provide energy for
(c) phosphodiester bond the process
(d) ester bond (d) absorbed by the condensed chromosomes
DAY TWELVE UNIT TEST 3 (CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION) 161

84 A protein that ultimately functions in the plasma membrane 88 Analyse the following pairs and identify the correct option
of a cell is most likely to have been synthesised given below.
(a) on ribosomes of the nuclear envelope I. Chromoplasts – Contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
(b) on free cytoplasmic ribosomes
II. Leucoplasts – Devoid of any pigments
(c) in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(d) in the mitochondria III. Amyloplasts – Store proteins
IV. Aleuroplasts – Store oils and fats
85 ‘Mesokaryon’ is the term given to the nucleus of the,
(a) stage between interphase and karyokinesis V. Elaioplasts – Store carbohydrates
(b) stage between prophase-I and prophase-II (a) II and III
(c) stage between karyokinesis and cytokinesis (b) III and IV
(d) dinoflagellates that possess condensed chromosomes (c) IV and V
in interphase (d) I and II

86 What is a tonoplast? 89 A cell which divides every minute can fill a 1 L beaker in
(a) Outer membrane of mitochondria 2 hours. How much time will it take to fill 500 mL beaker?
(b) Inner membrane of chloroplast (a) 60 minutes
(c) Membrane boundary of the vacuole of plant cells (b) 59 minutes
(d) Cell membrane of a plant cell (c) 100 minutes
(d) 119 minutes
87 The condition when cell division is arrested at the
90 Optical isomerism is not shown by
metaphase of mitosis occurs when,
(a) glycine
(a) nuclear envelope does not disintegrate
(b) alanine
(b) spindle formation does not take place (c) leucine
(c) centrioles fail to migrate to the opposite poles (d) histidine
(d) Both (a) and (c)

ANSWERS
1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (c) 6 (a) 7 (a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 10 (a)
11 (d) 12 (c) 13 (b) 14 (a) 15 (c) 16 (b) 17 (a) 18 (b) 19 (a) 20 (b)
21 (d) 22 (d) 23 (c) 24 (a) 25 (b) 26 (d) 27 (c) 28 (c) 29 (b) 30 (c)
31 (c) 32 (b) 33 (b) 34 (a) 35 (d) 36 (d) 37 (b) 38 (d) 39 (d) 40 (a)
41 (c) 42 (d) 43 (b) 44 (b) 45 (b) 46 (a) 47 (d) 48 (b) 49 (b) 50 (b)
51 (b) 52 (c) 53 (d) 54 (b) 55 (c) 56 (c) 57 (d) 58 (b) 59 (d) 60 (d)
61 (b) 62 (b) 63 (b) 64 (d) 65 (b) 66 (a) 67 (c) 68 (c) 69 (a) 70 (d)
71 (b) 72 (a) 73 (d) 74 (b) 75 (b) 76 (c) 77 (b) 78 (a) 79 (d) 80 (b)
81 (b) 82 (b) 83 (a) 84 (c) 85 (d) 86 (c) 87 (b) 88 (d) 89 (d) 90 (a)
 DAY THIRTEEN

Transport in
Plants
Learning & Revision for the Day

u Means of Transport u Plant-Water Relations u Transpiration

u Passive Transport u Long Distance Transport of u Guttation
u Active Transport Water u Uptake and Translocation of
u Ascent of Sap Mineral Nutrients

l
In plants, the substances that need to be transported are water, mineral nutrients,
organic nutrients and plant growth regulators.
l
Over small distances, these substances move by diffusion or by cytoplasmic
streaming supplemented by active transport. Transport over long distances
proceeds through the vascular system (xylem and phloem) and is called
translocation.
l
In rooted plants, transport in xylem (water and minerals) is unidirectional, i.e. from
roots to the stems. Organic nutrients undergo multidirectional transport. Organic
compounds synthesised in the photosynthetic leaves are exported to all the storage
organs of plants and later are re-exported. PREP
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
Means of Transport
The process of transport in a plant takes place at three levels. These are u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
1. The uptake and release of substances within a cell, i.e. cellular level transport.
u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
2. Transport of substances from one cell to another, i.e. short distance transport. (Without referring Explanations)
3. Transport of water and suger via xylem and phloem, i.e. long distance transport.
u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
The various means of transport used to carry out transportation in these levels are u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
as follows
In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
Passive Transport Accuracy Level should be above 85
& Prep Level should be above 75.
In this type of transport a molecule is transported along it’s concentration gradient
without the involvement of ATP. The flow of water in and out of the plant mainly
occurs by passive transport. Passive transport of water and solutes in plants may take
place via diffusion, osmosis, plasmolysis, etc.
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 163

Osmotic Pressure (OP) is the actual pressure, which develops

Diffusion
l

in a solution when it is separated from pure water by means of

l
It is the movement of particles or molecules or ions from semipermeable membrane.
a region of higher concentration to the region of lower l
Osmotic pressure of solution is always higher than its pure
concentration. solvent.
l
Diffusion is a passive process, which requires no l
Highest osmotic pressure is recorded from xerophytic plant
expenditure of energy and remains unaffected by the Artiplex confertialia.
concentration gradient of the other molecules. e.g.
l
Osmosis is very important for plants because it is responsible
1. Exchange of gases, i.e. CO2 and O2 during for absorption of water by roots, turgidity of plant organs, cell
photosynthesis and respiration. to cell movement of water, opening and closing of stomata and
2. Absorption of ions during passive salt uptake. resistance of plants to drought, frost, etc.
3. Stomatal transpiration where diffusion of water l
The net movement of water via osmosis depends on the
vapour takes place. solution surrounding the cell sap.
4. Aroma of flower is the result of diffusion of volatile l
Solutions can be of three types depending on their
aromatic compounds. concentration relative to the cell sap.
l
When concentration of outer solution (in which cell is placed)
Diffusion Pressure (DP) is equal to concentration of cell sap, it is called isotonic
It is the force or pressure developed by the movement of solution.
the diffusible particles of a substance, as they move from l
If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, the amount of water
higher concentration to lower concentration. Diffusion leaving the cell equals that entering the cell and therefore,
pressure of pure water is maximum. there is no net movement of water.
l
When concentration of outer solution is higher than
Facilitated Diffusion concentration of cell sap, the solution is called hypertonic
l
The diffusion rate depends on the size of the substances solution.
and on its solubility in lipids, the major constituent of l
If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, exosmosis takes
the membrane. Substances that find difficult to pass through place and net movement of water occurs from the cell
the membrane, their movement has to be facilitated by outwards.
proteins. Such movement is called facilitated diffusion. l
When concentration of outer solution is lower than
However, a concentration gradient must be there for
concentration of cell sap, the solution is called hypotonic
molecules to diffuse.
solution.
l
Facilitated diffusion is very specific, it allows the cells to l
If a cell is placed in pure water or hypotonic solution,
uptake only selected substances.
endosmosis takes place and net movement of water occurs
l
The proteins called porins form huge pores in the outer into the cell.
membranes of the plastids, mitochondria and some
bacteria. They allow molecules up to the size of small
proteins to pass through. Plasmolysis
l
The transport proteins release the molecule inside the
l
When a cell is placed in hypertonic solution, the protoplasm
cell. Some transport proteins allow diffusion only when shrinks and leaves the cell wall due to the exosmosis and cell
two molecules move together. becomes flaccid.
l
Such a transport takes place in a symport where
l
This cell is called plasmolysed cell and the phenomenon is
both molecules cross the membrane in the same called plasmolysis.
direction. l
If the plasmolysed cell is placed in hypotonic solution, the
l
In an antiport, they move in the opposite directions. cell again becomes turgid, due to the endosmosis and this
phenomenon is called deplasmolysis.
l
When a molecule moves across a membrane l
Bacteria get plasmolysed in salty pickles and sugary jams,
independent of other molecules, the process is
common salt also kills weeds by plasmolysis.
called uniport.

Osmosis Imbibition
l
It is the diffusion of water molecules, through a
l
It is the cause of swelling of wooden doors and windows in
differentially permeable membrane or semipermeable rainy season and swelling of seeds after being dipped in
membrane, i.e. allow only certain substances to pass water.
through them, e.g. all biological membranes, plasma l
The first step in imbibition is adsorption, i.e. attachment of
membrane, tonoplast, etc. liquid on the surface.
164 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

l
Imbibition is important for water absorption and germination of seeds.
l
Maximum absorption of water takes place by root hair zone. They increase the absorptive surface area of roots.
l
In conifers (gymnosperms), root hairs are either totally absent or poorly developed and these occur in association of fungal
hyphae with roots (i.e. mycorrhiza).
l
Kneading of wheat floor is accompanied by release of heat which is due to the imbibition of water molecules by starch and
cellulose.

Active Transport
It uses energy to pump molecules against a concentration gradient with the help of membrane-proteins. Pumps are proteins
that use energy to carry substances across the cell membrane.
Various Mechanisms of Active Transport Across Plasma Membrane
Process Passage Through Work Example
Endocytosis Membrane vesicle Large particle (phagocytosis) or small particle Ingestion of bacteria by white blood cells
(pinocytosis) is engulfed by membrane, which (phagocytosis); ‘nursing’ of human egg cells
forms vesicle around it. (pinocytosis).
Exocytosis Membrane vesicle Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane and Secretion of mucus.
ejects its contents.
Sodium- Protein channel Export of three Na + ions for every import of Found in all cells.
potassium pump two K + ions.
Proton pump Protein channel Export of protons (H + ions) against a Chemiosmotic generation of ATP; found in
concentration gradient. chloroplasts and mitochondria.
Coupled channels Protein channels Import of molecule with Na + or H + ions Import of glucose into cell.
using the concentration gradient, established
by the pumps of these ions.

