SUPPORT MATERIAL

MULTI SKILL FOUNDATION

COURSE

SUBJECT CODE – 416

QP CODE –MLT/Q0001

FOR CLASS X
 CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE No.

UNIT 1: WORKSHOP & ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

1
INSTRUMENTS
SESSION 2: ENGINEERING DRAWING (ORTHOGRAPHIC &
8
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION)
SESSION 3: SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
22
WORKSHOP
SESSION 4: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
25
MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
SESSION 5: TYPES OF GI PIPE FITTINGS 29
SESSION 6: WELDING TECHNIQUE & WELDING JOINT TEST 34
SESSION 7: BASIC TECHNIQUES IN BUILDING
42
CONSTRUCTION(BASIC CONCEPTS IN CONSTRUCTION)
SESSION 8: MAKING OF RCC COLUMN 48
SESSION 9: COSTING OF CONSTRUCTION 54
SESSION 10: PLASTERING AND PAINTING 57

UNIT 2: ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

SESSION 1 : INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL TECHNIQUES

63
AND PRACTICES
SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC PUMP, DOL
69
STARTER, AND INVERTER
SESSION 3 : SOLAR ENERGY 80
SESSION 4: DEMONSTRATE THE FUNCTIONING AND
85
OPERATION OF A PETROL OR DIESEL ENGINE
SESSION 5: BIO GAS CONCEPT AND USE 91
SESSION 6 : WATER CONSERVATION CONCEPT 97
SESSION 7: RAINFALL MEASUREMENT METHOD 101
SESSION 8: LAND SURVEY METHOD 104
UNIT 3: GARDENING, NURSERY AND AGRICULTURAL
TECHNIQUES
SESSION 1:NURSERY TECHNIQUE 113
SESSION 2: IRRIGATION & WATER CONSERVATION METHODS 125
SESSION 3:INTERPRETING RESULT OF SOIL TESTING 132
SESSION 4: INTRODUCTION TO DAIRY TECHNOLOGY
139
(ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION)
SESSION 5 : PREPARE FODDER FOR ANIMALS 144
UNIT 4: PERSONAL HEALTH AND HYGIENE
SESSION 1: BALANCED DIET 151
SESSION 2 : PERSONAL HEALTH & HYGIENE AND
157
COMMUNITY HEALTH & MENTAL HEALTH
SESSION 3: COMMUNICABLE & NON-COMMUNICABLE
DISEASES, VACCINATION, DEHYDRATION AND EMERGENCY 162
FIRST AID
SESSION 4: BLOOD & BLOOD GROUP-BASIC INFORMATION
174
AND BLOOD PRESSURE AND MEASURING HEMOGLOBIN
SESSION 5 : COMMUNITY HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
CARE(AWARENESS PROGRAMS FOR PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL 182
NEEDS AND FAMILY HEALTH AND HEALTH PLANNING)
SESSION 6: POLLUTION – SOURCES, EFFECTS AND
188
SOLUTIONS AND WATER QUALITY TESTING
SESSION 7: FOOD PRODUCTS ( HANDLING OF FOOD
PRODUCTS , PERISHABLE & NON-PERISHABLE FOOD, PACKED 193
& LOOSE FOOD AND FRESH & STALE FOOD PRODUCT
FURTHER READING 200
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 1
MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 1

UNIT

1
WORKSHOP & ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION OF ENGINEERING

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
Educational Tools – Pencil, Drawing Board, Ruler/Scale, Protractor, Set-square,
T-Square, French Curve, Drawing Paper, Drawing Pins/Clips, Eraser, Sharpener,
Polish/Sand Paper, Small Drafter, Compass; etc. We also use the articles from
our compass box, during the study of Science, Geometry, Drawing and other
related subjects.
1) Pencil - The pencils to be used for drawing need to be very good and of
specific quality. The quality of a pencil is based on the grade of the lead in it.
· B, 2B, 3B, 4B: Pencil marked with such grades are much soft and black.
· HB: Pencil marked with such letters are medium soft and black.
· H, 2H, 3H, and 4H: Lead in pencil marked by such grade is hard. Higher the
number prefixed to the letter ‘H’, harder is the lead. Currently, these lead
pencils are broadly used during drawing.

2) Drawing Board –The drawing board is crafted from high quality processed
planks of pinewood or similar types of wood. The planks used are typically of
narrow width and the surface of the board is formed by attaching multiple
narrow planks to each other seamlessly.

3) Ruler/Scale – It is made up of fine quality wood, plastic, or steel. Centimeter

and millimeter lines are indicated or marked on scale. The scale is used to
derive measurements. These scales are available in various measuring range
like 15 cm, 30 cm, 1 meter, as per requirement.

4) Protractor–Protractor is made up of plastic or wood. They are available in

both shapes: semi-circular or circular. These are tailored in small and big
sizes based on purpose of use. The protractor is used to meet or align a
specific angle at a desired location in a drawing.

5) Set Square –Set-square is a right angled triangular plate. It can be of two

types i) 30˚- 60˚- 90˚ ii) 45˚- 90˚- 45˚. The angles of one of the triangles are
300, 600 and 900 whereas the second has 450, 900 and 450. The name of each
square is derived from the smallest angle present in it. They are made from
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 2

plastic in general. The set square is used to draw perpendicular, vertical,

oblique, and parallel lines.

6) T-Square –They are usually made from

plastic or wood. As it looks like English
alphabet ‘T’, it is called T-Square. It has two
parts: the first stock / base and the other
blade. The blade is mounted on the
stock/base with the help of a screw, such
Figure 1 - T square
that the edge of the stock/base forms a perfect right
angle (90˚) with the edge of blade. Additionally, it is used to provide a parallel
support to one edge of a Set Square while drawing perpendicular lines on the
other edge of the Set Square.

7) French Curve – It is used to draw irregular curve lines

8) Drawing Paper –These papers are specially formulated and are machine-
made. They are of unique thickness, flexibility, strength and white in color.
These papers are available in market in various sizes. e.g. A0, A1, A2, A3, A4,
A5.

9) Drawing pins/clips – Drawing pins or clips are used to retain drawing paper
stable on the drawing board.

10) Eraser –Eraser is used to erase unwanted lines drawn by the pencil during
drawing. This erasing process prevents any potential damage to surface of
drawing board.

11) Sharpener, Polish/Sand Paper –Sharpener

and/or Polish/Sand Paper is used to achieve a
specific/desired tip for pencil.

12) Mini Drafter – Generally, a mini drafter is

widely extensively (abundantly) used during

drawing. A mini-drafter is designed by a Figure 1 - Mini Drafter

combination of T-Square, Set Square and Protractor. This makes drawing
easier and accomplish task rapidly.

13) Compass box –It contains items mentioned below: Pencil Compass (used to
draw circular lines) & Divider.

Line Types and Their Uses -

1) Thick
2) Medium
3) Thin
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 3

Drawing is a language of architecture and lines. It should be universally readable

/ understandable by anyone without any ambiguity. Hence, the drawing lines
have specific rules and meaning. That’s why we can easily understand the
specified/suggested information in a drawing drafted in accordance with the
designated rules.
The purpose of drawing is to provide shape, size, and measurements of an object;
however, line-work must achieve it. So, to conceive correct understanding of lines,
let us go over the types of lines and rules pertaining to their usage.
There are three types of lines.
1) Thick Line –

2) Dashed / Dotted Line –

3) Thin Line –

Types of lines and their use in engineering drawing is as mentioned

below:
1) Dimension Line or Extension Line and Section Line – These lines are thin
and faint. These lines are used as dimension line, extension line, section line
to depict surface of the section.
Thin

2) Object Line –This line is thick and bold. It is used to show the actual visual
look of the object. These lines should be distinctly visible in the line work of
drawing. As these lines depict edges and shape/size of the object, these are
known as ‘Object Lines’.
Thick

3) Dashed line –This line is medium thick and bold. It is used to show parts
that are not visible in the diagram. This type of line is drawn in the form of
closely placed, small equidistant segments of equal length. This line is also
used to show invisible edges.
Dashed/ Dotted

4) Centre Line – This line is thin and faint. This line is drawn in the centre of
the diagram. Therefore, it is called ‘Centre Line’. Similarly, this line is used to
show the centre of a part. Like a circular part, shaft, or hole.
Thin

5) Cutting Plane Line–This line is thick and straight in the end while faint
elsewhere. It depicts the exact location and kind of section of an object.
Thick
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 4

6) Free Sketch Line – This line is medium thick and bold. This line is drawn to
represent an edge having relatively smaller length where the object is broken
in the diagram.
Thick

7) Break Line – This is thin and faint. If the edge or side of an object in the
diagram is relatively long, then such an edge or side is depicted in the form of
long broken lines joined by freehand slanted lines.
Thin

8) Contour Line – This

is thin and bold. They also use this line to show the adjacent areas, electricity
poles, telephone lines, seawater waves/levels, Topology of valleys and
mountains.
Thin

9) Status Line – This line is medium, thick, and bold. This line is formed by a
series of sets of two small segments each, separated by marginal space in
between.
Some parts of the machine move from one place to another and back to the
first place. This line is used to depict spare parts of the machine repeatedly
but at different desired locations. To display the movement, the spare part is
depicted at one end of the drawing while status line is used at the other end
of drawing to depict the part’s shape/size.
Medium

Lettering, Numbering
An engineering drawing includes lettering and numbering along with diagrams.
Naming of the diagram and drafting of title, subtitles, measurements,
instructions, and other necessary notes is known as ‘Lettering’ and ‘Numbering’.
Letters / numbers should be understandable, clear, distinct and of same
thickness.
The size of the letters should be determined based on the size of the drawing.
For different types of writing, choose the height of letters as shown below:
1) For the title and drawing number: 6 mm to 12 mm height
2) For small names or subtitle:: 3 mm to 6 mm height
3) Note, list of materials: 3mm to 5mm height

Like height of the numbers and letters, the width is also an important aspect. In
order to make the letters look good, their proportion of height and width is
generally stipulated to be 7:5, 6:5, 6:4, and 6:3. In the drawing, Single vertical
letters are broadly used in the drawings.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 5

Related Knowledge – Introduction It is very essential to know the geometric

symbols while studying
engineering drawing. The things
that cannot be shown in drawing
by means of mere measurements
can be depicted using geometric
symbols. This makes the
understanding of drawing easier
for engineers or craftsman. In
this topic, we are going to get
familiar with such geometric
symbols commonly used in the
drawing.

