Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

In this chapter we will discuss about dual nature of radiation and dual nature of particle,
sometimes radiations behave like particle and particle behaves like waves this phenomenon
is called dual nature of radiation and matter.

 Dual nature of radiation – For or few phenomena, the radiations shows wave nature and
for few phenomena, they show particle nature. This is called dual nature of radiations.
 Dual nature of particles - Moving material particles should also behave like waves of a
definite wavelength. This is called dual nature of matter.

Work function
work function is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to eject out an
electron just out of the surface without giving any velocity to it. It is denoted by Φ or W
and measured in terms of electron volt (eV)

S. No. Metal Work S. No. Metal Work function

function(eV) (eV)
1 Cesium 2.14 8 Mercury 4.49
2 Potassium 2.30 9 Copper 4.65
3 Sodium 2.75 10 Silver 4.70
4 Calcium 3.20 11 Germanium 4.75
5 Molybdenum 4.17 12 Silicon 4.85
6 Lead 4.25 13 Nickel 5.15
7 Aluminium 4.28 14 Platinum 5.65

1 Electron Volt Energy

When 1 electron is accelerated in potential difference of 1volt then energy stored in it is
called 1 electron volt (eV).
Potential Energy of electron = Charge x Potential Difference
1eV = charge on an electron x 1 volt
Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212
= 1.6 x 10-19C x 1V
= 1.6 x 10-19 Joule
1MeV = 1.6 x 10-19 x 109 Joule
= 1.6 x 10-10 Joule

Electron Emission
The phenomenon of ejecting out the electrons from the surface of metal is called electron
emission. The phenomenon of ejection of electrons are of four types
1. Thermionic emission
2. Photoelectric emission
3. Field emission
4. Secondary emission

1. Thermionic emission
The phenomenon of the emission of electrons when it is heated, is called thermionic
emission.
When a metal is heated then the kinetic energy of its free electrons increases. When the
energy of free electrons becomes more than its work function then electrons starts to emit
out from the surface. Electron emitted are called ‘thermoions’

2. Photoelectric emission:
When electromagnetic radiation of suit- able frequency is allowed to fall on a
photosensitive substance the electrons are ejected from the surface. This phenomenon is
called photoelectric emission.
The electrons thus emitted are called "photoelectrons".

3. Field emission
When a strong electric field (of the order of 1010 V/m) is applied on the surface of metal
then kinetic energy of free electrons increases. Hence, they leave the surface of metal. This
phenomenon is called field emission.
The phenomena of ejection of electrons from the surface of metal due to the application of
strong electric field is called field emission.
Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212

4. Secondary emission
When the electrons having high kinetic energy are made to incident on the metal surface
then the electrons present in the metal absorb the energy. As a result, the kinetic energy of
these electrons increases. When it becomes more than work function of metal then the
electrons are ejected out from the metal surface. This phenomenon is called secondary
emission. The incident electrons are called primary electrons and emitted electrons are
called secondary electrons.

Photoelectric effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal when illuminated by
the light of suitable wavelength or frequency is known as photoelectric effect.

 Threshold frequency
The minimum frequency of incident radiations which can eject photoelectrons from the
material (whatever may be the intensity) is known as threshold frequency or cutoff
frequency of that material. It is denoted by υ0. The current produced is called photoelectric
current.

 Laws of Photoelectric Emission

On the basis of experimental observation Lenard and Millikan propounded the following
laws which are known as law of photoelectric emission:
(i) For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation the number of photoelectrons
ejected per second from the metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.

(ii) The photoelectrons are emitted with a range of kinetic energies from zero up to a
maximum and the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend on the
intensity of light (for light of fixed frequency).

(iii) The maximum kinetic energy of the photo- electrons depends on the frequency of
incident light and varies linearly with frequency. For a given photo sensitive material, there
exist a minimum frequency below which the emission of photoelectrons stops completely.
This frequency is called threshold frequency.

(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectron is very small, less than even 10 -9 sec.
Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212
In other words, photoelectrons start to emit from the surface when the radiations are
incident on it.