Comparison of Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport

Characters Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport
Type of membrane molecule involved Lipids Proteins Proteins
Force driving the process Concentration gradient Concentration gradient ATP hydrolysis
Direction of transport With concentration With concentration Against concentration gradient
gradient gradient
Specificity Non-specific Specific Specific
Saturation at high concentration of No Yes Yes
transported molecules

Plant-Water Relation l
Water potential ψ w of pure water is zero and addition of
l
Water is essential for all physiological activities of the solute in it decreases its ψ w (i.e. negative value).
plant and plays a very important role in all living l
Water moves from a higher water potential (lower DPD) to
organisms.
lower water potential (higher DPD).
l
Distribution of water within a plant varies, i.e. woody parts l
Since water potential is measured as a negative value the
have relatively very little water, while soft parts mostly
water moves from less negative water potential to more
contain water.
negative water potential.
Water potential is the sum of the osmotic potential and the
Water Potential
l

pressure potential. This can be represented by

l
The concept of water potential was proposed by Ψw = Ψs + Ψp
Slatyer and Taylor in 1960.
l
Higher the water potential, greater is the ability of the tissue
l
The water potential in a plant tissue is always less than to supply water to other more dessicated cells and tissues.
zero bar and hence, a negative number. It is represented by Thus, the water potential is used to measure water deficit
Greek letter ‘ ψ ’ (psi). and water stress in plant cells and tissues.
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 165

The pressure that develops in a cell due to the osmotic

Mechanism of Water Absorption
l

diffusion is called Turgor Pressure (TP), as cell wall is

rigid, it also exerts equal and opposite pressure to that of Water absorption by plants is of two types, i.e. active and
turgor pressure, which is termed as wall pressure. passive.
TP = WP (i) Active absorption of water A very small amount of
l
The difference between the diffusion pressure of the water (4%) is absorbed by active mechanism, it involves
solution and its solvents at a particular temperature and an expenditure of metabolic energy which comes from
atmospheric conditions is called Diffusion Pressure Deficit the respiring cells of the root. In this type of absorption,
(DPD) or Suction Pressure (SP). roots (particularly root hair) play active role.
l
It determines the direction of net movement of water. It has (ii) Passive absorption of water Absorption of water takes
a positive value. place due to the forces developed at the transpiring
l
If the solution is more concentrated, then its DPD increases surface of the plant (i.e. transpiration pull).
while it decreases with the dilution of the solution. In this type, the cells of the root do not play any role,
l
The relation between Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD), and energy is not required. Hence, it is known as passive
Suction Pressure (SP), Osmotic Pressure (OP), Turgor absorption. Thus, in passive absorption, water is just
Pressure (TP) and Wall Pressure (WP) is as follows pulled through the roots. It is the most common (96%)
and rapid method of water absorption.
DPD(SP) =OP − TP (WP)

Absorption of Water Ascent of Sap

l
The upward movement of water from roots to the aerial
l
The amount of water that soil can hold depends upon the
parts of a plant is known as ascent of sap.
total pore space in soil. Water is present in the spaces
between the soil. l
Various experiments demonstrate that the actual pathway
of ascent of sap is xylem tissue in terrestrial plants.
l
The total amount of water present in the soil is called
holard.The water available to plant for absorption is l
Xylem contains vessels, tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
chresard. The rest of soil water is called echard. l
These vessels are made up of thick-walled cells joined end
to end.
Pathways of Water Movement l
The partition wall between the cells dissolves, cell contents
Pathway of water movement from soil to xylem can be disappear and form a hollow tubular structure that
shown as follows: resembles water pipes.
Following theories have been put forward to explain the
Soil Root hair Cortex Endodermis mechanism of ascent of sap.

Metaxylem Protoxylem Pericycle Vital Force Theory

l
Sir JC Bose was the strong supporter of this theory.
In roots, zone of cell differentiation absorbs both water and
minerals. l
According to him, upward translocation of water takes
Munch (1930) gave the concept of pathway of water from place due to the pulsatory activity of living cells of
root hairs to xylem inside the root. It is of two types: innermost cortical layer just outside the endodermis. It is
also called as pulsation theory.
(i) Apoplast pathway or apoplastic movement The water
passes from roots hairs to xylem through non-living cell
l
This theory was only hypothetical and was further
walls without crossing the living cell membrane or discarded by the experiments of Strasburger (1891, 1893).
cytoplasm. It is a faster process and is not affected by the l
He demonstrated that the ascent of sap continues even in
metabolic activity of root. Apoplastic movement occurs the stems, in which living cells have been killed by the
only upto endodermis because it is interrupted by the uptake of poison.
presence of impermeable lignosuberin casparian strips
in the wall of endodermal cells. Root Pressure Theory
(ii) Symplast pathway or symplastic movement The water l
This theory was put forward by Priestley (1916).
passes from cell to cell through cytoplasm via cell l
Root pressure is maximum during rainy season in the
membrane and plasmodesmata without entering cell
tropical countries and during spring in temperate
vacuoles. It is also known as transmembrane pathway. It
habitats.
is a slower process and is influenced by the metabolic
status of root.
l
It is retarded or becomes absent under conditions of
starvation, low temperature, drought and reduced
Vacuolar transport is the movement of water through
availability of oxygen.
vacuoles present in the cytoplasm of cell.
166 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

l
Although root pressure developed in the xylem of the l
There are three categories of stomata
roots by the active absorption of nutrient from the soil and n Barley type The guard cells are dumb-bell-shaped.
can raise water to a certain height, but it does not seem to Number of stomata are equal on both the surfaces of leaf.
be an effective force in ascent of sap due to the certain They usually remain open during the day for a few
reasons like low magnitude (about 2 atms) of root hours, e.g. maize, wheat.
pressure. n Alfalfa type They open during day and close during
l
It is because even in the absence of root pressure, the night under mesophytic conditions, e.g. pea, radish,
ascent of sap continues and in gymnosperms, root pressure mustard.
has rarely been observed. n Potato type Stomata are more on the lower surface than
on upper surface. Under mesophytic condition, the
Physical Force Theories stomata can remain open throughout the day and night.
(i) Capillary force theory was proposed by Boehm (1809). Examples of this type are onion, banana, potato, etc.
According to this theory, capillary force of vessels and
tracheids is responsible for ascent of sap. Stomatal Movement
(ii) Transpiration pull or Cohesion tension theory was l
The opening and closing of stomatal pore is called stomatal
proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894).
movement. This movement is shown in response to entry
l
Water molecules being held by H-bonds between or exit of water from the guard cells.
them, therefore, form a solid or compact water column l
The guard cells differ from other epidermal cells in containing
(i.e. cohesion) and a large tension is required to break
chloroplast and radial thickenings of cellulosic microfibrils in
a column of water.
their walls that face stomtal pore. In response to changes in
l
Cell walls of xylem vessels have affinity for water turgor pressure, these cellulosic microfibrils radiate
molecules (i.e. adhesion). outwards or inwards around their circumference. Due to
l
Loss of water from aerial parts, through transpiration this, shape of guard cell changes and stomatal movement
causes a suction pressure in the water column of plant takes place.
which is called transpiration pull. l
There are three main theories to explain the mechanism of
l
Such a pull exerted on water column helps in stomatal movements. These are as follows
continuous flow of water in upward direction. (i) Guard cell photosynthesis theory
(ii) Starch-sugar interconversion theory
Transpiration (iii) Malate or K + ion pump theory.
l
The loss of water in the form of water vapours from living (i) Guard Cell Photosynthesis Theory
tissues of aerial parts of plants, is called transpiration.
This theory was proposed by Von Mohl in1856. He observed
l
About 95% water absorbed by roots of plant, is lost by that stomata open in day light and close at night. According
transpiration and only 5% is used by plant. to him the sequence of changes in stomata are as follow
l
Transpiration is of three types, i.e. stomatal transpiration During day
(80-90%), cuticular transpiration (3-9%) and lenticular
transpiration (0.1-1%). Light → Photosynthesis → Formation → Increase
in guard cells of sugar in OP of
guard cells
Stomata
→

l
Transpiration mainly occurs through stomata (sing. stoma) TP of guard Water comes inside
(i.e. minute pores generally present on leaf epidermis). Stomata open ← cell increases ← the guard cells
l
Each stoma is bordered by two specialised epidermal cells During night, there is no photosynthesis and hence, these
called guard cells, which are generally kidney-shaped or changes are reversed.
bean-shaped.
l
Guard cells are surrounded by other specialised epidermal (ii) Starch-Sugar Interconversion Theory
cells called subsidiary cells or accessory cells. l
This theory was given by Sayre in 1923 and was modified
l
Potometer measures the transpiration rate of plant (e.g. by Steward 1964.
Ganong’s potometer, Farmer’s potometer) and comparative l
According to this theory, during day light CO 2
rate of transpiration of two leaf surfaces is measured by concentration in guard cells decreases, leading to an
cobalt chloride paper method. increase in pH.
l
Transpiration does not take place in submerged aquatic l
High pH favours hydrolysis of starch (insoluble) into
plants. glucose-1-phosphate, it further changes into glucose
(soluble). Due to this, osmotic potential becomes lower in
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 167

guard cells and water from the surrounding epidermal Guard cells (swollen/turgid) Guard cells (shrunken/flaccid)
and mesophyll cells enters into the guard cells by
Chloroplast
osmotic diffusion. Guard cells become turgid and
stomata open. Cell wall
l
During night (dark), reverse process occurs and Vacuole
glucose-1-phosphate is converted into the starch in
guard cells. This increases the osmotic potential and
Nucleus
the guard cells release water. They become flaccid and
stomata are closed. Stoma open Stoma closed
During day (light) During night (dark)
During light 1 CO2 concentration decreases 1 CO2 concentration increases
Phosphorylase
Starch + nH 3PO 4 → n Glucose -1-phosphate 2 Malic acid formed in 2 ABA released to stop
+
Mutase guard cells the K exchange
Glucose -1-phosphate a Glucose-6-phosphate K+ ions transported back
3 Dissociates into malate 3
Phosphatase ions and H+ into subsidiary cells
Glucose-6-phosphate + water → +
4 K ion exchange from 4 Decreased pH of
Glucose + H 3PO 4 subsidiary cells guard cells
During dark
5 OP of guard cells is increased 5 Decreased OP of guard cells
Hexokinase (due to accumulation of K+ due to starch synthesis in
Glucose + ATP → and malate ions) guard cells (loss of K+
Glucose-6-phosphate + ADP ions by guard cells)
6 Endosmosis into guard cells 6 Exosmosis from guard cells
Mutase
Glucose-6-phosphate a Glucose-1-phosphate 7 Guard cells turgid 7 Guard cells looses turgidity
8 Stomata open 8 Stomata close
Phosphatase
Glucose-1-phosphate → Starch + H 3PO 4
Starch-sugar interconversion theory is not universally
Factors Affecting Transpiration
Various factors which affect the transpiration are as follows:
applicable. It may operate under certain circumstances
External factors Internal factors
only.
Relative humidity – Leaf surface area +
+
(iii) Malate or K Ion Pump Theory Temperature + Sunken stomata –
l
This theory was given by Levitt in 1974. This is also Light + Transpiration Thick cuticle –
known as the modern theory of stomatal movement. Wind +
Mesophyll –
l
pH of the guard cell can rise due to active H+ uptake Soil water +
by guard cell in chloroplasts or mitochondria. A rise ⊕= Increase in transpiration with increasing related factors.
in pH during day time causes hydrolysis of starch due y= Decrease in transpiration with increase in related factor.
to which organic acid, i.e. phosphoenol pyruvate is
formed. Phosphoenol pyruvate combines with Advantages of Transpiration
available CO2 to produce malic acid. Advantages of transpiration are as follows
l
Malic acid dissociates to produce H + and malate. The (i) It plays an important role in the upward movement of
protons (H +) are pumped out from the guard cells into water, i.e. ascent of sap.
the subsidiary cells and in the exchange, K + ions are (ii) It helps in the absorption and translocation of mineral
pumped into guard cells, from the adjacent subsidiary salts.
cells. (iii) Rapid evaporation of water from the aerial parts of
l
This exchange of H + and K + ions is followed by the the plant through transpiration brings down their
entry of Cl − ions into the guard cells with the help of temperature. Thus, it prevents them from excessive
cAMP, ATP and cytokinins. heating. This is also known as cooling effect.
l
K + ions immediately combine with malate and NOTE Antitranspirants are inhibitors of transpiration. These may
increase the osmotic concentration of the guard be metabolic inhibitors like PMA (Phenyl Mercuric Acetate),
cells. ABA (Abscisic Acid) and aspirin or film forming like silicon
emulsions, waxes, etc.
l
As a result, guard cells absorb water from the nearby
epidermal (subsidiary) cells, swells up and lead to Guttation
opening of stomata. l
At night or early morning, when evaporation is low, excess
l
Reverse situation prevails during dark when stomata water collects in the form of droplets around special
are closed. There is no accumulation of K + ions in openings of veins, near the tip of grass blades and leaves of
guard cells in dark. many herbaceous plants.
168 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