Figure 2 - Types of Geometric Tolerance

symbol

Types of Geometric Tolerance Symbols –

Geometric symbols are mainly divided into five types.
1) Form 2) Profile 3) Orientation
4) Location 5) Run out

1) Form – This type consists of the straightness of an object, surface quality,

circular and cylindrical shape.

2) Profile –It is used to depict the outer or inner surface.

3) Orientation–Orientation geometric sign is used to show parallelism, partial

angle, and right angles between two parts in contact with each other.

4) Location–Location / position viewer geometric symbols are used to display

standardization, symmetry, status, direction, and congruence of both sides.

5) Runout –While an object is rotating around its own axis, the distance between
inner and outer surface from a specific /fixed location is represented by a
geometric symbol called ‘Runout’.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 6

Geometric symbols commonly used –

Figure 3 – Geometric Symbols

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1. The ____________________is crafted from high quality processed planks of
pinewood or similar types of wood (drawing board)
2. The scale is used to derive______________________ (measurements)
3. The _______________is used to meet or align a specific angle at a desired
location in a drawing. (protractor)
4. The ________________is used to draw perpendicular, vertical, oblique, and
parallel lines.( set square)
5. T-Square is used to draw horizontal lines parallel to the length of the
_______________ (drawing board)
6. A _______________is designed by a combination of T-Square, Set Square and
Protractor(mini-drafter)

Subjective Questions
1) What are the five types of geometric symbols?

2) What is the use of following engineering drawing tools?

a. Drawing Board
b. Set-Square
c. French Curve

3) What is the use of lines in engineering drawing?

4) Explain the concept of lettering and numbering in engineering drawing.

5) Draw the following geometric symbols with the help of diagram:

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 7

a. Location Viewer
b. Axis Exteriority

6) Please provide information about ‘T Square’.

7) Please explain briefly about:

a. Break Line
b. Centre Line
c. Free Sketch Line
d. Location Geometric Symbols

8) Draw geometric symbols based on following names:

a. Flatness
b. Symmetry
c. Position

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Identify different drawing instrument & its uses
· Draw engineering drawing using proper Line, lettering and system of giving
dimensions in drawing.
· Interpret scale on the drawing
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 8

SESSION 2: ENGINEERING DRAWING

(ORTHOGRAPHIC & ISOMETRIC
PROJECTION)

Concept of Orthographic Projection –We draw the picture of an object, the way
we see an object. So, objects at far distance seem smaller while the nearer
objects look bigger. If you look at the lampposts having same height on the road,
it is found that the lampposts look relatively smaller and of variable height based
on their distance from the view point. The circular opening of a bucket seems
elliptical. Therefore, to understand the exact shape and true measurements of
the object, the picture is drawn by looking at right angle to the object from one
side at a time. This is called ‘Orthographic Projection’. As orthographic projection
method captures the picture of the object by looking from one side at a time, one
needs to draw pictures from three sides to get an overall imagination of the
object. Normally a top, front, and right or left side view of the object is taken into
consideration in this technique.
· Top / Plan view
· Front / Elevation view
· Side view

The top view displays the length and width of the object, the front view depicts
the length and height and the side view provides width and height of the object.
However, it should be noted that only having these three views doesn’t
necessarily provide you actual view of the object. For that to happen, the
orthographic projection is drawn in a specific method. Additionally, to get an
overall knowledge of shape/size of the object, the orthographic projections are
drawn by looking from at least two sides at a time.

· 1) Orthographic Projection Methods: The first angle or third angle method is

used to draw the orthographic projection. However, the Indian Standards
Institute (ISI) has recommended the use of the third angle method. There is no
difference in the appearance of the objects in both the methods, except their
positions. In both methods, the top view is always drawn as a standalone
drawing.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 9

· First Angle Method: In this method, the top view is drawn below the
horizontal reference line, front view is drawn above top view, and right-

Figure 4 – First Angle Method

Figure 5 – Third Angle Method

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 10

· Third Angle Method: In this method, the top view is drawn above axis, front
view is drawn below top view and right-side view is drawn on the right side of
the front view. Thus, the view don’t change their positions - (unlike first angle
method). The relative positions of the views with reference to the XY line is as
shown in the figure below:

Top view (TV) (Plan)

L.H. Side View Front View R.H. Side View

Right hand side view Front view (FV) Left hand

side view (RHSV) (Elevation)
(LHSV)
Top view (TV) (Plan)

In order to convey the method used to draw design (either first angle or third
angle), below mentioned Indian Standards Institute (ISI) approved symbols are
drawn in the right bottom side of the drawing paper.

1) First Angle 2) Third Angle

Figure 6 – First Angle & Third Angle

Steps to Draw Orthographic Projection:

The objects are given in the form of isometric view to draw an orthographic
projection. Please follow the steps mentioned below to draw orthographic
projection view.
1) First draw a clear, faint horizontal line on the paper and name it as X-
Y.(Reference Line)
2) Then, draw a vertical line at a right angle and name it as X1-Y1. (Vertical
Reference Line)
3) Draw a faint and thin line above and below X-Y line, and on both sides of X1-
Y1 line at a same distance (approx. 10 to 15 mm).
4) Find out the length, width and height of the object.
5) First, determine the exact location of the side view in four quadrants that have
been created by X-Y and X1-Y1 lines, and accordingly determine the positions
of other views, too.
6) Draw a faint square of the dimension ‘Length X Width’ in the top view position,
‘Length X Height’ in the front view position and ‘Width X Height’ in the side
view position.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 11

Draw the front view first. Based on front view, one should draw projections to
draw other views (top view & side view) and accordingly measurements should
be mentioned correctly.
7) Based on the holistic study of specified isometric view, complete all views of
orthographic projection.

Figure 7 – Orthographic Projection (Third Angle Method)

Diagram –
Ø Some solved examples of orthographic projections :-
1) Draw orthographic projection (Top, front and side view) based on
isometric projection given below :

Figure 8 – Orthographic Projection

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 12

2) Draw Isometric Projection from Given Orthographic Projection.

Figure 9 – Draw Isometric Projection from Orthographic

Projection
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 13

3) Draw the orthographic projection from isometric projection of an

object

Figure 10 - Draw the orthographic projection from isometric

projection of an object.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 14

Isometric View
We will learn following things in this section:
· To clarify the need of an isometric view
· To explain what is an isometric view
· To explain how to draw an isometric view

Concept of Isometric View –

We have learnt how to draw views by orthographic projection method of
engineering drawing. At times, it may happen that even brightest of the
craftsman may find it difficult to understand the actual shape/size of object by
looking at an orthographic projection view. In such a scenario, a picture is
drawn such that all sides of the object are clearly visible in a single view.
This helps to assess actual shape/size of the object quickly. Isometric
projection view is one of such methods. Isometric projection method is a
graphical (pictorial) method.
You have to draw an engineering drawing (Isometric & Orthographic Projection)
of the project object that you would submitting in the engineering department
and you are supposed to attach the drawing to Project Report. Also, you are
expected to practice few isometric projection diagrams presented to you.

Method to Draw an Isometric Projection

Unlike in orthographic projection view, where you see only one side of the object
in each view; isometric projection view displays more than one side of the object.
Hence, an isometric projection view is drawn based on the orthographic projection
view. Before you begin to draw an isometric projection view, hold one of the
vertices (corners) of the object in front of you so that you can see two sides of the
object. Now with this view in front of, you should begin drawing an isometric view.
Two or three views would be provided to you to draw an isometric projection.
To draw an isometric projection based on those views, follow procedure
mentioned below:
1. First, draw a clear and thin horizontal line on the drawing paper.
2. Mark a point at a convenient location on the line.
3. Draw a faint vertical line from the starting point and draw a line making an
angle of 30˚ with the horizontal line on both sides of it.
4. Deduce the length, width and height of the object based on the given views.
Identify which side of the starting point, the length and width fall to.
5. Mark the height on the vertical line. Based on the measurements in the
reference views; mark the designated length and width on the lines drawn at
30˚ angle with horizontal line.
6. From the markings, draw fine lines parallel to reference lines and draw a
rectangular block.
7. Complete the isometric projection view by studying the object's visualization
and available views.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 15

Illustration of drawing a rectangular isometric projection based on rectangular

orthographic projection:

Figure 12 – Orthographic Projection & Steps of Drawing Isometric Projection

Steps to draw an isometric projection –

Draw a circle in Isometric Projection –
If a circle is given in the orthographic projection, then following information will
help you to understand how to draw it in isometric projection:
1. Based on the location of circle in the specified diagram, determine the quadrant
and location of circle is the isometric projection.
2. Accordingly, draw a rhombus having side equal to diameter of the circle at
appropriate location.
3. Take the center of the rhombus sides.
4. Place the tip of compass at the obtuse angle of rhombus (Point 1, 4) and draw
arcs connecting the centre points of the sides in front of the obtuse angle.
5. Draw faint lines from the obtuse angle connecting it to the centre of sides
opposite to it.
6. Place the tip of compass at the intersecting point of these faint lines and draw
arcs connecting the centre points of the adjacent sides of it. Thus, complete the
circle.

Figure 13 – Steps of Drawing Isometric Circle

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 16

2.1 Procedure to draw orthographic projection view based on isometric

projection view and vice versa
An engineer or a craftsman cannot describe a job or provide you with detailed
information about the job, in without an engineering drawing. A drawing drafted
based on the orthographic projection view can provide you with a fair idea about
size and shape of that object and machinery part.
Unless you know the techniques of Engineering drawing, it is impossible to
describe it. It is expected to have at least two views to understand measurements
(length, width, height, distance between focal length of holes, etc.) of a job. It is
necessary to know all types of lines viz. Object line, dotted line, centre line etc. in
order to describe a drawing.
Example 1) To draw an isometric projection of an object based on three views:
top, front, and side view
Drawing an isometric projection based on description –

Example 1) Draw an isometric projection of following dimensions: 70 mm

length, 50 mm width and 30 mm height

Example 2) Draw an isometric projection of a cube having an edge of 44 mm,

with a centrally located cylinder of 30 mm diameter and 50 mm height.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 17

After studying all the available information, one should seek answers to a
questionnaire.
E.g. Answer the questions below, based on the diagram.

Questionnaire –
1) What is the height of the table?
2) What is the thickness of the table top?
3) What is the distance of support 'A' from the ground?
4) How many square meters of plywood is needed to prepare the table top?
5) What are the measurements of timber used to prepare supports (legs) of the
table?