 Factors affecting photoelectric current

(i) Effect of intensity of incident radiation – The number of photoelectrons emitted
per second (or photoelectric current) is directly proportional to intensity of incident
radiation.

(ii) Effect of potential difference – On increasing potential difference initially photoelectric

current increases but after certain value of voltage current becomes constant even voltage is
increased continuously, this current is called saturation current and voltage is called cut- off
potential.

(iii) Effect of frequency of incident radiation – A minimum frequency of incident

radiation is required to emit photoelectrons called threshold frequency. At different
frequency cut off potential is different but saturation current is same for all frequencies.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

According to Einstein, when a photon of energy hυ falls on the metallic surface, the energy
of photon is absorbed by the free electron in the metal. This absorbed energy is utilized in
two ways:
(i) A part of energy is used by the electron to break the metal bonds (i.e., surface barrier) to
come out of the metal surface. This part of energy is equal to the work function (Φ) of the
metal.
Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212
(ii) The remaining part of the energy is used in giving a velocity to the emitted
photoelectron. This part of energy is equal to kinetic energy of emitted electron.

Let mass of emitted electron is m and its velocity is 'v' then kinetic energy of emitted
electron
Kmax =1/2 mv2max.
According to the law of conservation of energy the energy of photon will be equal to the
sum of work function of metal and maximum kinetic energy acquired by emitted electron.
hυ = Φ 0 + 1/2 mv2max.
1/2 mv2max. = hυ - Φ 0 …………….(i)
If energy of photon is equal to work function, then kinetic energy of photon will be zero
(1/2 mv2max. = 0), and frequency of photon is υ0
then,
hυ0 - Φ 0 = 0
hυ0 = Φ 0 ………………..(ii)
1/2 mv2max. = hυ - hυ0
1/2 mv2max. = h (υ - υ0)
Kmax = h (υ - υ0)
Where,
h = plank’s constant (h=6.34 x 10-34 joule-sec)
υ = frequency of incident radiation
υ0 = threshold frequency

Particle Nature of Light: Photon

Photon Photoelectric effect established that when light interacts with matter, light behaves
as if it were made of packets or quanta of energy and the energy of each light quantum of
frequency being hυ. Einstein also concluded that a light quantum has:
(i) Definite energy (hυ) and (ii) definite momentum (hυ/c), it can be considered as a
particle. Such a particle is called photon or quanta. Thus, a photon is a quantum of light.
In 1924, the particle nature of light was confirmed by the experiment of AH. Compton
on scattering of X-rays by electrons.
Important properties of photon are given below:
(i) The energy of a photon is independent of intensity of radiation with increase in intensity
of light, only the number of photons crossing a given area per second increases.

(ii) In vacuum, all photons travel with the same speed (3x108 m/s).

(iii) When a photon travels through different media, then its frequency remains the same.
Its wave- length and speed changes.

(iv) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Science World Academy, Ankit Mishra Sir, 9300018212
(v) In a photon particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved, but
the number of photons in a collision may not be conserved. A photon may be absorbed
(photoelectric effect) or a new photon may be created (Compton effect).

(vi) The energy of a photon is given by the equation, E = hυ = hc / λ

(vii) The momentum 'p' of a photon is given by the equation

p = mc
Or p = h υ /c { υ /c = 1/ λ
Then, p = h / λ

(viii) Mass of a particle moving with speed v is given by

de Broglie Waves or Matter Waves

In the year 1924, a French Scientist Louis de Broglie 1892-1987 gave a revolutionary
theme, that just like radiation matter also shows dual nature. His thinking was based on the
following assumptions:

According to de Broglie, moving material particles should also behave like waves of a
definite wavelength. This is called dual nature of matter. The wave associated with the
particle is called matter wave or de Broglie wave and wavelength of matter is called de
Broglie wavelength.
We know that, E = mc2 ……………..(i)
Also, E = hυ = hc / λ ……...(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
mc2 = hc / λ
mc = h / λ
p=h/λ { p = mc
then, λ=h/p
λ∝1/p
de Broglie wavelength ∝ 1/ Linear momentum