l
The process of exudation of liquid drops from the edges of l
At the sink, solutes may be used up or can be stored in
leaves is called guttation and it usually occurs through insoluble forms. Hence, the osmotic concentration and
stomata like pores called hydathodes. turgor pressure in these cells will be low.
l
A continuous pressure gradient establishes between the
Uptake and Translocation of source and sink. Water returns to the source through the
apoplast system.
Mineral Nutrients Sucrose transport from the mesophyll cells to the sink
l
Most minerals must enter the root by active absorption into involves following three processes
the cytoplasm of epidermal cells. This needs energy in the (i) Phloem loading It is carried out by a specific carrier
form of ATP. Some ions also move into the epidermal cells protein molecule in the cell surface membrane of
passively. companion cells that use energy of ATP from the
l
Specific proteins in the membranes of root hair cells photosynthesising mesophyll cells to the sieve tubes in
actively pump ions from the soil into the cytoplasm of the the veins of a leaf.
epidermal cells. (ii) Long distance transport of sucrose in the stem and root
l
Transport protein of endodermal cells are control points, phloem.
where plant adjusts the quantity and types of solutes that
(iii) Phloem unloading of the sieve tubes takes place at the
reach the xylem.
sink. It takes place passively down a concentration
l
The root endodermis because of the layer of suberin has the gradient of sucrose. The transfer cells are often present
ability to actively transport ions in one direction only. at the unloading sites.
l
The chief sinks for the mineral elements are the growing l
This process also requires metabolic energy.
regions of the plant, such as the apical and lateral
meristems, young leaves, developing flowers, fruits and Sugars leave sieve tubes;
water flows by osmosis
seeds and the storage organs.
Tip of stem
l
Unloading of mineral ions occurs at fine vein endings,
through diffusion and active uptake by these cells.
l
Mineral ions are frequently remobilised, particularly from
older, senescing parts. Some structural elements like calcium
are not remobilised. Xylem transports only inorganic Sugar solution flows Sugars enter sieve tubes;
nutrients, while phloem transports only organic materials. to regions of low water flows by osmosis
turgor pressure Phloem
Sugars leave sieve tube
Phloem Transport of Food for metabolism and
storage; water flows
l
Sucrose is the main food transported by the vascular tissue by osmosis
phloem, from a source (the leaf) to sink (which stored
food). Root
l
The source-sink relationship is variable due to the season Diagrammatic presentation of mechanism of
and needs. The direction of movement in the phloem is translocation of sugars
bidirectional. In xylem, the movement of water is always l
A simple experiment called girdling, was used to identify
unidirectional, i.e. upwards.
the tissues through which food is transported. This
l
Phloem transports mainly water and sucrose as sap but also experiment proved that phloem is responsible for the
translocates other sugars, hormones and amino acids. translocation of food. When a plant is girdled (phloem
removed), roots will die first.
Mass Flow Hypothesis
NOTE • Transfer cells are similar to ordinary companion cells, with
l
Ernst Munch (1930) was the first to propose this hypothesis
of solute transport in phloem tissue. additional development of finger-like wall ingrowths,
particularly on the cell walls that face away from the sieve
l
According to this theory, organic solutes are translocated
elements.
through the sieve tubes from the source to the sink. The
• These wall ingrowths greatly increase the surface area of
source and sink may be reversed depending on the plant the plasma membrane, thus increasing the potential for
needs. The direction of movement in phloem can be solute transfer across the membrane.
upwards or downwards.
• P-proteins are phloem proteins found in sieve tube
l
Water enters the mesophyll cells from the xylem and elements of most angiosperms including all dicots and
as a result, turgor pressure of the mesophyll cells increases. many monocots.
l
Sugar dissolved in water move from mesophyll cells into • They appear to function in sealing off damaged sieve
the symplast system of sieve tubes. Solutes are carried through elements by plugging up the sieve plate pore.
the symplast to finally reach the consumption site (sink). • P- proteins are absent in gymnosperms.
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 169

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 In which type of absorption, metabolic energy is 9 Osmosis is the diffusion of a solution of a weaker
required and roots play a positive role of absorbing concentration, when both are separated by
water in semipermeable membrane. What is the error in the
(a) active absorption (b) passive absorption statement?
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (a) The movement of water molecules is not specified
(b) There is no mention of DPD
2 Which of the following criteria does not pertain to
(c) Behaviour of semipermeable membrane
facilitated transport? j NEET 2013 (d) The exact concentrations are not indicated
(a) High selectivity
(b) Transport saturation 10 Osmosis is a passage of
(c) Uphill transport (a) solute from a semipermeable membrane
(d) Requirement of special membrane protein (b) water or solvent without a membrane
(c) solution through a permeable membrane
3 The water potential of an aqueous solution is j NEET 2017 (d) solvent through a semipermeable membrane from a less
(a) zero (b) more than one concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution
(c) less than one (d) infinite
11 Plant cells submerged in distilled water will become
4 The water potential is (a) turgid (b) flaccid
(a) equal in soil and atmosphere (c) plasmolysed (d) impermeable
(b) lowest in soil and highest in atmosphere
(c) highest in soil and lowest in atmosphere 12 The value of osmotic potential of an electrolyte is always
(d) non-existent at both the places (soil and atmosphere) (a) more than non-electrolyte
(b) less than non-electrolyte
5 Water potential in the leaf tissue is positive (+) during (c) same as non-electrolyte
(a) excessive transpiration (b) low transpiration (d) None of the above
(c) excessive absorption (d) guttation
13 Osmotic pressure is responsible for the turgidity of plant
6 The process of movement of solvent from its higher cells, which
chemical potential to its lower chemical potential (without (a) causes cell elongation
allowing the diffusion of solute) through semipermeable (b) causes opening of stomata
membrane is known as (c) prevents wilting of leaves
(a) independent diffusion (b) diffusion (d) All of the above
(c) osmosis (d) exosmosis
14 In modern terminology, the value of osmotic potential is
7 During osmosis, water moves through a semipermeable (a) positive (b) negative
membrane (c) zero (d) None of these
From To 15 Water will be absorbed by root hairs, when the external
medium is
(a) low water potential — high water potential
(a) hypotonic (b) hypertonic
(b) high solute concentration — low solute concentration (c) isotonic (d) viscous

(c) high osmotic potential — low osmotic potential 16 Bacteria cannot survive in a highly salted pickle because
(a) salt inhibits reproduction
(d) a hypotonic solution — a hypertonic solution
(less solution) (b) bacteria do not get enough light for photosynthesis
(c) they become plasmolysed and consequently killed
8 Selectively (differentially) permeable membrane is that (d) the pickle does not contain nutrients necessary for
which allows bacteria to live
(a) all the solute particles to pass through it 17 The shrinkage of the protoplast of a cell, from its cell
(b) none of the solute particles to pass through it wall under the influence of a hypertonic solution, is
(c) some of the solute particles to pass through it and known as
prevents others
(a) endosmosis (b) exosmosis
(d) all the solute particles to pass through it in the (c) plasmolysis (d) deplasmolysis
beginning for 5-10 minutes, then the rate declines
170 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

18 When a fresh piece of potato is placed in a concentrated 26 According to the transpiration-cohesion theory, water is
solution, it will pulled upward through the xylem. The cause of the pull is
(a) swell up (b) remain as such (a) guttation (b) root pressure
(c) shrink (d) die (c) transpiration (d) condensation
19 The regaining of turgidity by a protoplast under the 27 A column water within xylem vessels of tall trees does not
influence of hypotonic solution is known as break under its weight because of j CBSE-AIPMT 2015
(a) deplasmolysis (b) plasmolysis (a) dissolved sugars in water
(c) exosmosis (d) endosmosis (b) tensile strength of water
20 Which of the following is an example of imbibition? (c) lignification of xylem vessels
(d) positive root pressure
(a) Uptake of water by root hairs
(b) Exchange of gases through stomata 28 According to Steward, ATP is used in stomatal
(c) Swelling of seeds when dipped in water mechanism during
(d) Opening of stomata (a) opening (b) closing
21 Tick the correct statement. (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(a) The closely packed imbibant will imbibe less water than 29 What is the correct labelling of the following figure ?
the loosely packed one
A
(b) The closely packed imbibant will imbibe more water
than the loosely packed one B
(c) Both will imbibe the same amount of water D
(d) The amount of water absorbed by closely packed and
loosely packed imbibant will depend upon the C
E
temperature of the medium
22 Match the following columns.
Column I Column II
A. Apoplast 1. Molecules cross the membrane in (a) A – Guard cell, B – Epithem, C – Mesophyll,
same direction. D – Epidermis, E – Vasculature
B. Symplast 2. Move in opposite directions. (b) A – Guard cell, B – Epidermis, C – Mesophyll,
3. System of interconnected protoplasts D – Epithem, E – Vasculature
C. Porins
(c) A – Water pore, B – Epidermis, C – Mesophyll,
D. Symport 4. Continuous adjacent cell walls D – Epithem, E – Vasculature
5. Proteins in the outer membrane (d) A – Ostiole, B – Epidermis, C – Mesophyll, D – Epithem,
E – Vasculature
Codes
30 Guard cells help in
A B C D A B C D
(a) protection against grazing
(a) 4 3 5 1 (b) 2 3 4 5
(b) transpiration
(c) 5 4 2 1 (d) 1 2 4 5 (c) guttation
23 Root pressure develops due to j
CBSE-AIPMT 2015 (d) fighting against infection
(a) active absorption
31 In land plants, the guard cells differ from other epidermal
(b) low osmotic potential in soil
cells in having
(c) passive absorption
(d) increase in transpiration (a) mitochondria (b) endoplasmic reticulum
(c) chloroplasts (d) cytoskeleton
24 Root pressure is maximum, when
(a) transpiration is high and absorption is low 32 In the mechanism of opening of stomata, the important
(b) transpiration is very low and absorption is high factor is
(c) transpiration and absorption both are high (a) shape of the guard cells
(d) transpiration and absorption both are low (b) chlorophyll contents of the cell
(c) hormone contents of the cell
25 Root pressure which plays a small role in xylem flow, is (d) protein contents of the cell
caused by
33 Which one of the following elements is responsible for
(a) transpiration of water out of the xylem
maintaining turgor in cells ? j
NEET 2018
(b) cohesion of water molecules to one another
(c) adhesion of water molecules to walls of the xylem (a) Potassium (b) Sodium
(d) osmotic flow of water in the xylem (c) Magnesium (d) Calcium
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 171