Orthographic Projection–

Answers –
1) Total height of the table is 775 mm.
2) The thickness of the table top is 25 mm.
3) The support 'A' has been installed at a distance of 150 mm from the ground.
4) 0.66 square meter of plywood would be required to make the table top.
5) 50 x 50 mm of timber is used for making the supports (legs) of the table.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 18

Example 2: depicts the diagram of a stool. Based on this diagram, answer the
questions below:

Questionnaire–
What is the thickness of stool top?
1) Calculate the length of the square pipe
required for the making of stool.
2) Calculate the slanted height of the
supports (legs) of stool.
3) Calculate the size of the square plank
needed to make the circular top of
stool.
4) Calculate the length of plastic beading
required to be pressed against the stool
top.

Answers –
1) The thickness of the stool top is 12mm.
2) Total length of square pipe required for making stool is 2275mm or
2.275metre.
3) The slanted height of the supports (legs) of stool is 450 mm.
4) A 250 x 250 mm square plank is required in order to make a circular top of
the stool.
5) 785 mm of plastic beading is required to press against the top of the stool.

Following examples will demonstrate how to draw an orthographic

projection based on available description:
Example1) Draw 3 views: front, top and side view of a cube having edge of 60 mm
and 60 mm height.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 19

Example 2) Draw 3 views: front, top and side view of a square prism having edge
of 40 mm and 60 mm height.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1) Isometric projection method is...................... method.

2) Isometric projections need to be drawn at ........................... angle.
3) Two or .............................views are given to draw an isometric projection.

Subjective Questions
1) Explain the goals of the isometric projection.
2) Explain the need to draw the drawing by isometric projection method.
3) If an orthographic projection has a circle in its view, then explain how to draw
it in isometric projection?
4) Explain the concept of orthographic projection.
5) What is the first angle method of orthographic projection?
6) Draw the symbolic representation of the third angle projection method.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 20

Question 1) Study the following diagram and answer the questions mentioned

below:
Question –
1) What is the height of the support (leg) of stool?
2) Set the total length of angle required to make the stool.
3) What is the distance of support 'A' from the ground?
4) What is the size of M.S. (Moulded Steel) punching attached to the top of the stool?
5) Which is the size of the angle used to make the stool?

Question 2) Study the following diagram and answer the questions mentioned below:
· M. S. (Moulded Steel) angle measuring25 x 25 x 3 mm is used for arms and the
intermediate frames of the rack.
· 3 mm thick M. S. (Moulded Steel) punching is used at the centre of each frame.

Question –
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 21

1) What is the width of the rack?

2) What is the thickness of the
punching used for the rack?
3) What is the height of the rack?
4) What is the size of the angle
used for the rack?

Question 3) Study the following

orthographic projection diagram
and answers the questions given
below:
Orthographic Projection –

Question –
1) What is the measurement of 'A'?
2) What is the measurement of 'B'?
3) What is the measurement of 'C'?
4) What is the measurement of 'D'?
5) What is the total height of the job?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Identify orthographic and isometric view.

· Read and understand orthographic drawing and its dimension.
· Able to interpret scale on the drawing.
· Able to draw plan, elevation and side view of an object.
· Draw simple orthographic projection of square, cylinder, cone
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 22

SESSION 3: SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN

ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Workshop Safety –Security is a very important part of our lives. Especially while
working in a workshop, it is necessary to follow safety rules. If an accident
occurs during work, an injury may hamper life temporarily or permanently.
There are two main reasons behind an accident during work: unsafe practice,
unsafe tools. It means that it is necessary to adapt safe practice and use safe
tools to avoid accidents.

Ø Safe Practice - To adhere to safety norms, following things must be

followed diligently:
1. We must have a comprehensive and thorough knowledge of the tools and
equipment that we need.
2. During actual work, the tools and equipment should be handled carefully and
safely
3. As far as possible, avoid wearing loose clothes while at work. Clothing like
scarf, veil may get trapped in a machine leading to fatal accident.
4. While undertaking work like drilling, cutting, welding, threading, keep your
face, especially eyes, away at a safe distance from the job. This helps to protect
the face and eyes from the granular dusty metal hot particles while at work.
5. Keep the workplace clean and tidy. Keep unnecessary things away, at an
appropriate place.
6. Switch off the main switch once the task is accomplished. Keep all the tools
and equipment properly at an appropriate place.

Ø Safety Gear - Using the right safety gear is essential while at work.
1. Intense heat and radiations generated during welding may harm your eyes. So,
always use a goggle or welding glass.
2. Use hand gloves while drilling.
3. While dealing with any electrical appliance, it is advisable to wear rubber sole
boots/slippers.
4. Power tools should be properly insulated (electrically insulated)

"5 S" in Workshop :( 1.Seiri-Neatness, 2.Seiton - Tidiness, 3. Seiso- Hygiene,

4. Seiketsu - Standardization, 5. Shitsuke - Discipline)
Implementation of 5S is a continuous and consistent process. It is
methodological implementation of the laid down guidelines about management of
every item, its place of use, it is quantity of use and the way it is used. We can
implement this methodology everywhere. For example, it is most commonly used
in schools, workshops, offices and at home as well as in the entire industrial
area.
1. Sieri –Sort– Prepare a list of necessary and unnecessary items and discard
unnecessary items. Also, segregate items into two categories: occasionally used
and frequently used.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 23

1) Categorize items that are necessary and unnecessary

2) Categorize items that were not used during last one year as unnecessary and
scrap them
3) Keep the items that are needed once or twice in a month, at a central place
away from the workplace. Keep the Items needed at least once in a week, near
to workplace.

2. Seiton -Set-in-Order – Arrange the necessary items neatly. Categorize items

based on their requirement by daily, weekly, monthly, yearly.

1) Arrange the workplace and its surrounding area neatly and arrange them
such that they are easily available based on categorization as per first S.
2) While arranging the items, do consider and safety.
3) Arrange any item such that it should be easily available and at the
designated place. Decide upon the place so that they could be readily located.

3. Seiso – Shine – Keep the workplace clean. Remove dust, garbage,

unnecessary pieces. Cleanliness is the first step of inspection.
1) Keep the workplace dust free and garbage free.
2) Always remember that the responsibility of cleaning our workplace is ours
only.
3) Keep in mind that cleanliness is a part of the inspection.
4) Ensure that we do not litter surrounding area while cleaning our workspace.

4. Seiktesu –Standardize – Implement a visual control method that is easily

visible. Ensure that mistakes or neatness will be clearly visible. Standardize
the work methodology.
1) Adopt standardization so that simplicity and quality is maintained
consistently.
2) Standardize the items qualitatively like good items, damaged items and
hazardous places using direction, colorful pictures and signage/signboards.
3) Use visual control principle so that mistakes can be identified easily and
can be controlled immediately.

5. Shitsuke: Sustain – Adhere to good habits. First of all, adhere to follow the 4
S mentioned earlier.
1) Insist on self-discipline that you will carry out without any mistake.
2) Wholeheartedly involve in obeying rules and adhering to good habits.
3) Keep in mind that a disciplinary conduct of maintaining the 4 S after
achieving them is the 5thS.
4) Always remember that maintaining 5 S on a consistent basis is every
individual’s responsibility.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 24

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) Mention the safety measures / Precautions while working in the
workshop.
2) Describe the safety gears and their use in the workshop.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Demonstrate safe use and application of workshop tools and

equipment,
· Follow safety precautions
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 25

SESSION 4: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING

MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION

In the previous year's syllabus, we have thoroughly understood the basic

elements, types of measurements, measuring tools e.g. scale, measuring tape,
weighting machine, watch, thermometer, and Vernier Caliper while studying
measurement and introduction to measurement tools and their use. This year,
too, we are going to learn the correct use of Vernier Caliper, height gauge and
outside micrometer, and how to calculate ‘Least Count’. We will grab new
information by means of different measurements and actual procedures.

Vernier Caliper –Vernier caliper can be used to measure outer measurements,

inner measurements, and depth of the job. It has a facility to measure by metric
as well as British measuring technique. Vernier Caliper can measure the job with
an accuracy of 0.02 mm in metric system while 0.001 in British system. Vernier
Caliper is available in different length ranging from 150 mm to 1000 mm.

Vernier Caliper Parts –

1) Fix jaw 2) Beam / Main scale 3) Movable jaw 4) Vernier scale 5) Carrier /
ancillary slide 6) Fine adjusting screw/nut 7) Locking adjusting screw/nut 8)
Inside Major nibs/Jaw 9) Depth Gauge attachment
All parts of Vernier Caliper are generally made up of Nickel Chromium steel.

Marking –Vernier Caliper has two types of markings: British and metric
markings on both sides of the main scale. One side consists of matrix marking
while other has British marking.
There are two types of metric marking. Some Vernier scale has 10 equal parts of
a centimeter, while some have 20 equal parts of a centimeter.
Vernier Caliper having 10 equal parts of a centimeter, there are 50 parts on
Vernier scale accommodated in 49 mm on main scale. So, the difference between
two parts of the Vernier comes to 49/50 = 0.98 mm
Hence, Least Count = 1 mm - 0.98 mm
= 0.02 mm
Vernier Caliper having 20 equal parts of a centimeter, there are 25 parts on
Vernier scale accommodated in 24 parts of main scale, means 12 mm on main
scale or 49 parts of main scale, means 24.5 mm on main scale. Thus, difference
between two parts of the Vernier comes to
12/25 = 0.48 mm and 24.5/25 = 0.98 mm, respectively.
Hence, Least Count (0.50 mm - 0.48 mm) = 0.02 mm and (1 mm - 0.98 mm) =
0.02 mm

Reading–While reading Vernier, keep in mind three things as mentioned below:

1) Check exact location of '0' on Vernier scale
2) Check exact line on the Vernier that is aligned to any line on the main scale
3) Vernier Caliper should be held at a right angle to eyesight
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 26

Precautionary Measures –
1) Clean the job and Vernier Caliper before you begin recording measurements
2) Do not record measurements on a moving or rotating job.
3) Check out the difference between the Vernier Caliper
4) Do not apply pressure on moving during measurement
5) Hold Vernier Caliper straight while recording inner measurements
6) Hold Vernier Caliper at right angle to eyesight while reading

Fig 14 - Vernier caliper

Fig 15 - Vernier caliper scale

Vernier Height Gauge

Vernier height gauge is also called as ‘Micrometer Vernier Slide
Height Gauge’. Vernier height gauge is used to measure an object’s
height, vertical distance, and inner& outer diameter of a spherical
/ cylindrical object.