34 The stomata in angiosperms open and close due to 44 When stomata remain open throughout the day and
(a) their genetical constitution night, they are called
(b) the force of their habit (a) alfa-alfa type (b) potato type
(c) the pressure of gases inside the leaf (c) barley type (d) equisetum type
(d) a change in the turgor pressure of the guard cells
45 The lower surface of leaf will have more number of
35 Plants that open their stomata at night and close them stomata in
during the day have (a) dorsiventral leaf (b) isobilateral leaf
(a) C3 -pathways of photosynthesis (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(b) C4 -pathways of photosynthesis
(c) Calvin Benson pathways of photosynthesis
46 Generally, the loss of water through stomata in most of
(d) CAM pathways of photosynthesis the plants is
(a) 20-50% (b) 30-50% (c) 50-88% (d) 50-97%
36 Which of the following facilitates opening of stomatal
aperture? j NEET 2017 47 Which of the following changes in the cell sap of the
(a) Contraction of outer wall of guard cells guard cells are responsible for keeping the stomata open
(b) Decrease in turgidity of guard cells during daytime?
(c) Radial orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall (a) Increase in the osmotic pressure but decrease in turgor
of guard cells pressure
(d) Longitudinal orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the (b) Decrease in the osmotic pressure but increase in turgor
cell wall of guard cells pressure
37 Water vapour comes out from the plant leaf through the (c) Increase in both osmotic and turgor pressure
(d) Decrease in both osmotic and turgor pressure
stomatal opening. Through the same stomatal opening
carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant during 48 The process which carried by hydathodes is
photosynthesis. Reason out the above statements using (a) photosynthesis
the following options. j
NEET-I 2016 (b) imbibition
(a) Both processes can happen together because the (c) guttation
(d) turgor pressure maintenance
diffusion coefficient of water and CO2 is different
(b) The above processes happen only during night-time 49 A few drops of sap were collected by cutting across a
(c) One process occurs during daytime and the other at night plant stem by a suitable method. The sap was tested
(d) Both processes cannot happen simultaneously chemically. Which one of the following test results
38 Active K + exchange mechanism for opening and closing indicates that it is phloem sap ? j
NEET-II 2016
of stomata was given by (a) Acidic (b) Alkaline
(a) Levitt (b) Darwin (c) Scarth (d) Fujino (c) Low refractive index (d) The absence of sugar

39 According to Sayere and Scarth, the opening and closing 50 Food synthesised in leaves is transported to other parts
of stomata is governed by by
(a) pH (b) enzymes (a) translocation (b) nastic movement
(c) phosphorylation (d) NADPH2 formation (c) chemotaxis (d) phototaxis

40 Stomata open during daytime because the guard cells 51 The translocation of organic solutes in sieve tube
(a) are thin-walled members is supported by
(b) are bean-shaped (a) P-proteins
(c) have to help in gaseous exchange (b) mass flow involving a carrier and ATP
(d) photosynthesise and produce osmotically active sugars (c) cytoplasmic streaming
or organic acid (d) root pressure and transpiration pull

41 The stomata are widely open in 52 Removal of ringwood of tissue outside the vascular
(a) red light (b) blue light cambium from the tree trunk kills it because
(c) green light (d) yellow light (a) water cannot move up
(b) food does not travel down and root becomes starved
42 The stomatal aperture is measured by (c) shoot becomes starved
(a) porometer (b) potometer (d) annual rings are not produced
(c) photometer (d) tensiometer
53 Most widely accepted theory of carbohydrate
43 When stomata open at night only, they are called translocation is
(a) photoactive stomata (b) scotoactive stomata (a) mass flow theory (b) root pressure theory
(c) nyctinastic stomata (d) All of these (c) imbibition theory (d) transpiration theory
172 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

54 Identify the process taking place in this experiment. 55 Match the following columns.
Turgid Column I Column II
leaves
A. Phloem 1. Phloem tissues
Wilted B. Xylem 2. Translocation
leaf
Ring of
bark C. Sieve tube cells 3. Transpiration
removed
Xylem
removed D. Girdling experiment 4. Bidirectional movement
Pith 5. Unidirectional movement
removed

Codes
A B C D
(a) Ringing experiment for translocation of sap (a) 2 1 5 4
(b) Demonstration of root pressure (b) 4 5 1 2
(c) Eosin test to demonstrate ascent of sap (c) 1 2 3 4
(d) None of the above (d) 5 4 2 1

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 The movement of solutes in the phloem is mainly 8 In a branch cut from a rapidly transpiring plant, water
(a) acropetal (b) lateral snaps away from the cut end. It shows that it
(c) basipetal (d) lateral acropetal (a) is under tension
2 The chief water conducting elements of xylem in (b) is in excess in vessels
gymnosperms are (c) has been absorbed by capillary force
(a) vessels (b) fibres (d) has been absorbed by imbibition force
(c) transfusion tissue (d) tracheids
9 The direction of movement of water from outside into the
3 The form of sugar transported through phloem is
cell and also from one cell to the next cell is
(a) glucose (b) fructose (c) sucrose (d) ribose
(a) from higher DPD to lower DPD
4 Ascent of sap in plants was demonstrated by (b) from lower DPD to higher DPD
(a) Girdling experiment (b) Ganong's experiment (c) from cell to cell with same values of DPD
(c) Went experiment (d) Lever auxanometer (d) None of the above
5 Addition of a solute to pure water causes
10 If a thoroughly cleaned goat's bladder is filled with syrup,
(a) negative water potential
(b) more negative water potential
tightly tied and immersed in a vessel of water
(c) positive water potential (a) the volume of liquid within the bladder will increase
(d) more positive water potential (b) the volume of liquid within the bladder will decrease
6 Potometer works on the principle of (c) the volume of liquid within the bladder will remain
constant
(a) amount of water absorbed equals the amount transpired
(b) osmotic pressure (d) plasmolysis will occur
(c) root pressure
(d) potential difference between the tip of the tube and that
11 The rate of diffusion is dependent upon the permeability
of the plant of that medium, it however
(a) influences the final equilibrium of diffusion as it is never
7 The movement of water from one cell of the cortex to the
reached if the medium is dense
adjacent one in roots, is due to the
(b) does influence the final equilibrium of diffusion
(a) accumulation of inorganic salts in the cells
(b) accumulation of organic compounds in the cells (c) does not influence the final equilibrium of diffusion
(c) chemical potential gradient (d) None of the above
(d) water potential gradient
DAY THIRTEEN TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 173

12 ………… is responsible for the movement of sugars from (c) increase the water contents of leaves
leaves to tap roots; ……… is responsible for the (d) cause the mesophyll cells to become flaccid and result
movement of sugars from tap roots to leaves. in wilting of leaves
(a) Transpiration; transpiration (b) Bulk flow; bulk flow 19 Based on the figure given below which of the following
(c) Bulk flow; root pressure (d) Bulk flow; transpiration statements is not correct?
13 The most accepted theory for ascent of sap is
(a) transpiration pull and cohesion-tension theory of Dixon
and Jolly
(b) pulsating action of living cell
(c) role of atmospheric pressure
(d) de Vries cytoplasmic streaming theory
14 Sugar moves from leaves into the …... of …… by …… .
(a) sieve tube members; phloem; active transport
(b) sieve tube members; xylem; active transport (a) Movement of solvent molecules will take place from
(c) sieve tube members; phloem; diffusion chamber A to B
(d) tracheids; phloem; active transport (b) Movement of solute will take place from A to B.
(c) Presence of a semipermeable is a prerequisite for this
15 The process of guttation takes place process to occur
(a) when the root pressure is high and the rate of (d) The direction and rate of osmosis depend on both the
transpiration is low pressure gradient and concentration gradient
(b) when the root pressure is low and the rate of
transpiration is high 20 By which mechanism, the salt resistant plants can get rid
(c) when the root pressure is equals the rate of transpiration of excess Na + ions to the outer side, through the roots ?
(d) when the root pressure as well as rate of transpiration (a) H +  ATPase Uniport system
are high (b) Na +  Uniport system
(c) H+  Cl − symport system
16 Identify the figure ‘A’ and ‘B’ and name the different (d) Na+  H+ antiport system
stages of the figure.
21 Which one is true about guttation?
(a) It occurs through specialised pores called hydathodes
(b) It occurs in herbaceous plants when root pressure is low
and transpiration is high
(c) It only occurs during the daytime
(d) It occurs in plants growing under conditions of low soil
moisture and high humidity
22 In the given flow chart, the flow of water is shown from
soil to xylem. Mention the step A and B.
(a) A – Incipient plasmolysis, B – Plasmolysed cell
(b) A – Turgid cell, B – Plasmolysed cell Root-hair cells
(c) A – Plasmolysed cell, B – Turgid cell
(d) A – Plasmolysed cell, B – Incipient plasmolysis
Cortex cells
17 Match the following columns.
Column I Column II
A. Leaves 1. Antitranspiration A
B. Seed 2. Transpiration
C. Roots 3. Imbibition Pericycle cells
D. Aspirin 4. Absorbtion

Codes B
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 3 2 1 4 Metaxylem
18 If cohesion-tension transpiration theory is correct then a (a) A – Casparian strips, B – Protoxylem
break in water column in a xylem vessel should (b) A – Pith, B – Plasmodesmata
(a) have no effect at all (c) A – Endodermis, B – Casparian strips
(b) increase the rate of photosynthesis (d) A – Endodermis, B – Protoxylem
174 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY THIRTEEN

23 Which of the following is not a purpose of transpiration? (b) a strong adhesion between water molecules and walls
(a) Supplies water for photosynthesis of xylem vessels so the column does not break and it is
(b) Helps in translocation of sugars from source to sink stretched by transpiration pull
(c) Maintains shape and structure of the plant (c) absence of vacuoles in the vessels, so the column does
(d) Cools leaf surface not break and it is stretched by transpiration pull
(e) Transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant (d) loss of water by leaves, so positive tension is created
24 Path of water movement from soil to xylem is and column does not break and it is stretched by
(a) Metaxylem → Protoxylem → Cortex → Soil → Root hair transpiration pull
(b) Cortex → Root hair → Endodermis → Pericycle → 28 Atmospheric pressure theory was rejected for the ascent
Protoxylem → Metaxylem of sap because
(c) Soil → Root hair → Cortex → Endodermis → Pericycle →
(a) there is no free surface at the lower end of the plant,
Protoxylem → Metaxylem
which is necessary for the operation of atmospheric
(d) Pericycle → Soil → Root hair → Cortex → Endodermis →
pressure
Protoxylem → Metaxylem
(b) maximum height to which water can rise is about 50 m
25 When a plant wilts, what will be the sequence of events? (c) movement of the water is very slow and negligible and it
(a) Endosmosis–Plasmolysis–Temporary and permanent forms only an infinitesimal small fraction of the total
wilting (d) this is not useful in adhering water to the walls of the
(b) Exosmosis– Plasmolysis–Temporary and permanent wilting xylem elements
(c) Exosmosis–Deplasmolysis–Temporary and permanent 29 The following figure shows the stomatal apparatus.
wilting Identify the parts labelled as A, B, C and D. Choose the
(d) Exosmosis-Plasmolysis-Deplasmolysis-Temporary and correct answer from the following.
permanent wilting
A
26 At the time of seed germination, when water is absorbed B
by the seeds due to the imbibition, the seed coat breaks
as it swells to a lesser degree than the kernel because
(a) the kernel is made up of proteins, lipids and starch
while, the seed coat is formed of cellulose
(b) the kernel is made up of cellulose, while the seed coat is D C
made up of proteins, lipids and starch
(c) both kernel and seed coat are made up of same (a) A – Guard cells, B – Stoma, C – Chloroplasts,
constituents, it depends on the nature of medium D – Subsidiary cells
(d) None of the above (b) A – Subsidiary cells, B – Chloroplasts, C – Stoma,
27 The term tensile strength represents that there is D – Guard cells
(a) a strong cohesion force between water molecules, so (c) A – Guard cells, B – Chloroplasts, C – Stoma,
D – Subsidiary cells
the column does not break and it is stretched by
(d) A – Subsidiary cells, B – Stoma, C – Chloroplasts,
transpiration pull
D – Guard cells

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (a) 4 (c) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8 (c) 9 (a) 10 (d)
11 (a) 12 (a) 13 (b) 14 (b) 15 (a) 16 (c) 17 (c) 18 (c) 19 (a) 20 (c)
21 (a) 22 (a) 23 (a) 24 (b) 25 (d) 26 (c) 27 (b) 28 (a) 29 (b) 30 (b)
31 (c) 32 (a) 33 (a) 34 (d) 35 (d) 36 (c) 37 (a) 38 (a) 39 (a) 40 (d)
41 (b) 42 (b) 43 (b) 44 (d) 45 (a) 46 (c) 47 (a) 48 (c) 49 (b) 50 (a)
51 (b) 52 (b) 53 (a) 54 (a) 55 (b)

SESSION 2 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (a) 7 (d) 8 (a) 9 (b) 10 (a)
11 (c) 12 (b) 13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (a) 16 (b) 17 (c) 18 (d) 19 (b) 20 (d)
21 (a) 22 (d) 23 (b) 24 (c) 25 (b) 26 (a) 27 (a) 28 (a) 29 (c)
DAY FOURTEEN

Mineral
Nutrition
Learning & Revision for the Day
u Methods to Study Mineral Requirement of u Toxicity of Micronutrients
Plants u Absorption of Mineral Elements
u Classification of Mineral Elements u Metabolism of Nitrogen

The supply and absorption of chemical compounds (organic and inorganic) needed for
growth and metabolism is defined as nutrition and the chemical compounds required by
an organism are termed as nutrients.
The inorganic elements required by the plant are present in the soil in the form of
minerals and are known as mineral elements or mineral nutrients. Thus, the absorption,
distribution and metabolism of various mineral elements by plant is called mineral
nutrition.The first study on mineral nutrition was carried out by van Helmont in 1648.

Methods to Study Mineral

Requirement of Plants PREP
Requirement of different minerals by plants was determined by various scientists by MIRROR
using different experimental techniques. Some of them are given below: Your Personal Preparation Indicator

Hydroponics In 1860, Julius von Sachs demonstrated for the first time that plant could u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
be grown to maturity in a defined nutrient solution in complete absence of soil. The u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
soilless production of plants is called hydroponics (term by Gericke in 1937). It is also u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
known as soilless culture or solution culture. (Without referring Explanations)
Hydroponics or soilless culture helps to know
u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
l
The essentiality of mineral elements. u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
l
The deficiency symptoms developed due to non-availability of particular nutrient.
In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
l
Toxic effects on plant when any element is present in excess. Accuracy Level should be above 85
l
Possible interaction among different elements present in plants. & Prep Level should be above 75.

l
The role of essential elements in the metabolism of plant.
176 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

2. Non-essential mineral elements (other than 17 essential)

Aeroponics is the technique of soilless culture in which roots These elements are required for the metabolic activities of
of plants are suspended in the mist of oxygenated nutrient some plants, but not all. Also, their absence does not
solution. produce any major deficiency symptoms in plants, e.g.
cobalt, silicon, sodium, etc.
l
Sand culture, in this sand is used as a rooting medium and
nutrient solution is added to it. The term ‘essential mineral element’ was proposed by Arnon
and Stout in 1939. On the basis of their quantitative
l
Nutrient film technique The nutrient solution drains
requirements in plants, Hoagland divided essential elements
through plant roots, through a channel. In this process, the
plant roots do not have any substratum, but they are bathed into following two types
regularly with nutrient solution. (i) Micronutrients/Microelement/Trace-element (equal to or
less than 10 mole/kg of dry matter). These acts as
cofactors or activators for the functioning of enzymes.
Classification of Mineral Elements These are eight in number, e.g. Zn, Mn, B, Cu, Mo, Cl, Ni
On the basis of their essentiality or requirement for growth and Fe.
and metabolism, the minerals can be categorised into: (ii) Macronutrients/Macroelements (more than 10 mole/kg of
1. Essential mineral elements (17 in number) These dry matter) These are involved in the synthesis of organic
elements have specific structural or physiological role. molecules. These are nine in number, e.g. C, H, O, N, S,
These are indispensable for plants to complete their life P, K, Mg and Ca. Of these macronutrients, carbon,
cycle, e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc. hydrogen and oxygen are mainly obtained from CO2 and
H2O, while the others are absorbed from the soil.

The essential mineral elements, their major form, function and deficiency symptoms are given in the table below
Macroelements their functions and deficiency symptoms
Elements Obtained as Functions Deficiency symptoms
Carbon, hydrogen, Air and water l Building blocks of the body. l Normal growth cannot occur as they are
oxygen (C, H, O) l Protoplasmic constituents. building blocks of the body.
l H + governs pH.
l Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor in
respiration.
l Constituent of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids.
Nitrogen (N) NO3− , NH 4+ l Required for the formation or synthesis of amino l Chlorosis appears first in older leaves.
acid, proteins, vitamins, nucleic acid, hormones,
and NO2− l Stunted growth due to decreased protein
coenzymes, ATP and chlorophyll. synthesis.
l Premature leaf fall.
Sulphur (S) SO24− l As a constituent of amino acids like cysteine and l Chlorosis more commonly appears first in
methionine, vitamins (thiamine and biotin), young leaves.
coenzyme-A and ferredoxin. l Small chlorotic leaves in tea (tea yellow
l Increases the nodule formation in legumes, disease).
i.e. pulses. l Reduced nodulation in legume.
l Also a component of allyl sulphide in onion, garlic
(responsible for smell) and sinigrin (mustard).
Phosphorus (P) Phosphate ions l Required for the synthesis of nucleic acids, ATP, l Stunted growth.
as H2 PO 4− phospholipids, NAD and NADP. l leaves dull green or with purple and red
or HPO24− l Major functions are energy transfer, cell division, spot of anthocyanins.
phosphorylation reactions. l Chlorosis (appears late) with necrosis first
l Constituent of cell membrane. in older leaves.
l Premature abscission (i.e. fall of leaf, fruit
and flowers)
l Red blot on leaves.
l Delayed germination of seeds.
DAY FOURTEEN MINERAL NUTRITION 177

Elements Obtained as Functions Deficiency symptoms

Potassium (K) K+ l Associated with anion-cation balance in the cell, l Chlorosis followed by necrosis at the tip
(required in more K + / Na + pump in active transport. and margins of the leaves (appear first in
abundant quantities older leaves).
l Activates several enzymes (about 40).
in the meristematic l Yellow leaf margins.
l Brings about opening and closing of stomata.
tissues, buds leaves l Inhibits protein synthesis and causes
and root tips)
l Essential for photosynthesis, respiration,
scorching of leaves.
chlorophyll synthesis, etc.
Magnesium (Mg) Mg 2 + l Involved in the synthesis of nucleic acid (DNA and l Interveinal chlorosis of the older leaves.
RNA). l Inhibition of growth.
l Helps to maintain the ribosome structure. l Tips and margins of leaves turn upward.
l Constituent of the ring structure of chlorophyll. l Causes ‘sand drown’ disease in tobacco.
l Activator of enzymes involved in respiration,
photosynthesis, fat and carbohydrate metabolism.
Calcium (Ca) Ca 2 + l Component of middle lamella of cell wall. l Degeneration of meristems
(accumulates in l Controls cell permeability. (especially root apex).
older leaves and not l Chlorosis along the margins of young
remobilised)
l Needed during the formation of mitotic spindle.
leaves.
l Activator of enzymes.
l Causes blossom end rot in tomato.
l Connected with chromosome formation and many
aspects of metabolism.
l Essential for root hair growth.

Microelements their functions and deficiency symptoms

Element Obtained as Major functions Deficiency symptoms
Iron (Fe) Fe3 + or Fe2 + l As a structural component of porphyrin protein l Leads to interveinal chlorosis, particularly
complexes (e.g. cytochromes, peroxidase, catalase, in young leaves.
etc.) and ferredoxin, a member of ETS of l May be localised to single leaf or branch
chloroplast. Hence, it has a significant role in due to limited mobility.
respiration and photosynthesis.
l Green netting of citrus.
l Activates catalase enzyme and also acts as cofactor
of other enzymes
(e.g. reductive enzymes).
l Essential for chlorophyll synthesis.
− −
Boron (B) BO33 and B4O72 l Essential for meristematic activity and increases l Death of root and stem apices.
the uptake of water and calcium. l Reduction in flower number and fruit
l Essential for growth of pollen tube and formation size.
of root nodules (in leguminous plants). l Causes heart rot of beets, stem crack of
l Also regulates active salt absorption and fat celery, brown heart of turnip, internal
metabolism, hormone metabolism and cork of apple, hollow stem of cauliflower
photosynthesis. and decreased nodulation in legumes.
l Involved in carbohydrate translocation.
l For uptake and utilisation of Ca 2 + .
l Necessary for increase in the fruit size.
2+
Manganese (Mn) Mn l Activates several enzymes like malic l Leads to leaf flecking or grey spots due to
dehydrogenase, oxalosuccinic dehydrogenase chlorosis and necrosis in interveinal
(enzymes of Kreb’s cycle), nitrate reductase and zones.
hydroxyl amine reductase. In the absence of Mn, l Causes grey speck of oat, marsh spot
cells prefer ammonia over nitrate. disease in pea.
l Takes part in photolysis of water (splitting of H2O
to liberate O2 ) during photosynthesis.
l Essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll.
178 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

Elements Obtained as Functions Deficiency symptoms

Zinc (Zn) Zn2 + l Essential for the synthesis of tryptophan which is l Reduction in internode length, rossette
precursor of IAA (Indole Acetic Acid–a plant type growth.
growth substance). l Plants become dwarf with mottled and
l Activates dehydrogenases and carboxylases. yellowish leaves.
l Present in enzyme carbonic anhydrase. l Causes whiptip of maize, khaira disease of
l Promotes synthesis of cytochromes. rice, sickle leaf of coca.

Copper (Cu) Cu2 + l Component of plastocyanin and cytochrome l Leads to chlorosis and wilting of leaf
oxidase enzymes. margins.
l Involved in ETS in photosynthesis. l Necrosis at the tip of young leaves and
l Functions as an activator of several enzymes. margins.
l Required for the synthesis of enzymes necessary l In citrus, causes die back diseases.
for synthesis of ascorbic acid (vitamin-C). l In cereals and legumes, it causes
reclamation disease.
l Causes exanthema disease, in which bark
splits up at places to exude gum or resin.
Chlorine (Cl) Cl − l It is required for photolysis of water during l Leads to wilted leaves which later become
photosynthesis in photosystem-II. chlorotic and finally attain a bronze
l With Na + and K + , it helps in determining solute colour.
concentration and anion-cation balance in the l Roots become stunted or thickened and
cells. club-shaped and fruiting is reduced.
l It increases water volume inside the cell and also l Photosynthesis is also inhibited.
regulates carbohydrate metabolism. l Swollen root tips.
l Flower abscission.
2+
Nickel (Ni) Ni l Metabolism of urea and ureides. l Leaf tip necrosis.
l Helps in germination and early seedling growth of
jack bean seed.
−
Molybdenum (Mo) MO24 l Aids in nitrogen fixation, as it is an activator of l Mottling and chlorosis first in older leaves
nitrate reductase. and then in younger leaves.
l It is required for the synthesis of ascorbic acid. l May lead to abscission of flowers
l It acts as an activator of some dehydrogenases and inhibition of fruit formation.
phosphatases. l Causes whiptail disease of cauliflower
l Components of nitrogenase, nitrate reductase and (leaves become flaccid and brown).
activator of dehydrogenase.