Fig 16 - Vernier Height Gauge

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 27

OUTSIDE MICROMETRE / MICROMETRE SCREW GAUGE-

‘Outside Micrometer’ is nothing an instrument to measure very minute distance.
Outside Micrometer is known as the most precise mechanical measurement
instrument in day-to-day use. Let us see brief information about micrometer’s
parts.
1) Steel Frame U– Shape –The frame shape is like English alphabet ‘U’ or ‘C’.
The frame is generally made up of steel,
cast steel or alloy steel. Frame is aptly
insulated so that it provides good
support for holding the micrometer and
heat transfer is avoided while recording
minute measurements. This results
into accurate measurement.

Fig 17 - Micrometer screw gauge

2) Anvil and Spindle– A fixed anvil is fitted normally at a distance of 3 mm on

the inner side of left portion of frame. Another moving anvil is placed on the tip of
the spindle. Spindle can be locked with the help of lock nut.

3) Lock Nut– Lock nuts is installed to lock the spindle. It is used to lock the
spindle while recording accurate measurements by micrometer.

4) Sleeve or Barrel–Sleeve consists of accurate markings of 0.5 mm on it and

this is called 'Main Scale'. This sleeve is chrome plated and has a provision of
zero ("()") setting.

5) Thimble–Thimble keeps moving on the sleeve or barrel back and forth. It is

divided into 50 equal parts. Each part measures to 0.01 mm. Division on thimble
are similar to Vernier scale.

6) Ratchet -Ratchet is fitted at the end of the thimble. It is used to record

accurate measurements by fine adjustment.

The least count of outside micrometers is calculated by following

method:
Pitch of spindle screw
L. C. of Micrometer = ----------------------------------------------
Number of divisions on the thimble
Suppose, spindle's pitch is 0.5mm and the thimble has 50 parts.
So, micrometer’s least count = 0.5/50 = 0.01mm

Measurement- 12.58mm Measurement- 17.20mm

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 28

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What is Vernier Caliper and what is it used for?
2) Describe detailed information about parts of Outside Micrometer.
3) Explain use of Vernier height gauge.
4) How to calculate least count of Vernier Caliper?
5) Describe information about parts of outside micrometer.
6) How to calculate least count of outside micrometer?

What Have You Learnt?

· On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Identify & demonstrate the use of different measuring instruments.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 29

SESSION 5: TYPES OF GI PIPE FITTINGS

G.I pipe means “Galvanized Iron”. In G.I pipe, iron or steel pipe is coated with zinc
(Galvanization). This coating process is useful in protecting iron or steel metal from
deterioration or rusting. By means of this process, iron metal is protected from corrosion
and as a result, the life and durability of the GI pipe increases. Zinc coated iron pipes
are broadly used to carry water. Apart from this, GI pipes are mainly used for plumbing
purposes in building construction.

GI pipes available in market are available in sizes ranging from 8 to 100 mm in

diameter. Based on the thickness, these pipes are generally available in three types.

1. Light (Class A) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with yellow colour.
(Thickness – 2 mm)
2. Medium (Class B) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with blue colour.
(Thickness - 2.65 mm)
3. Heavy (Class C) - The identity of this pipe is that it is marked with red colour.
(Thickness - 3.25 mm)

Plumbing - Information about Tapping Process and Types of Tap and Dye–

Ø Tap –Many times nuts, bolts, screws need to be used while assembling any machinery.
Seamless turning of inner part of nut
and outer part of screw or bolt to form
grooves is called as threading or
tapping and continuous groove thus
formed is called as thread. During
large-scale production in a factory, the
threads are made using machine.
However, during job making or repair
work in a workshop, the threads are
made manually. They are of ‘V’ size.
Taps and dies are used to make
thread. Fig 18 - Tap

Tap is a cutting tool used to make threads in inner part of a job. Tap is made from
high carbon steel (HSS). It undergoes the process of hardening and tempering. Hand
tap always comes in a set of three. These three taps are known as first, second
(middle) and third (or plug or bottom). Four or five threads present at the end of first
ta, that leads to an easy grip in the hole. First tap is used as the initial step of
threading. Two or three threads present at the end of second tap are narrow. The
second tap is used after the use of first tap. In case of the third tap (plug / bottom),
only the first thread is narrow, while rest of the threads possess required
measurements. This third tap is used to mould right shape to the thread.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 30

It is always advisable to hold the tap at right angle with the job and rotate it in forward
direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a full turn. To cut the chips rotate it
in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half (50%) of a full turn.

Care and precautionary measures to be taken during tapping

1) Use lubricant during tapping.
2) Tightly hold the tap in tap wrench.
3) Choose right size of the tap and the hole for which you want to perform threading.
4) Ensure that the hole tapping is to be done is straight.
5) Hold the job tightly in the vice.
6) Always hold the tap at right angle to the job.
7) Rotate the tap in forward direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a full
turn. To cut the chips rotate it in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half (50%) of a
full turn.

Threading Die (Die Piece &Die Stock)

Threading Die is used for threading on the cylindrical part of iron rods. This die is also a
cutting tool, and the process of threading by this tool is called as ‘Dyeing’. Die looks like
a circular disc and is made up of High Speed Steel (HSP), Alloy Steel or Tool Steel. Main
types of die are as follows:

1) Solid Die –This die is a round disc having a threaded hole of appropriate size at its
centre. Solid dies are available in different shapes and matching to holes of different
sizes. Thread type and shape is mentioned on it for easier identification. Based on the
application (use) and shape of job, Solid dies are fitted in the diestock at the time of
threading.
2) Split Die –A groove is made in the split die. By means of this groove, the die is fitted
in the diestock and one can operate the screw as per need to perform threading until
full depth.
3) Two Piece Die –This die is divided into two pieces. They are called ‘Die Bits’. Both
pieces have 'V' shaped threads. By fixing the die piece in die stock, threads are made
with the help of the screw by doing adjustments. This is used for threading on a big
cylinder.
4) Die Nut –Die nuts are square or hexagonal in shape. It is useful for convenient
threading. Four to six grooves are made in these die nuts to expel the excess material
being drilled out during threading. They are fitted in wrench or spanner and used for
rethreading the damaged threads. They are also used to clean existing threads of a
job.
5) Die Plate –This is a rectangular strip made up of High Speed Steel (HSS) and it is cut
at the centre along a straight line in different shapes.
6) Die stock – The tool in which die is firmly fixed during threading is called as Die
Stock. Die stock is made up of steel. Die stock is divided into two types.

a. Solid Die Stock –Solid die stock is designed in one piece and has circular hole in the
centre. In this, split/solid die is mounted and threading is accomplished. Screw
arrangement is provisioned to hold die.
b. Adjustable Die Stock –Adjustable die stock is available in two shapes: Square and
Round. Threads are made by fixing die set in it. In this case, too, screw arrangement
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 31

is provided to hold the die and to adjust the depth of the thread according to
requirement.
Care and precautionary measures to be taken while using die / Performing
threading operations –

Fig 19 - Adjustable Die Stock Fig 20 - Solid Die Stock

1) The surface of the cylinder should be clean and straight during outside
threading.
2) Use coolant (cutting oil) while using die.
3) Hold the job tightly in the vise on the table.
4) Rotate the tap in forward direction for half (50%) to ‘quarter to one’ (75%) of a
full turn. To cut the chips rotate it in reverse direction for quarter (25%) to half
(50%) of a full turn. This helps to cut the chips easily.

Selection of Activity –Threading and Joining operations of G. I. Pipe –

Choose one of the useful tasks mentioned below or any task useful for school:
1) If there is a leakage in school's water tap, then fix it by means of threading.
2) Provide threading practice to all students with the help of rods and dies
available in 6, 8 or 10mm size.
3) Join water connection pipeline to domestic taps in the town.
4) Threading on G.I. pipe of half inch size
5) Drilling to iron strip and angle, and do threading of suitable size using tap.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Preparation of Activity –
1) Keep raw material for threading and tapping ready.
2) Check the condition of tools and instruments and make them available. Ex.
G.I. Pipe, Cutting Oil, G.I. Coupling, G.I. Elbow, G.I. Tee, G.I. Union, G.I. Cross,
G.I. Bend, White Lead Paste, Jute, Steel Tape, Teflon Tape, Hacksaw, Pipe Die
Set, Pipe Vise, Oil Can, Pipe Wrench of 12 or 14-inch size; etc.
3) Prior to the threading and tapping demonstration, aware students about
functions and uses of different plumbing tools. This will help them to correlate
the information during demonstration.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 32

4) Identify places where threading, tapping, and plumbing is used. Later, arrange
a visit to those places for students and give them information about
actual/practical use.

Desired Skill Acquisition and Development –

A) Threading to rod and pipes
B) Threading using tap range
C) Use of die and tap as per appropriate size
D) Proper and safe application of all the tools used during plumbing work.

Procedure - Threading to ½ inch G.I. Pipe –

1) Gather the information about tools and instruments used during plumbing
2) Fix a die set of diameters ½ inch in diestock
3) Hold a pipe of diameter ½ inch in the jaw of vise firmly
4) Cut the pipe of required length.
5) Place the threading die on pipe, rotate the die clockwise and complete first cut
6) Rotate threading die a little bit in anti-clockwise direction and complete
threading using die by increasing the cut. Rotate adjusting screw to increase
the depth of thread.
7) Check the completion of threading with the help of socket/coupling.

Procedure – Joining of ½ Inch G.I. Pipe –

1) Keep required no. of pipe pieces ready by threading using die to join the pipe.
2) Wind the Teflon tape on external threads of pipe. Fix two pieces of pipes on
inner thread of coupling and tighten them by rotating with pipe wrench.
3) Similarly fix the pieces of pipe in Elbow, Tee, Bend, Union and Cross and
tighten the threads by rotating with pipe wrench.
4) Apply sealing paste on pipe threading and wind jute over it.
5) Attach a suitable coupling on the pipe and tighten it by rotating with pipe
wrench
6) Thus, complete the connection of pipes.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during threading

and joining of ½ inch G. I. Pipe –
1) Before cutting any pipe, assess the amount of pipe that would fit inside
couplings and increase in the overall length of pipe due to addition of
couplings.
2) Ensure that die is placed at a right angle with pipe.
3) Rotate the die in to-and-fro (means, half to quarter-to-one rotation forward and
quarter rotation backward) so that material will be cut properly.
4) Use oil while dyeing.
5) Do not give jerks to die while dyeing.
6) Clean the die after use.
7) Do not cut threads more than the actual requirement.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 33

8) Apply a white sealing paste on the pipe thread, wind jute or Teflon over it and
then assemble it.
9) Ensure that the pipe couplings do not remain loose.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What is G.I Pipe?
2) What are the three types of GI pipes?
3) What is the precaution required while tapping?
4) What is Solid Die Stock?
5) What is Die Stock and mention its types?
6) Explain in brief.
1) Solid Die 2) Die Nut 3) Two Piece Die
What Have You Learnt?
On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Carry out GI piping by carrying out treading, Connect pipes using
appropriate coupling
· Describe use of different piping fitting used in GI piping
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 34

SESSION 6: WELDING TECHNIQUE & WELDING JOINT

TEST

INTRODUCTION

Welding means joining. In this operation, two or more metal parts are joined
together with the application of extreme (high intensity) heat. This joint is strong
and permanent in nature. A specific filler material is used to join these metal
parts. This joining process is called as ‘Welding’. Initially, the metal is melted by
heating with electric arcs or gas and joint is made with the help of an electric /
filler rod. Nowadays welding is done using modern technology such as laser
welding or electron beam welding. Generally, arc welding and gas welding is
commonly used in small and medium-scale industry.
(Students are expected to observe the practical; Demonstration should be
given only by teacher)

Arc Welding – Arc welding is a well-

known, old, and conventional method.
In this welding method, which is
based on the principle of heating, heat
is generated using electric current to
induce welding. This is the most
popular and prevailing method; where
in metal pieces are joined together
with the help of electrodes through
heat is generated by forming electric
arcs. In this process, electrode acts as
heat conductor and filler metal.
Fig 21 - Are welding
Gas Welding –In this method, welding is done using gas. Heating in this process
is mainly done by combined proportionate combustion of Oxygen and Acetylene.
Mixed welding gas of Argon and Carbon dioxide (Co2) is used during gas welding.
T he machine by which the heat is
generated is called ‘Gas-gun’. These
guns are connected to the pipes for
electric connection and the availability
of gas to generate a specified amount
of heat. In this method, metal filler is
used externally. In gas welding
methods, the specific ingredient,
which is used to strengthen metal
joints, is called as ‘Filler Material’ or
‘Filler Metal’. Generally, filler materials
used are of two types. Fig 22 - Gas welding
1) Filler rod 2) filler wire
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 35

Gas Welding Technique – In this method, you may find three types of flames.
Since the temperature and properties of these three flames differ, we can use
appropriate flame for different metals as per the metal properties.
Types of Flame –
1. Carburizing Flame
2. Neutral Flame
3. Oxidizing Flame

1. Carburizing Flame –This flame is used for metals like Aluminium that tend to
oxidise quickly. This is because the carbon present in this flame forms a
coating layer on the metal and protects it against oxidation. Similarly, this
flame is used in cases where the amount of carbon in the metal is needed to be
increased or you wish to harden the metal. The amount of Acetylene gas is
more while Oxygen gas is low in this flame. You may attain a temperature of
3100°C using this flame.

2. Neutral Flame –This flame is used for metals having high melting points such
as mild steel, copper and cast iron. This flame generates temperature of
3200°C. Both the gases are supplied in equal proportion in this flame.

3. Oxidizing Flame –Oxidizing flame is used for welding, brazing and for metal
oxides having low melting temperature (melting point). This flame provides the
temperature of 3300°C.In this method, flux is used for all metals except mild
steel. The main purpose of using flux is to retain metal properties without any
changes due to application of heat. However, flux is not used for mild steel as
the neutral flame itself acts as flux.

Uses –
1. All metals and alloys can be properly welded by this method.
2. Brazing and gouging can be done effectively

Electric Arc welding technique -

Electrodes (Welding Rods) – An arc is induced between the job and the electrode
during electric arc welding. Electrode is nothing but a thin metal rod having flux
coating. Flux improves welding and prevents any adverse effect of climate on the
welding run. The rods that does not contain a chemical coat (flux), is called as
‘Bare Electrode’ or ‘Core Wire Electrode’.
The type of electrode depends on the amount of flux coating or its chemical
composition.
E.g. If there is substantial coating, it is called as ‘Heavy Coating Electrode’ and in
case of low flux coating, it is called as ‘Light Coated Electrode’.

Function of Flux –
1. Avoids any adverse effects on the welding due to external (Atmospheric) factors
and forms the gas shield surrounding the arc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 36

2. Maintains the welding arc.

3. Helps to purify the metal and prevents it from burning
4. Protects against spatter (i.e. droplets of molten material generated during
welding)
5. Acts as a coat on welding metal & thus helps to cool down the job gradually
and the job does not deteriorate
6. Increases the speed of welding and melts the metal more

Electrode Selection –
Generally, the rod (electrode) has following characteristics:
Characteristics –
1. Ability to maintain uniform Arc / flame
2. To keep the welding run smooth and uniform
3. Accelerate the welding speed
4. Minimize the spatter
5. Enhance welding strength
6. Remove the slag easily (Slag means solid remains of flux - after weld area cools
off)

To induce above characteristics in welding, consider things mentioned

below while selecting electrode (rod):
1. The properties of metal on which welding is to be done
2. Diameter of rod
3. Type of the joint
4. Welding position
5. Current and polarity of welding
6. Load speed (proportion)
7. Time required to complete the job

Welding Joint Inspection - The operator or welder completes the welding joint.
However, he should be convinced that it is perfect post job completion. Because if
the job is to be used at the place where there could be a lot of load on it or if the
strength is required and if the job or its any part is not ready for the same, then it
could be very harmful. This would definitely lead to loss of property, but at times,
it may lead to loss to life, too. E.g. Construction of a bridge.

To avoid this, any job or part is tested and inspected. There are several methods
of inspection for welding jobs. Some of them are as given below –

1) Paraffin Test – Using this test, we can see the cracks on bead. Paraffin oil is
painted with a brush on bead surface and it is allowed to dry. Post drying,
slack lime is spread on the surface. Cracks are clearly visible once the lime
dries.
2) Visual Test – During this type of inspection, the bead size is assessed by
gauge. We can assess the defects on bead by naked eyes. Therefore, we can
identify defects like overlap, undercut, spatter; etc. In addition, you can locate
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 37

the cracks, if any. An intelligent inspector can narrate the salient features and
defects of a joint using this method.
3) Magnetic Test (Magnetic Particle Inspection) – By using this test, defects
such as cracks, slag-inclusion, blowhole; etc. can be identified in the welded
metal. In this non-destructive method, iron powder is spread over the metal
surface. Later on, a magnetic flux (current) is passed through the welded
ferromagnetic metal through two powerful magnets. The defective location
tends to generate a magnetic pole inducing a tendency to attract iron powder
and yields a collection of iron powder covering the defective area leading to
detection of defect.
4) X – Ray Test – This is also a non-destructive method to identify defects
present inside welded metal. Defects like cracks, incomplete penetration, slag-
inclusion, weld cavity; etc. can be identified by this method. X -Ray is passed
through the metal. X - Ray image is generated by exposing the metal to
photographic plates. The density at the defective location tends to be less and
that leads to darker representation in the X- Ray image. Thus, the defect can
be easily identified. This test is used to test important jobs.
5) Stethoscope Test – This non-destructive method uses stethoscope. A job
under inspection is hammered using a hammer and the sound generated
during hammering is assessed using stethoscope to check whether there are
any defects. Non-defective area sounds like a bell while sound generated at
defective location is different. To use this method effectively, one should have
thorough knowledge of distinguishing variation in sound. A skilled inspector
can detect defects within a joint by means of sound.
6) Ammonia per sulphate Test: If we mix one part Ammonium Chloride and nine
parts water and rub the mixture on welded metal using a piece of cloth at room
temperature, defects in the weld can be easily detected.

Practical:- (Students are expected to observe the practical; Demonstration

should be given only by teacher)
Welding Run using Arc Welding, Corner Joint Welding –
Selection of Activity – Select one of the following jobs or any job useful to
school:
1) Prepare a trivet
2) Prepare a gas trolley stand
3) Table, chair, cot, rack, wheelbarrow, trolley; etc.

Preparation of Activity –
1) Once the activity is finalized, assemble the material to complete the activity

2) Welding Tools – Ensure that welding tools like welding machine, angle, electric
holder, welding cable, steel tape, earthing cap and wire, welding rod, welding
screen, hand gloves; etc. are in good shape.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 38

3) Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Desired Skill –
a) Cutting of raw materials (Angle, Plates or Rod)
b) Straighten angle or rod
c) Run welding
d) Tack welding
e) Ability to work using safety tools in line with adherence to safety guidelines

Welding Safety Measures –

In order to be safe, as welder needs to safeguard himself/herself from elements
mentioned below:

Welding Radiation –Welding emits intense lights, infrared and ultraviolet rays.
Hence, a welder should use helmet or hand screen to avoid any adverse effect of
radiations on eyes.
It also protects eyes from hot, tiny slag particles and sparks and prevents
affecting face.
Burns – Due to high temperature involved in welding activity, jobs tend to
become hot and that may lead to burns & wounds. To avoid this, following
precautionary measures should be taken:
1. User leather gloves during cutting and welding
2. Use appropriate hand tools. Avoid direct physical contact of any organ with
the job.
3. Use good quality shoes.
4. Use goggles for protecting eyes during slag chipping

Electricity Supply – Always ensure that welding wires are not open or loose.
Welding site should not be wet. Rod holders and cables should be in good
condition. In case you get an electric shock, follow these instructions:
1. Move the object (that led to electric shock) away from body/welding site
2. Call a doctor or send the injured person to doctor
3. Give mouth to mouth resuscitation (CPR – Cardio Pulmonary
Resuscitation)
4. Lay the shock affected person horizontally on ground
5. Do not crowd the site. Ensure to supply fresh air

Fumes – In case of few metals, welding generates poisonous fumes and gases. It
may be hazardous to the worker. So, during welding related to metals like zinc,
brass, bronze; etc.; ensure two main things: 1. Welding site should be completely
ventilated. 2. Use mask during welding.