Toxicity of Micronutrients Absorption of Mineral Elements

l
Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces l
Essential elements become available to the roots due to the
the dry weight of tissues by about 10% is considered weathering of rocks.
toxic. Such critical concentration varies widely among l
These processes enrich the soil with dissolved ions
different micronutrients. and inorganic salts. Soil not only supplies minerals, but also
l
The moderate decrease of micronutrients causes harbours nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other microbes.
deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes l
It holds water and supplies air to the roots thus, acts as a
toxicity. Toxicity level for any element varies for matrix that stabilises the plant.
different plants. l
The deficiency of essential minerals in soil can be restored by
For example, excess of manganese may induce the applying fertilisers and manures, for the better crop yield.
deficiency of iron, magnesium and calcium. Thus, the l
Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with the
manganese toxicity actually causes the deficiency ascending stream of water, which is pulled up through the
symptoms of iron, magnesium and calcium. plant by transpirational pull.
DAY FOURTEEN MINERAL NUTRITION 179

l
The analysis of xylem sap shows the presence of Atmospheric nitrogen (N2)
mineral salts in it.
l
The initial rapid uptake of ions into the ‘free space’ or Biological Industrial Electrical Denitrification
‘outer space’ of cells, i.e. the apoplast is passive. In the nitrogen-fixation nitrogen-fixation nitrogen-fixation
second phase of uptake, the ions are taken in slowly
into the ‘inner space’, i.e. the symplast of the cells. NH3 NO2– NO3–
l
The passive movement of ions into the apoplast usually Soil ‘N’ Pool
occurs through ion-channels, the transmembrane (Ammonification) Uptake by plants
proteins that function as selective pores.
l
The entry or exit of ions to and from the symplast Decaying biomass Plant biomass
requires the expenditure of metabolic energy (ATP)
which is an active process.
Animal
l
Symplast includes translocation through biomass
plasmodesmata. Nitrogen cycle
l
The movement of ions is usually called flux. The inward
movement into cells is influx and the outward
(i) Nitrogen (N 2 ) Fixation
movement is efflux. (Biological nitrogen-fixation)
l
The conversion of atmospheric molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) into
usable forms of nitrogen like nitrate, ammonia, amino acids,
Metabolism of Nitrogen etc., is called nitrogen fixation.
l
Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is l
It may be abiological (due to lightning and thundering or in
the most prevalent element in living organisms. industries) or biological. The conversion of molecular
nitrogen into inorganic nitrogenous compounds through
l
Atmospheric nitrogen exists in molecular form as two
bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is called
nitrogen atoms are joined by a very strong triple
biological nitrogen fixation. The organisms include both
covalent bond (N ≡ N).
free-living and symbiotic forms.
l
The molecular nitrogen is a highly inert gas and it is (a) Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria, e.g.
difficult for most of the living organisms, including the l
Azotobacter, Beijerinckia – Aerobic, saprotrophic
higher plants, to obtain it directly for their use. l
Clostridium, Bacillus – Anaerobic, saprotrophic
l
For this purpose, it must be fixed, i.e. combined with l
Desulphovibrio – Chemotrophic
other elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to l
Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodospirillum, Chromatium
form compounds (such as nitrates, nitrites, ammonium
– Anaerobic, photoautotrophic
salts, etc.) before it is absorbed and utilised by the
plants. (b) Free-living nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria, e.g. Calothrix,
Lyngbia, Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Trichodesmium,
l
The microbial decomposition of organic remains of dead Anabaena, Nostoc.
plants and animals supplies the nitrogen to soil in form
(c) Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria, e.g. Rhizobium,
of nitrate and ammonium ions. Microbes also converts
atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms, this process is Frankia, Spirullum, etc.
called nitrogen-fixation. (d) Symbiotic nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria, e.g. Anabaena
and Nostoc species are common symbionts in lichens,
Azolla in rice fields and coralloid root in Cycas.
Nitrogen Cycle
l
Nitrogen is the most prevalent element for living Nodule Formation
organisms. In soil, it is available to the roots of higher l
Rhizobia multiply and colonise the surroundings of roots and
plants mostly as NO3− (nitrate), NH+4 (ammonium) and get attached to epidermal and root hair cells. The root hairs
NO2− (nitrite) ions. curl and the bacteria invade the root hair.
l
The regular supply of nitrogen is maintained through l
An infection thread is produced carrying the bacteria into the
the nitrogen cycle in nature. cortex of the root, where they initiate the nodule formation.
l
N2 cycle can be conveniently discussed under the
l
Then, the bacteria are released from the thread into the cells,
following steps: which leads to the differentiation of specialised
nitrogen-fixing cells.
(i) N2 -fixation
l
The nodule thus formed, establishes a direct vascular
(ii) Ammonification connection with the host for the exchange of nutrients.
(iii) Nitrification l
The nodule contains all the necessary biochemical
(iv) Denitrification components, such as the enzyme nitrogenase, an Mo-Fe
180 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

protein that is highly sensitive to oxygen called, The reaction catalysed by nitrogenase is summarised as
Leghaemoglobin pigment (oxygen scavenger) protects follows
nitrogenase enzyme from its oxidation by oxygen. It is a
N2 + 8e − + 8H+ + 16ATP →
Dinitrogenase
red pigment present in the peribacteroid space in the
cytosol of nodule cells. 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi
l
The ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase requires a very high
Soil particles Hook
input of energy (8ATP for each NH3 produced) which is
obtained from the respiration of the host cells.

Root hair NOTE Few plants are able to grow even in nitrogen deficient soils,
without the association of nitrogen-fixing organisms.
Bacteria These plants obtain or fulfil their nitrogen requirements by
trapping insects and are called insectivorous plants, e.g.
Bacteria Nepenthes, Drosera, Venus fly trap, Utricularia, etc.

(ii) Ammonification
l
Proteins and nucleic acids of the dead remains of plants,
animals and excretory products of animals are degraded
by microorganisms (e.g. Bacillus ramosus, B. vulgaris,
Infection
thread Clostridium, Actinomyces, etc.), with the liberation of
containing ammonia. This process is called ammonification.
bacteria
l
Proteins are first broken up into amino acids.
Inner cortex and pericycle Mature nodule
cells under division l
The later are deaminated to form ammonia.
Development of root nodules in soybean l
Organic acids released during the process are used by
microorganisms for their own metabolism.
Mechanism of Biological N2 -Fixation Protein →
2+ H O
R —NH2 →
2
R  OH +
H O
NH3
Amino acid Organic Ammonia
l
The fixation of nitrogen in root nodules of legumes takes acid
place in the presence of enzyme nitrogenase. l
Ammonia changes from gaseous to ionic form in the
l
The active nitrogenase complex contains protein-1 and soil and is utilised by the plants provided that pH of the
protein-2 components in the ratio of 1 : 2. soil is more than six and plants contain abundant organic
l
Fixation of nitrogen, i.e. its reduction to NH3 is acids for its uptake. Plants, e.g. Begonia and Oxalis can
accomplished in three steps. store ammonium ions.
l
In each step, two electrons (also 2 protons) are transferred
from the reduced coenzyme NADPH to nitrogen.
(iii) Nitrification
l
Di-imide and hydrazine are formed as intermediates. ATP,
which comes through respiration provides energy during
l
Ammonia thus produced by the degradation of manures
this reaction. and organic matter may not be available to plants because
it readily leaches into the soil.
2e − 2e − 2e −
N ≡≡ N →
+
HN == NH →
+ H2 N — NH2 →
+
2NH3 l
It is converted into nitrate with the help of certain
2H 2H 2H
Di -imide Hydrazine
microorganisms.
l
At each step, 2 electrons and 2 protons are transferred l
This conversion (oxidation) of ammonia to nitrate is called
to nitrogen through the components of nitrogenase
nitrification.
complex.
ADP+Pi l
It is performed in two steps, i.e. nitrite formation and
NADPH –2
–1 nitrate formation.
Protein Protein
reduction N l
In the first step, ammonium ions are oxidised to nitrites.
oxidation
Mo Nitrosomonas are the most important agents of oxidation of
+
2H ammonia to nitrite in soil.
3 2
l
Certain other bacteria are Nitrosococcus, Nitrosolobus,
–1
–2 Protein Nitrosospira, Nocardia and Streptomyces.
Protein oxidation 2NH3
+ reduction Mo
l
In the second step, oxidation of nitrite to nitrate takes place
NADP 3
ATP
and is dependent on the activities of bacteria belonging
Mechanism of symbiotic N2 -fixation
mainly to genera Nitrobacter.
DAY FOURTEEN MINERAL NUTRITION 181

l
In addition, certain fungi, e.g. Cephalosporium, Aspergillus l
This NH+4 ion is used to synthesise amino acids in plants
and Penicillium have been reported to carry out by two main ways
nitrification.
(a) In reductive amination, ammonia reacts with
Nitrosomonas
NH+4 +3/2O2 NO2− +
+ H2O + H ± 84 kcal energy α-ketoglutaric acid and forms glutamic acid as indicated
in the equation given below
NO2− + 1/2 O2 → NO3− ± 17.8 kcal energy Glutamate
α-ketoglutaric acid + NH4+ + NADPH + H+ →
Dehydrogenase
Nitrate Assimilation in Plants
Glutamate + H2O + NADP
Nitrate cannot be utilised by plants as such. It is first reduced
to ammonia before being incorporated into organic (b) Transamination involves the transfer of amino group
compounds. Reduction of nitrate occurs in following two from one amino acid to the keto group of a keto acid.
steps l
Glutamic acid is the main amino acid, from which
Step I Reduction of nitrate to nitrite is carried out by an the transfer of NH2 (the amino group) takes place and
inducible enzyme, nitrate reductase. other amino acids are formed through
transamination.
l
The enzyme is a molybdo-flavo-protein.
l
The enzyme, transaminase catalyses all such
l
It requires a reduced coenzyme NADH or NADPH for its reactions.
activity, which is brought in contact with nitrate by FAD or
FMN.
l
Aspargine and glutamine are the two most important
amides, found in plants that form structural part of
Nitrate reductase
NO3 + NAD(P)H + H+ → NO2 + H2O + NADP+ proteins.
FAD/FMN (Nitrite)
l
Since, amides contain more nitrogen than the amino
Step II Reduction of nitrite is carried out by the enzyme acids, they are transported to other parts of the plant
nitrite reductase. via xylem vessels during transpiration.
l
The enzyme is a metalloflavoprotein, which contains l
The nodules of some plants (e.g. soybean) also export
copper and iron. the fixed nitrogen as ureides. These compounds also
l
It occurs inside the chloroplast in leaf cells and leucoplast have a particularly high nitrogen to carbon ratio.
of other cells. Nitrite reductase requires reducing power
which is obtained from NADPH and NADH (NADPH in (iv) Denitrification
illuminated cells). l
Some microorganisms use nitrate under anaerobic
l
Reduction process also requires ferredoxin, which occurs conditions and they reduce nitrates into gaseous
in green tissues of higher plants. compounds of N2 .
l
It is presumed that in higher plants, either nitrite is l
The bacteria involved in this process are Pseudomonas
translocated to leaf cells or some other electron donor (like denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans and Micrococcus
FAD) operates in unilluminated cells. The product of denitrificans.
nitrite reduction is ammonia. l
Some species of Serratia, Bacillus and Achromobacter are
Nitrite reductase
2NO2− +
+ 7NAD(P)H + 7H → also involved.
Ferredoxin l
This process depletes important nutrients of soil, causes
2NH3 + 4H2O + 7NAD(P)+ acidification of soil and helps to solubilise harmful metals
Fate of Ammonia present in soil.
l
At physiological pH, the ammonia is protonated to form 2NO3− → 2 NO2− → 2 NO → N2O → N2
ammonium (NH+4 ) ion.
182 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 An essential element is one which 12 Attractive colour of apples may be induced by
(a) improves plant growth reducing the supply of
(b) is present in plant ash (a) Ca (b) N (c) K (d) B
(c) is available in soil 13 Plant growth is stunted due to the deficiency of
(d) is indispensable for growth and is irreplaceable
(a) nitrogen and potassium (b) potassium and iron
2 The framework elements of plants are (c) calcium and iron (d) All of these
(a) magnesium, copper and iron
14 Deficiency symptoms of nitrogen and potassium are
(b) copper, carbon and oxygen
visible first in ª CBSE-AIPMT 2014
(c) manganese, calcium and nitrogen
(d) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (a) senescent leaves (b) young leaves
(c) roots (d) buds
3 Which one of the following statements can best explain the
term critical concentration of an essential element? 15 Which one of the following helps in the absorption of
(a) Essential element concentration below which plant growth phosphorus from soil by plants? ª CBSE-AIPMT 2011
is retarded (a) Rhizobium (b) Frankia
(b) Essential element concentration below which plant growth (c) Anabaena (d) Glomus
becomes enhanced
(c) Essential element concentration below which plant
16 The most common ion found freely in the cell is
remains in the vegetative phase (a) phosphorus (b) potassium
(d) None of the above (c) iron (d) sulphur
4 The minimal concentration of a macroelement per gram of 17 Sulphur is an important nutrient for optimum growth
dry matter in plants is and productivity in
(a) 10 in mole/kg of dry matter (a) pulse crops (b) cereals
(b) 100 in mole/kg of dry matter (c) fibre crops (d) oilseed crops
(c) 15 in mole/kg of dry matter 18 Yellowing of tea leaves occurs due to the deficiency of
(d) 1000 in mole/kg of dry matter
(a) Mo (b) S
5 Which one of the following is macronutrient? (c) B (d) Mg
(a) Ca (b) Mo (c) Mn (d) Zn 19 Biotin contains which one of the following elements?
6 In which of the following, all three are macronutrients? (a) Cobalt (b) Sulphur
(a) Iron, copper, molybdenum ª NEET-II 2016 (c) Iron (d) Magnesium
(b) Molybdenum, magnesium, manganese 20 Deficiency symptoms of an element tend to appear first
(c) Nitrogen, nickel, phosphorus in young leaves. It indicates that the element is
(d) Boron, zinc, manganese relatively immobile. Which one of the following
7 Essential micronutrients are also known as elemental deficiency would show such symptoms?
(a) inorganic nutrients (b) trace elements (a) Sulphur (b) Magnesium
(c) radioisotope (d) organic nutrients (c) Nitrogen (d) Potassium
8 Microelements are those essential elements, which are 21 Which one of the following elements is responsible for
required by the plants in concentration maintaining turgor in cells?
(a) less than 10 mole/kg of dry matter (a) Potassium (b) Sodium
(b) less than 1 mole/ 10kg of dry matter (c) Magnesium (d) Calcium
(c) more than 1 mole/kg of dry matter 22 A plant requires magnesium for
(d) equal to 1 mole/kg of dry matter
(a) holding cells together
9 Which one of the following is micronutrient? (b) protein synthesis
(a) N (b) Ca (c) Cu (d) C (c) chlorophyll synthesis
10 Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of (d) cell wall development
(a) NO−3 (b) NH3 (c) NO−2 (d) Both (a) and (c) 23 Manganese is required in
11 Complete suppression or delay in flowering occurs due to (a) nucleic acid synthesis
the deficiency of (b) plant cell wall formation
(a) phosphorus (b) nitrogen (c) photolysis of water during photosynthesis
(c) calcium (d) iron (d) chlorophyll synthesis
DAY FOURTEEN MINERAL NUTRITION 183

24 Rapid deterioration of root and shoot occurs due to the 37 Minerals absorbed by roots move to the leaf through
deficiency of (a) xylem (b) phloem
(a) calcium (b) phosphorus (c) sieve tubes (d) None of these
(c) carbon (d) nitrogen
38 Movement of ions or molecules against the
25 Which is essential for the growth of root tip? electrochemical gradient is called
ª NEET-II 2016 (a) diffusion (b) pinocytosis
(a) Zn (b) Fe (c) Ca (d) Mn (c) Brownian movement (d) active transport
26 Which one of the following elements in plants is not 39 The fact that the energy of metabolism is used in uptake
remobilised? ª CBSE-AIPMT 2011 of ions is demonstrated by
(a) Calcium (b) Potassium (a) increased ion uptake in the presence of O2
(c) Sulphur (d) Phosphorus (b) decreased ion uptake in the presence of O2
27 In which of the following forms is iron absorbed by (c) increased ion uptake in the presence of ATP
(d) increased ion uptake in the presence of NAD
plants? ª CBSE-AIPMT 2018
(a) Free element (b) Ferrous 40 Hydroponics is a system of growing plants in
(c) Ferric (d) Both (b) and (c) (a) soilless cultures or solution cultures
(b) acidic soils
28 The elements that take part in catalytic reactions are
(c) soilless cultures with alkaline pH
(a) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (d) soilless cultures with acidic pH
(b) zinc, manganese and copper
(c) phosphorus, potassium and oxygen 41 Select the mismatched.
(d) nitrogen, oxygen and zinc (a) Frankia – Alnus
29 Which of the following elements is absorbed by plants (b) Rhodospirillum – Mycorrhiza
from soil directly? (c) Anabaena – Nitrogen-fixer
(a) Carbon (b) Nitrogen (c) Boron (d) Hydrogen (d) Rhizobium – Alfa-alfa

30 Which element is useful for seed germination? 42 Nitrogen-fixing bacterium is

(a) B (b) Fe (c) Mg (d) Zn (a) Frankia (b) Acetobacter
(c) Mycoplasma (d) Chlamydia
31 The brown colour of leaves of cabbage, is due to the
deficiency of 43 Nitrogen-fixation in root nodules of Alnus is brought
(a) boron (b) nitrogen (c) sulphur (d) calcium about by ª CBSE-AIPMT 2009
(a) Bradyrhizobium (b) Clostridium
32 Exanthema in citrus is caused due to the deficiency of
(c) Frankia (d) Azorthizobium
(a) Cu (b) Zn (c) Fe (d) Mn
44 The common nitrogen-fixer in paddy field is
33 The deficiency of molybdenum causes
ª CBSE-AIPMT 2010
(a) wilting of plant
(a) Rhizobium (b) Azospirillum
(b) frequent leaf fall before senescence
(c) Oscillatoria (d) Frankia
(c) chlorosis in plant
(d) mottling and necrosis in plant 45 A nitrogen- fixing microbe associated with Azolla in rice
34 An element playing important role in nitogen-fixation is field is
(a) Spirulina (b) Anabaena
ª CBSE-AIPMT 2010
(c) Frankia (d) Tolypothrix
(a) molybdenum (b) copper
(c) manganese (d) zinc 46 The function of nitrogen- flxation in Anabaena
(cyanobacterium) is performed by
35 The elements that cause toxic effect upon protoplasm are
(a) thylakoid (b) heterocyst
(a) arsenic, copper and mercury
(c) phycocyanin (d) phycoerythrin
(b) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
(c) arsenic, carbon and mercury 47 During biological nitrogen-fixation, inactivation of
(d) copper, calcium and phosphorus nitrogenase by oxygen poisoning is prevented by
36 The deficiencies of micronutrients not only affect growth ª CBSE-AIPMT 2015
of plants but also vital functions such as photosynthetic (a) leghaemoglobin (b) xanthophyll
and mitochondrial electron flow. Among the list given (c) carotene (d) cytochrome
below, which group of three elements shall affect most,
48 The first stable product of fixation of atmospheric
both photosynthetic and mitochondrial electron
nitrogen in leguminous plants is ª NEET 2013
transport?
(a) NO−2 (b) ammonia
(a) Co, Ni, Mo (b) Ca, K, Na (c) NO−3 (d) glutamate
(c) Mn, Co, Ca (d) Cu, Mn, Fe
184 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

49 Component of nitrogenase and nitrate reductase is (a) A–Nitrification, B–Ammonification, C–Nitrobacter,

(a) N (b) Mo D–Nitrosomonas, E–Denitrification,
(c) CO (d) No specific component (b) A–Ammonification, B–Denitrification, C–Nitrification,
50 The pigment protein present in nodulated roots which is D–Nitrosomonas, E–Nitrobacter
inhibited by Rhizobium is (c) A–Denitrification, B–Nitrobacter, C–Nitrification,
(a) nitrate reductase (b) hydrogenase D–Nitrosomonas, E–Ammonification
(c) leghaemoglobin (d) plastocyanin (d) A–Nitrobacter, B–Denitrification, C–Nitrosomonas,
D–Ammonification, E– Nitrification
51 The function of leghaemoglobin during biological
nitrogen-fixation in root nodules of legumes is to 54 Match the following columns.
(a) convert atmospheric N2 to NH3
Column I Column II
(b) convert ammonia to nitrite
(c) transport oxygen for activity of nitrogenase A. Rhizobium 1. Nostoc
(d) protect nitrogenase from oxygen
B. Azotobacter 2. Soilless plant production
52 The insectivorous plants can grow well in the deficiency of
C. Cyanobacteria 3. Nitrogen-fixing
(a) nitrogen (b) oxygen
(c) carbon dioxide (d) hydrogen D. Hydroponics 4. Root nodules
53 Identify the labels in the given flow diagram which links
the major nitrogen pools. Codes
Choose the correct combination from the options given A B C D
below. (a) 4 3 1 2
(b) 2 1 4 3
Atmospheric N2 (c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 2 1 3 4
Biological Industrial Electrical B
N2-fixation N2-fixation N2-fixation 55 Assertion Root nodules are pinkish in colour internally.
C Reason Pink colour is due to the presence of pigment
NH3 NO–2 NO3– leghaemoglobin.
D E
Soil ‘N’ Pool (a) Both assertion and reason are true and reason is the
correct explanation of assertion
A Uptake
(b) Both assertion and reason are true, but reason is not the
correct explanation of assertion
Decaying biomass Plant biomass
(c) Assertion is true, but reason is false
Animal biomass (d) Both assertion and reason are flase

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Critical elements are 4 Passive absorption of minerals depends on
(a) N, P and S (b) N, S and K (a) temperature
(c) N, P and K (d) P, K and S (b) temperature and metabolic inhibitor
2 Aeroponics is also called as (c) metabolic inhibitor
(a) soilless cultivation of plants (d) humidity
(b) parthenocarpy 5 Which of the following is not caused by the deficiency of
(c) vivipary mineral nutrition?
(d) phytotron (a) Necrosis
3 Which one of the following is not a micronutrient? (b) Chlorosis
(a) Molybdenum (b) Magnesium (c) Etiolation
(c) Zinc (d) Boron (d) Shortening of internodes
DAY FOURTEEN MINERAL NUTRITION 185