Explosion and Fire –

In these cases, ensure following precautions:
1. Do not store inflammable and explosive material near welding site
2. Keep well-maintained fire extinguishers nearby welding site
3. Switch off all electric buttons post completion of welding
4. After post welding job completion; ensure that none of the objects is hot.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 39

Safety Rules and Regulations –

1. Do not operate welding machine without adequate information and proper
training.
2. Before connecting the machine to electric supply, get the electric connection
inspected from electric division.
3. While working in welding division, always use boots, hand gloves, leader apron
and hand-screen for safety.
4. User chipping hammer to remove welding slag during welding.
5. Use safety goggle during chipping.
6. Based on the job size, use 30-35V and 60-200A current.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during welding –

1. Do not bend welding rod after attaching it holder
2. Do not connect earthing and holder to each other. Connect earthing to job
only during welding.
3. Do not change current while the machine is in operation.
4. Use screen during welding
5. Conduct strike welding first and later on conduct run welding
6. Do not conduct chipping while the job is hot. Clean the job using a wire
brush.
Practical - Welding – Single V – Butt joint – (Students are expected to
observe the practical; Demonstration should be given only by teacher)

Objective –
1) Learn welding of Single V – Butt Joint by arc
2) Acquire the welding technique in flat position

Preparation of Activity –
1) Mild Steel (M. S.) strip: 100 x 50mm x 6 mm – 2 no. s
2) Mild Steel (M. S.) electrode rod 4 mm (flux coated) – 3 no. s
3) Keep the job material together after selection of job.
4) Welding Tools – Ensure that welding tools like Welding Machine, Electric
Holder, Welding Cable, Clamp, Steel Tape, Earthing Cap and Wire, Welding
Rod, Welding Screen, Hand Gloves, Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Hand
Gloves, Leader Apron etc. are in good condition.
5) Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Desired Skill –
a) Acquire skill of welding of V shaped plate in flat position

Procedure –
1) Do beveling to one side of each plate. Maintain 1 mm root face and 1.5 mm
root gap.
2) Set 190 A current on the transformer present on the machine for electrode rod
having 4 mm diameter
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 40

3) Do tacking to give support to both ends where welding is to be done

4) On same current, complete angle-welding run for the electrode rod having 4
mm diameter at an angle of 70 to 80 degree.
5) Remove slag using chipping hammer and clean the job using wire brush.

Necessary care and precautionary measures to be taken during

demonstration –
1) Use welding tools appropriately. Use hand screen during welding and
chipping.
2) Incorrect angle of welding electrode will not place the molten metal at desired
place.
3) Complete angle-welding run for the welding electrode at an angle of 70 to 80
degree. This will prevent penetration.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Welding - Open Corner Joint using Arc

Objective –
1) Open corner joint welding
2) Acquire the welding technique in flat position
Preparation of Activity –
1. Mild Steel (M.S.) strip: 100 x 50 x 6 mm – 2 quantities.
2. Mild Steel electrode rod 4mm (flux coated) – 4 quantities.
3. Keep the job material together after selection of job.
4. Welding Tools - Ensure that Welding Machine, Electric Holder, Welding Cable,
Clamp, Steel Tape, Earthing Cap and Wire, Welding Rod, Welding Screen,
Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Gloves, Leather Apron etc. are in good shape.
5. Job drawing should be ready. Accordingly, the material can be cut for
demonstration.

Procedure -
1. Scrub the surface and edges of strips.
2. Set 190 A current on the transformer present on the machine for electrode rod
having 4 mm diameter
3. Hold the welding electrode in holder.
4. Complete the welding by stringer beading method, starting from one end to the
cracker end, without disturbing the welding rod.
5. Remove slag using chipping hammer and clean the job using wire brush.

Like all the above procedures and other demonstrations, safety rules should be
strictly followed and precautions and care should be taken during all the
demonstrations.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 41

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What is welding?
2) Describe in detail the major two type of welding.
3) What is metal filler?
4) Mention the types of metal filler.
5) Prepare the flow chart for the activities done during welding job

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
- Understand welding techniques & its use.
- Understand different types of welding joints (- T-fillet, open corner, single
V, butt joint)
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 42

SESSION 7: BASIC TECHNIQUES IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION (BASIC CONCEPTS IN
CONSTRUCTION)

Building construction has high significance in human civilization. In ancient

times, creativity and skill used to be expressed through civil construction. At that
time stones and bricks were the primary construction material. Over the period,
man started to use timber, iron, and cement in construction. While living in
natural habitat, he studied structural
details and composition of natural
resources and used them in building
construction. (Skeleton method and fibrous
method). Though fibrous materials are
flexible, they have good tensile strength. By
adding fibrous material in brittle material,
the brittleness can be reduced to a
substantial level. Mortar, being brittle,
breaks easily. However, adding chicken
wire mesh in mortar gives rise to Ferro-
cement having better strength.
Fig 23 - Ferro-cement

What is Ferro-cement?
Ferro-cement is a new innovative construction material. In this, a skeleton is
created using cement mortar, metal rods and mesh.

Following are the ingredients of Ferro-cement –

· A mixture of cement, sand, mortar, water
· Metal rods
· Skeleton of weld mesh and chicken mesh
· Coating material

Benefits of Ferro-cement –
1) Ferro-cement is used as a primary raw material in the basic skeleton of new
construction.
2) Any shape/form model can be created using Ferro-cement
3) No need of skilled labour
4) Light weight and long lasting, if necessary care is taken
5) Has earthquake resistant capability

Drawbacks of Ferro-cement –
1) If the metal rod skeleton in the Ferro-cement is not coated with mortar
properly, then corrosion may happen due to its contact with air.
2) Ferro-cement is difficult to join using screws, welding, or nails.
3) Large number of workers is required while using Ferro-cement. If the workers
are not skilled, the duration and expenditure of work increases.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 43

4) It is more difficult and time consuming to form a skeleton of metal rods and
weld mesh-chicken mesh.

Preparation method for Ferro-cement –

· Creating a model of a specific structure
· Form the skeleton of metal rods and weld mesh – chicken mesh
· Plastering

Where is Ferro-cement used?

1) House construction
2) Marine construction
3) Agriculture related constructions
4) Industrial structure
5) Road transport construction

Fig 24 - Construction in ferro cement Fig 25 - Structure of home

Using ferro cement

PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Activity 1:

Project / Practical:-
Construction – Preparation of Ferro-cement sheet

Preparation - Selection of Activities –

1. Make a round or square lid for school water tank or public tank in town.
Prepare Ferro-cement tank having a storage capacity of 200 litres of water.
2. Coba construction for school porch
3. Prepare Ferro-cement sheets (as per various sizes). E.g. Wall construction,
partition, toilet wall; etc
4. Construct square wash basin
5. Construct dust bins

Desired Skills –
1. Ability to use shearing machine/ hacksaw frame
2. Ability to cut a 6-mm rod/ bar. Frame welding or tying frame with metal wire.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 44

3. Cutting of Weld mesh, chicken mesh

4. Tying mesh binding with wire
5. Preparation of mortar in appropriate quantity
6. Applying mortar on mesh
7. Use of plastering trowel or masonry trowel
8. Acquire knowledge of curing
9. Conduct curing

Material – M.S. round bar, Welding rod, Chicken mesh, Binding wire, Cement,
Sand, Water, Polythene Paper; etc.

Instruments– Anvil, Measuring Tape, T-Square, Welding Machine, Sieve, Mortar

Pan, Bucket; etc.

Tools –Chisel, Hammer, Mesh Cutter, Plier, Plastering Trowel, Masonry Trowel;
etc.

Procedure –
1. Break the round bar into 4 pieces as per mentioned measurement.
2. Then weld all four pieces in right angle to each other to form a square frame.
3. Cut the chicken mesh as per mentioned measurement.
4. Then tie the chicken mesh on the given rods of square frame using binding
wire.
5. Prepare mortar by mixing sand, cement, and water in a proportionate manner.
6. Spread polythene paper on plain ground and place the chicken mesh bound
square frame on it.
7. Apply mortar on frame with the help of masonry trowel.
8. Roll and distribute the mortar evenly across frame using rods.
9. Spread and level the mortar with the help of plastering trowel.
10. After approximately two hours, cover it with wet jute bag.
11. Sprinkle water (i.e. curing process) on the prepared Ferro-cement sheet for a
minimum of 7 days to a maximum of 14 days.

Precautionary Measures –
1. Cut the chicken mesh slightly larger than the frame. Design the flowchart for
Ferro-cement.
2. Tie the chicken mesh firmly to frame so that it does not come out after
application of mortar over it.
3. Filter sand being used for mortar and wash it before use.
4. While preparing mortar, first mix sand and cement thoroughly using masonry
trowel. Then keep adding water in it gradually.
5. Place the frame slightly above the floor to apply mortar of equal thickness on
both sides of the frame.
6. Cut edges of the sides of Ferro-cement sheet neatly so that it gets square
shape.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 45

7. Do not sprinkle too much water on mortar on first day.

Do you know this?

1. Based on shape, masonry trowel has different types. E.g. Square, Heart; etc.
2. Plastering trowel is made up of either wood or iron. According to the nature of
work, plastering trowel of various lengths is used.
3. The mixture of cement and sand is called as mortar. While preparing the Ferro-
cement items such as sheet, tank etc. mixing ratio is 1:3 or 1:4 and for
finishing it remains as 1:1.
4. While preparing mortar, half liter of water is used per 1 Kg cement. This is
called as ‘Water Cement Ratio’. The strength of mortar depends on this ratio.
Due to excess water, minute granules of cement are washed away.
5. Mixing of water to cement leads to a chemical reaction resulting into hardening
of cement. However, it takes 20 to 21 days to acquire full strength to cement.
Therefore, cement should be kept wet for first 28 days by sprinkling water after
regular intervals. This process is called as ‘Curing’. The duration of curing
varies depending on job width, job type, geographical condition, etc.
6. If there is no soil present in sand, if Roding is done appropriately and if
covering is done properly, cracks no crack formation occurs in job.
7. In Ferro-cement technique, iron is used along with cement. Due to iron, tensile
strength of the Ferro-cement increases along with pressure (load carrying
capacity). Unlike R.C.C. technique that used more amount of iron, Ferro-
cement uses only iron frame and chicken mesh. This effectively reduces width
of the sheet. Hence, it is very light in weight and inexpensive, too.
8. If you wish to create exact replica in the die of original item (e.g. Washbasin,
Cement sheet etc.); then only cement is used instead of mortar. Water and
cement are mixed in equal quantity. In this jute cloth is used as binder (to
support the cement).

Activity 2:

Practical - Constructing a Water Tank (Cement) – Water Storage Capacity –

250 Litres
Benefits & Use –
1. It does not get corroded as it is made up of cement.
2. More durable than iron tank
3. It can be easily repaired and there is flexibility to increase or decrease height
4. It is very easy to construct
5. Easy to construct even for large dimensions

Let’s divide process of tank construction in 4 parts –

1) Skeleton/Structure 2) Weld mesh – Chicken mesh with jute cloth
3) Mortaring 4) Curing
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 46

Following material is required to construct the tank –

1) M.S. Rod 2) Socket 3) Angle 4) G.I. Wire 5) Weld mesh 6) Cement 7)
Chicken mesh 8) Sand 9) Jute cloth 10) Water

Costing
1. Observe diagram given below. Based on the information provided, prepare
material list, and calculate approximate costing to construct the job displayed
in the drawing.

Name of the Rate Price

Sr.No. Quantity of Material
Material (Rs.) (Rs.)
1 6mm Rod 0.270 kg 30/kg 8.10
2 Chicken Mesh 1 Sq. Ft. 3/Sq. Ft. 3.00
3 Welding Rod 1 Piece 1/Piece 1.00
4 G.I. Wire 2 metre 1/metre 2.00
5 Sand 0.0025 M ³ 1000/m³ 2.50
6 Cement 1.083 kg 4/kg 4.33
Total 20.93

Wages and Overhead: 25% of Material Cost 5.25

Total Cost 26.18
Approximate cost of constructing the job displayed in the drawing will be Rs.
26.00

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) Describe the problems faced during construction using Ferro-cement and its
remedies.
2) Calculate the approximate costing of raw material used for Ferro-cement sheet.
3) Calculate the approximate costing of Ferro-cement sheet based on the cost of
raw material used, wages, indirect costs etc.
4) Measure the length, width and thickness of the sheet and calculate its volume.
Accordingly determine the material required for the work of cubic metre.
5) What is Ferro-cement?
6) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Ferro-cement.

7) What is the mixture of cement and sand called?

8) What is the total curing time required for cement?

9) What is the name of material used along with cement in the Ferro-cement
technique?
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 47

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Prepare concrete sheet and Ferro cement structures
· Describe what is Ferro cement and state its applications
· Describe advantages of Ferro cement.
· Describe the safety precautions to be followed when preparing a Ferro
cement structure
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 48

SESSION 8: MAKING OF RCC COLUMN

The way skeleton of bones supports other delicate organs in the body of living
organisms, RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is used to strengthen the
foundation of the building. Cement concrete possesses good compressive
strength; however, its tensile strength. Therefore, iron are placed along with
concrete wherever tension is anticipated. It
is called as R.C.C (Reinforced Cement
Concrete). Due to higher amount of
strength in R.C.C. columns, they are
durable and construction becomes long
lasting. It is economical and it is easy to
construct. It is useful for heavy load
bearing structures. In this lesson, we are
going to learn the skill to build R.C.C
columns that are very useful in building
construction.

Fig 26 - R.C.C. Column

Construction – Making of R.C.C. Column
Preparation – Selection of Activity –
1. Construct R.C.C. Columns of 3m height for a compound.
2. Do concrete work for school. (E.g. Foundation, constructing steps).
3. Construct pillars of 6 feet to 8 feet light for a shed.

Desired Skills –
1. To handle construction material
2. To cut torsion bar
3. To bend 6mm bar
4. To construct a column
5. To cut wooden planks and to make wooden box
6. T0 know concrete composition
7. Prepare concrete
8. Pour concrete in mould
9. Knowledge of curing
10. Conduct curing

Material – Torsion bar, Round bar, Binding wire, Wooden planks, Nails, Cement,
Sand, Gravel, Water etc.

Instruments - Anvil, Measuring Tape, T-Square, Sieve, Mortar Pan, Bucket, Jute
bag etc.

Tools – Chisel, Claw Hammer, Plier, Shovel, Trowel, Plumb bob etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 49

Procedure –
1. Cut the torsion bar into 4 pieces using chisel as per given measurement.
2. Cut the round bar using chisel as per given measurement.
3. Bend the round bar at right angles and prepare a square / rectangular frame.
4. Bind these square frames to the torsion bar using binding wire at the distance
of 19 to 20cm from each other.
5. Join four wooden planks with each other at right angles vertically to form a
frame/mould. Around the column frame.
6. Prepare concrete by mixing gravel, sieved sand, cement, and water on an iron
sheet.
7. Erect the wooden frame/mould vertically on a flat surface of concrete base and
put some concrete at its bottom.
8. Insert a mould (frame) of bars at the centre of wooden frame/mould.
9. Keep pouring concrete gradually into the wooden frame/mould until the
column is full of concrete.
10. Next day, remove the wooden planks.
11. Wrap the column with jute bags and sprinkle water on it till 28 days.

Precautionary Measures –
1. Maintain the height of torsion bar pieces 10 to 15 cm more than the column
height.
2. While preparing square frame, keep the torsion bar joint at centre along
length.
3. Ensure that two bars should overlap for 2 to 3 cm on each other near joint of
two bars.
4. Keep torsion bar inside square frame.
5. While building the structure; ensure that the frame joints remain on different
sides.
6. Keep the wooden planks’ frame/mould2 to 4 cm larger than the steel frame
structure for covering purpose.
7. Check whether all corners of frame/mould are at right angle to each other,
using plumb bob.
8. Use only three wooden planks in case the mould needs to be placed
horizontally.
9. While preparing concrete, first mix gravel, sand, and cement thoroughly with
the help of a shovel. Once they are mixed cohesively, add water to the mixture.
10. Initially fix the structure in concrete firmly.
11. While pouring the concrete, keep levelling it with screed bar intermittently.
This will ensure uniform spread of concrete settles across entire structure.
12. Take utmost precaution to ensure that wooden planks and column corners are
not disturbed. This may lead to distortion of frame structure.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 50

Do you know this?

1. Due to plumb bob’s weight, its string remains at right angle with the ground
level.
2. The mixture of cement, sand and gravel is called as concrete. Concrete is used
to lay foundation of machines, R.C.C. columns. For the machine foundation,
the ratio 1:4:8 of this mixture is used and for the R.C.C. columns, the ratio
remains 2:3:6.
3. Iron is used in R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete). When iron is not used in
concrete, it is called as P.C.C., meaning ‘Plain Cement Concrete’.
4. Torsion bars which are spiral in structure are used in R.C.C. structure. It
provides better grip for cement on iron bars. Round bars are elastic and hence
they are used to form square frames.
5. Torsion bars of 8mm, 10mm, 12mm and 16mm thickness and round bars of
6mm thickness are used for R.C.C. structure.
6. The vertical structure of R.C.C. is called as a ‘Column’. The structure of
column is made to bear the load. Horizontal structure is called as a ‘Beam’.
The structure of beam is made to bear stress.
7. If one column is to be erected above another column, then to engage bars of
first column into second column, keep them outside the width of bars.
8. The labour charges for R.C.C. structure are calculated as per running feet.

Cement is prepared from the reaction of following elements: Calcium,

Aluminium, Magnesium and Silicon, with Oxygen and Hydrogen. Out of these,
oxides of Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium and Silicon are abundantly available
in nature. The combination of these mixtures is deeply heated in kiln. During the
heating process, water present in the mixture evaporates and it attains melted
state and thus, forms a composition. After sufficient cooling process, it is
converted to fine powder form. It is called as ‘Portland Cement’. When it is mixed
with water, its different molecules form bonds with the water molecules. Due to
this chemical bond, cement attains strength. However, cement is always used to
join different items with each other. Mixing of cement with sand and gravel leads
to formation of concrete. Though the cement portion in this mixture is relatively
low, due to its bonding ability, entire concrete hardens like a rock. If already
hardened cement is mixed with water, it doesn’t provide any strength. So, always
ensure that cement is not exposed to the moisture in air that may lead to its
hardening. Therefore, before actual use, cement should be stored in the dry area
above ground (away from wet surface).

Mortar and Concrete

Mixture of different stone particles, sand and gravel is bonded together with the
help of cement. The cavity between stone particles is filled with cement. To reduce
the cost of cement, different sized particles (sand, gravel) are combined. Mortar is
mixture of cement and sand. ‘Concrete’ is mixture of cement, sand and gravel.
As concrete consists of bonded pieces of stone, it becomes very strong.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 51

Fig 27- Mortar Fig 28 - Concrete

Characteristics
1. Post chemical reaction, cement becomes hard and it remains as is in water.
2. Cement does not deteriorate or rust in normal climate condition. The structural
part that is supposed to have tensile strength or sustain load, iron structures
are used along with concrete as a support.
3. Cement concrete is neither affected by normal heat nor gets burnt. However, it
may burst due to major fire.
4. Cement is bad conductor of electricity and heat.
5. If water content in the cement mortar is high, then after curing cavities are
formed leading to weakening of
cement.

Example – Inspect the diagram

given below and using the
available information, list down
the material to construct the job
and estimate the approximate cost
to construct
it.
Answer -
To construct R.C.C - Flow Chart
– Constructing R.C.C. Column

Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate (Rs.) Price (Rs.)

1 8 mm Rod 4.79 kg 30/kg 143.70
2 6 mm Rod 0.81 kg 30/kg 24.30
3 Welding Rod 10 no. s 1/piece 10.00
4 Gravel (1/2 inch) 0.0675 m³ 1000/m³ 67.50
5 Sand 0.03375 m³ 1000/m³ 33.80
6 Cement 23.625 kg 4/kg 94.50
Total Material Cost 373.80
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25% of Total Material Cost 93.45
Total Cost 467.25
MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 52
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 53

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is R.C.C.?
2. Describe the problems faced during R.C.C. construction and its remedies.
3. Calculate the volume of column by measuring its length, width, and height.
Accordingly, Calculate the cost of material required for 1 m³of construction.
4. What are the ingredients of cement? Explain the concept of mortar and
concrete.
5. Describe the uses of RCC column.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, Students will be able to:

· Identify materials used in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)work
· Perform Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)work to prepare column as per
given specifications
· Describe what is an RCC work and its applications
· Describe function of Torsion bar
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 54

SESSION 9: COSTING OF CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Last year while providing demonstrations in some departments, we have learnt to
calculate costing of raw material used, Light bills, wear and tear of used
machineries, wages and overhead charges, potential profit amount. We have
learnt to calculate the overall costing by adding all expenses for items like
job/agricultural material/deposits-expenses/food items/light fittings etc.
In this class, you are expected to prepare the budget of initial estimate for project
jobs related to material/agricultural material/deposits-expenses/food items/light
fittings in all the four departments. After project completion, you are supposed to
calculate the actual cost and attach it to project report.