6 Which one of the following elements is not an essential 15 What is the significance of ash in the study of mineral
micronutrient for plant growth? nutrition of plants?
(a) Mn (b) Zn (a) It tells that which minerals are present in the soil
(c) Cu (d) Ca (b) It informs about which element is essential and in which
7 The plants grown in magnesium deficient but urea amount it is necessary for a particular plant
(c) It is of no practical significance
sprayed soil would show
(d) It indicates that how much irrigation is needed for a plant
(a) deep green foliage
(b) early flowering 16 Why slight deficiency of phosphorus is considered to be
(c) yellowing of leaves useful to the plants against dessication?
(d) loss of pigments in petals (a) It induces greater mechanical tissues and higher
8 If by radiation, all nitrogenase enzymes are inactivated, root/shoot ratio
then there will be no (b) It induces greater mechanical tissues and increase in
the rate of photosynthesis
(a) fixation of nitrogen in legumes
(c) It induces greater mechanical tissues and increase in
(b) fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
the rate of respiration
(c) conversion from nitrate to nitrite in legumes
(d) conversion from ammonium to nitrate in soil (d) It induces greater mechanical tissues and increase in
flowering
9 The function of leghaemoglobin in the root nodules of
legumes is 17 Is it possible to get a rough idea of the deficiency of an
essential element in the soil without doing soil tests?
(a) oxygen removal
(b) nodule differentiation (a) Only by making a detailed analysis of the ash of a plant
(c) expression of nif gene growing in it
(d) inhibition of nitrogenase activity (b) By noting the typical morphological symptoms of
deficiency shown by plants growing in it
10 The ability of the Venus fly trap to capture the insects is
(c) By observing the physical texture of the soil
due to
(d) By determining the dry weight of the plant
(a) chemical stimulation by the prey
(b) a passive process requiring no special ability on the part 18 Farmers in a particular region were concerned
of the plant that premature yellowing of leaves of a pulse crop
(c) specialised ‘muscle-like’ cells might cause decrease in the yield. Which treatment
(d) rapid turgor pressure changes could be most beneficial to obtain maximum seed yield?
11 Which of the following is a flowering plant with nodules (a) Frequent irrigation of the crop
containing filamentous nitrogen-fixing microorganism? (b) Treatment of the plants with cytokinins along with a
(a) Casuarina equisetifolia small dose of nitrogenous fertiliser
(b) Crotalaria juncea (c) Removal of all yellow leaves and sparying the
(c) Cycas revoluta remaining green leaves with 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy
(d) Cicer arietinum acetic acid
12 Who proved for the first time that the plants contain a (d) Application of iron and magnesium to promote
large number of minerals and microelements? synthesis of chlorophyll
(a) De Saussure (1840) 19 Identify the option which correctly represents the gene
(b) Leibeg (1840) responsible for the formation of nodules in leguminous
(c) Glauber and Mayhow (1656) plants.
(d) Arnon and Stout (1939) (a) Nod gene of legume and nif gene of bacteria
13 Phosphorus and nitrogen ions generally get depleted in (b) Nod gene of bacteria and nif gene of legume
soil because they usually occur as (c) Nod gene of legume and cry gene of bacteria
(a) neutral ions (d) Nod gene of bacteria and cry gene of legume
(b) negatively charged ions 20 Identify the correct statements from those given below.
(c) positively charged ions
(d) both positively and negatively charged but I. Necrosis is the death of tissues, particularly in leaf,
disproportionate mixture caused by deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu and K.
14 Nitrifying bacteria II. Deficiency of N, S, Mo causes inhibition of cell division.
(a) convert free nitrogen to nitrogen compounds III. Mn 2+ is toxic beyond 600 µg/g for soyabean.
(b) convert proteins into ammonia IV. Ca 2+ aids in nodule formation in legumes.
(c) reduce nitrates to free nitrogen (a) I and IV (b) I and III
(d) oxidise ammonia to nitrates (c) I and II (d) III and IV
186 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FOURTEEN

21 Match the following columns. 22 Assertion Deficiency of sulphur causes chlorosis in

Column I Column II plants.
A. Reductive amination 1. Destruction of chlorophyll Reason Sulphur is a consituent of chlorophyll
B. Chlorosis 2. 16 proteins and nucleic acids.
C. Essential elements 3. Death of cells (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is
D. Necrosis 4. Synthesis of amino acid the correct explanation of Assertion
5. Growth of cells (b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is
not the correct explanation of Assertion
Codes
(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 4 1 2 3 (d) Both Assertion and Reason are flase
(c) 5 4 2 1 (d) 5 4 1 2

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (d) 2 (d) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (c) 7 (b) 8 (a) 9 (c) 10 (d)
11 (b) 12 (b) 13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (d) 16 (a) 17 (a) 18 (b) 19 (b) 20 (a)
21 (a) 22 (c) 23 (c) 24 (a) 25 (c) 26 (a) 27 (d) 28 (b) 29 (c) 30 (a)
31 (a) 32 (a) 33 (d) 34 (a) 35 (a) 36 (d) 37 (a) 38 (d) 39 (c) 40 (a)
41 (b) 42 (a) 43 (c) 44 (b) 45 (b) 46 (b) 47 (a) 48 (b) 49 (b) 50 (d)
51 (d) 52 (a) 53 (b) 54 (a) 55 (a)

1 (c) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7 (c) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (d)
SESSION 2 11 (a) 12 (b) 13 (b) 14 (d) 15 (b) 16 (a) 17 (b) 18 (d) 19 (a) 20 (b)
21 (b) 22 (c)
DAY FIFTEEN

Photosynthesis
Learning & Revision for the Day
u Site of Photosynthesis u Spectrum of Light u Photorespiration (C 2-Cycle)
u Pigments Involved in u Photosystems u Factors Affecting
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis
u Mechanism of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a means of autotrophic nutrition. It is the formation of carbohydrates

from CO2 and H2O with the help of sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll, contained in
the green parts of plants. It is an anabolic process.
Light
6CO2 + 12H2O  → C 6H12O 6 + 6O2 ↑ + 6H2O
Chlorophyll

l
Ruben and Kamen (1941) proved that the source of evolved oxygen (O2 ) in the
photosynthesis is water (H2O) and not carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
l
The source of oxygen in carbohydrate produced through photosynthesis is carbon
dioxide (CO2 ).
l
In green plants, water (H2O) is the hydrogen donor and is oxidised to molecular oxygen
(O2 ), whereas in purple and green sulphur bacteria, H2S is the hydrogen donor and
sulphur or sulphate is the oxidation product.
PREP
l
Cyanobacteria are first photosynthetic organisms evolved during the course of
evolution.
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
l
In bacterial photosynthesis (e.g. green sulpher bacteria), H2 , H2S and other compounds
are employed as hydrogen donor instead of water. Therefore, it occurs without u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
evolution of oxygen, hence is anoxygenic. u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
l
Bacteria have only one pigment system which is similar to photosystem-I (PS-I). (Without referring Explanations)
l
The pigment containing structures such as thylakoids in green plants are not found in
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and photosynthetic bacteria (prokaryotes). They are u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
scattered in cytoplasm. u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
l
In these organisms, photosynthetic pigments are distributed uniformly on or in the In order to expect good rank in NEET, your
lamella (unilamellar thylakoids). Accuracy Level should be above 85
& Prep Level should be above 75.
l
About 90% of total photosynthesis is carried out by algae in oceans and in freshwater.
Only about 0.2% of the sunlight energy falling on earth is utilised by photosynthetic
organisms.
188 40 DAYS ~ NEET BIOLOGY DAY FIFTEEN

Site of Photosynthesis Spectrum of Light

l
In eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place in l
Light is a narrow band of radiant energy within the
chloroplasts present in cytoplasm, which vary in continuous electromagnetic spectrum of radiation emitted by
numbers from one (e.g. Chlorella) to about 100 (e.g. the sun. Visible light ranges from 390-760 nm.
palisade mesophyll cells). l
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the region of
l
Chloroplasts are visible under light microscope wavelength in which photosynthesis takes place normally,
(3-10 µm diameter). They are covered by two which is approximately 50% of the total incidented solar
membranes each of 9-10 nm thickness. radiation.
l
Internally, a chloroplast contains matrix or stroma and l
It ranges from 400-700 nm and plants capture only 2-5% of
thylakoids. the total PAR.
l
Thylakoids are the chlorophyll containing flattened l
Absorption spectrum is the graphic representation or the
membranous sacs present in the stroma. curve showing the various wavelengths of light absorbed by a
l
At some places, 20-50 thylakoid discs get aggregated to pigment.
form granum. l
Chlorophyll absorbs light radiations in blue and red parts of
l
Thylakoids are the site of light reaction, whereas the light spectrum (430 nm and 662 nm for chlorophyll-a,
stroma is the site of dark reaction. 455 nm and 644 nm for chlorophyll-b).
l
Action spectrum is the actual rate of photosynthesis with
respect to the wavelength of light absorbed.
Pigments Involved in l
It is closely related to the absorption spectra of chlorophyll-a
Photosynthesis and b and is measured in terms of O2 evolved at different
light wavelengths.
The most common photosynthetic pigments in higher
plants and green algae are as follows
Emerson-Enhancement Effect
1. Chlorophyll-a is an essential pigment in l
In 1950, Robert Emerson and his co-workers found that if
photosynthesis because it can convert light energy
light of shorter wavelengths was provided at the same time as
into chemical energy (ATP).
the longer red wavelengths, photosynthesis was even faster than
l
It is also called as universal photosynthetic the sum of two rates with either colour alone. This synergism
pigment or primary photosynthetic pigment. or enhancement is known as Emerson-Enhancement Effect.
l
The basic structure of all chlorophyll molecules l
Robert Emerson, while determining the quantum yield of
is a porphyrin system, in which four pyrrole photosynthesis in Chlorella by using monochromatic light of
(tetrapyrrole) rings are linked together by different wavelengths noticed a sharp decrease in quantum
methane groups to form a ring system. yield at wavelengths greater than 680 mµ. Because this
2. Carotenoid is a group of accessory photosynthetic decrease in the quantum yield took place in red parts of the
pigments of yellowish or reddish colour. spectrum. The phenomenon was celled as red-drop
l
They are of two types, i.e. carotenes (e.g. l
Emerson’s experiments gave conclusive idea that process of
β-carotene) and xanthophylls (lutein and photosynthesis involves two light reactions, one is carried by
zeaxanthin). short wavelength absorbing form of chlorophyll-a and other
l
Carotenoids absorb light radiations in the by accessory pigments including a long wavelength
mid-region of light spectrum. absorbing form of chlorophyll-a. This led to the idea of two
photosystems.
l
They convert nascent oxygen to molecular oxygen
and protect various chloroplast constituents from
nascent oxygen. Photosystems
3. Phycobilins are water soluble, open tetrapyrrole These are the functional and structural units of protein
pigments found in red algae and blue-green algae. complexes involved in photosynthesis. Each photosystem has a
These are of three types, i.e. phycocyanin (blue), reaction centre which contains a special chlorophyll-a molecule
allophycocyanin (blue) and phycoerythrin (red). and is different in both the photosystems.
4. Pigments like chlorophyll-b, carotenoid, etc., act as 1. Photosystem-I (PS-I) is present in stroma thylakoids and
accessory pigments because they collect and transfer non-appressed part of granal thylakoids. Its reaction centre
light energy to chlorophyll-a for photosynthesis, has a peak absorption at 700 nm, called P700 .
and also protects chlorophyll from its l
It can perform cyclic photophosphorylation
photo-oxidation. independently.