Construction of Cement Tank –

1) Diagram mentioned below depicts a cement tank constructed without using
steel structure.
Calculate the cost of construction using
information given below:

1. Mortar ratio 1:3

2. Cement: Rs.350/bag (Rs.50/kg)
3. Sand: Rs.1500/m³
4. Cement: 1.4 kg/ltr
5. Wages and overhead charges: 30 % of
total material cost Fig 29

Dimensions of the material required to construct water tank –

= (Outer dimension of tank) - (Inner dimension of tank)
= (Length * Width * Height) - (Length * Width * Height)
= (1.2 *0.7 * 0.6) – (1.1 * 0.6 * 0.55)
= (0.504) – (0.363)
= 0.141 m³

Costing –
Quantity of Price
Sr. No. Name of Material Material Rate (Rs.)
Sand (3 Parts) 0.141 Rs.
1 159
X (3/4) 0.106 m³ 1500/m³
2 Cement (1 Part)
0.141/3 = 0.0353 m³
(1 m³ = 1000 liter)
0.0353 * 1000 =
35.30 liter
Measurement 1 liter
= 1.4 kg
35.3 * 1.4 kg/liter
= 49.42 kg 49.42 kg Rs. 7/kg 345.94
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 55

Total Material Cost 504.94

Wages & Overhead Charges: 30% of Total Material Cost 151.48
Total Cost Rs. 656.42

The approximate cost to construct a water tank as mentioned in above

diagram will be Rs.874.

2) Study the given diagram and using

provided information, calculate the
approximate cost to construct the job.

1. Angle – 20 * 20 * 3 mm = Rs. 40/kg

2. Plywood (10 mm thickness) = Rs.36/ sq.ft.
3. Screw = Rs. 0.50/Piece
4. Welding Rod = Rs. 2/Piece
5. Depreciation and Wages: 25% of total
material cost
6. Angle – 20 * 20 * 3 mm = 0.874 kg/m

Fig 30

Price
Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate
(Rs.)
1 Angle 20 * 20 * 3 mm 600 * 4 = 2400
300 * 4 = 1200
400 * 4 = 1600
2400 + 1200 + 1600 = Rs. 40/kg 181.60
5200
5200 mm = 5.2 m
5.2 * 0.874 = 4.54 kg
2 Plywood (Thickness 10
MM) 300 mm = 1 ft. Rs. 36/sq.
36.00
300 * 300 = 1* 1 = 1 sq. ft.
ft.
Rs.
3 6.00
Welding Rod 3 Pieces 2/Piece
Rs.
4 4.00
Screw 8 Pieces 0.50/Piece
Total Material Cost 227.60
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25 % of Total Material Cost 56.90
Total Cost 284.50
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 56

Fig 31
The approximate total cost to construct a job as mentioned in above diagram is
Rs.284.50.

3) Study the given diagram and using given information, calculate the
approximate cost to construct the job.
1. Baton of 2 Inch – Rs. 6/ft.
2. Plywood (12 mm Thickness) = Rs. 40/ Sq. ft.
3. Tack nails (3 Inch) = Rs. 60/kg
4. Wages & Overhead Charges: 25 % of material cost

Price
Sr.No. Name of Material Quantity of Material Rate
(Rs.)
1 Baton (2 Inch) 1000 * 3 = 3000
250 * 4 = 1000
500 * 4 = 2000
3000 + 3000 + 2000 = Rs. 6/ft. 120
6000 mm
(300 mm = 1 ft.)
8000 mm = 20 ft.
Plywood (12 mm 1100 * 600 = 660000
2 Thickness) (90000 mm = 1 sq. ft.) Rs. 40/ft. 293.20
660000 mm = 7.33 sq.ft.
3 Nails (3 Inch) 0.250 kg Rs. 60/kg 15.00
Total Material Cost 428.2
Wages and Overhead Charges: 25 % of Total Material Cost 107.05
Total Cost 535.25
The approximate total cost to construct a job as mentioned in above diagram is
Rs.535.25.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Calculate the cost of different practical jobs
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 57

SESSION 10: PLASTERING AND PAINTING

After completion of any construction work, it is required to paint the

construction. Final finishing is provided to a construction with the help of
processes like plastering, painting, varnishing; etc. The main objective of final
finishing is to protect the building or surface of an object from changing climatic
factors of atmosphere like rain, humidity, and temperature. Processes like
plastering, painting are beneficial to enhance durability of construction. In this
chapter, we are going to learn the various processes being used to provide final
finishing to a building post completion of construction.

PLASTER:-
Plastering is essential during construction of a
building or a house to achieve uniformity and
neatness for all walls from interior and exterior
sides. Let us understand what is meant by ‘Plaster’
first. Plaster means a soft and pasty coat of a
mixture of sand, water, cement, and other
ingredients (that provide strength to construction)
being given to internal and/or external surface of
walls and ceiling. Fig 32 - Plaster
Walls and ceiling need to be given two coats of plaster. The base coat (initial coat)
may vary from 9 to 15 mm while the top coat (final coat) consists of 2 to 5 mm
thickness. The ratio of sand to cement is kept as 1:3 to 1:6 and 1:4 to 1:6 in both
coats, respectively. Base coat of plaster consists of thick and solid layer of
mixture. After completion of base coat, the cement applied on wall surface is
spread using a flat wooden plank, also known as ‘Wooden Float’. The top coat is
applied before the base coat dries completely. This helps to form a firm and
cohesive bond between both coats (base coat & top coat).
Following are the types of plaster;
viz. Cement Plaster, Earthen Plaster (a mixture of clay and cow dung),
specialized waterproof plaster, specially designed stucco plaster (primarily used
for exterior walls). Generally, we use cement plaster. However, in rural area, in
some cases, the traditional earthen plaster made up of a mixture of clay and cow
dung is still used. Similarly, in urban area, Plaster of Paris is used abundantly.

Benefits of Plastering –
1. There are multiple benefits of plastering. It eliminates roughness and
unevenness of wall and ceiling making them uniform.
2. Plastering helps to cover up the sub-standard material used during
construction.
3. It helps to protect the building from external detrimental sources like rain,
dust;
4. Any shortcomings or minor faults induced during construction can be covered
up by plastering.
5. The gaps and roughness between brickwork can be corrected by plastering.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 58

6. Plastering provides final finishing to construction wherein a uniform surface is

created to enhance a building’s look as per need and in desired proportion.
This helps to paint the walls, draw paintings, or hang posters effectively
enriching the overall look of the walls.
7. Plaster is strong and durable by nature. It doesn’t contract or expand with
changing climatic conditions. Plaster sustains firm grip of walls.

Precautionary measures to be taken while selecting plastering material –

1. Plaster should always be soft, non-absorbent, fire resistant, washable, immune
to change in climatic temperature
2. It should not contract post drying and application on wall
3. Plaster should hold a firm and uniform grip on the wall

Following things should be considered while selecting plastering material in

relation to factors that may affect plastering material –
1. Availability and d durability of binding material to be used with plaster
2. Roughness and expected uniformity of the surface where plaster is supposed
to be applied
3. Current climatic condition at the application area of plaster according to the
changing atmospheric situation
4. Surface of wall/ceiling (interior or exterior)

Types of Plastering –

1. Earthen Plaster – This is the cheapest

option of plastering. Primarily, mud (wet
clay) or cow dung is used to plaster walls of
homes. In this method of plastering, clay,
cow dung, grass and marginal amount of
sand is mixed and used for wall plastering.
Before plastering, these walls are watered
and made wet so that the plastering coat is
applied smoothly and induce firm grip of
plaster on the wall. Fig 33 - Earthen Plaster

2. Cement Plaster – Cement is the primary

material for exterior wall plastering.
Cement is predominantly used to plaster
dug land, uniform levelling of walls.

3. Lime Plaster –Lime plaster is produced by

mixing lime and sand in 1:1 ratio and
crushing it fine in mortar mill to form a
uniform material of plaster. Fig 34 - Lime Plaster
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 59

4. POP – Plaster of Paris is a type of plaster derived from

quick setting Gypsum (i.e. calcium sulphate
hemihydrate). On heating Gypsum, water evaporates
and the residual material is known as ‘Plaster of Paris or
POP’. POP is highly water-soluble and its mixture with
water is used to plaster walls conveniently. As
mentioned, POP is water-soluble and hence is not
recommended to be used for plastering of exterior walls.
A mixture of POP and lime is used to prepare
decorative/artistic objects, false ceiling, and as a filler
for wall cracks and holes.
Fig 35 - Plaster of Paris

Precautionary measures to be taken during plastering –

Before we begin plastering, it is necessary to clean the application area (walls
and/or ceiling).
· The wall (or ceiling) that needs to be plastered should be cleaned first and kept
moist appropriately.
· Ensure that the application area is free from grease, oil, or dust.
· During plastering, 2 to 3 layers are applied on the wall after a stipulated time
interval. Ensure that thickness of each layer is not more than 12 mm.
· Before beginning plastering, fill up all the holes that were done during
construction of wall.
· After applying plaster on wall, check whether it is spread as a uniform layer,
using a plumb bob.
· After applying plaster on wall, extract excess water by absorbing it with a
sponge.
· Inspect the plaster mixture thoroughly. Remove large stones, wire, threads, or
foreign material, if any.
· Leave the plastered surface as is for at least 12 hours so that the plaster is set
firmly.
· Before commencing painting or finishing process, leave the plastered wall as
is, to dry for at least 24 hours.
· Check whether dried scales or flakes of plastering material do not come out
from the surface (i.e. desquamation).
· Due to uneven proportion of plastering material, many times hairline cracks
appear on the walls. To avoid this, ensure that all ingredients in the plastering
mixture are taken in proper proportion.
· To avoid cracks on the surface of plastered wall, ensure that the plastered wall
doesn’t dry immediately after plastering.
· Ensure that white dots don’t form on the plastered surface due to mineral
contents of plastering material.

Painting means applying coat of a paint on the wall or ceiling. In the process of
painting, a liquid paint material is applied as a final finishing material on a
plastered wall. Post completion of plaster, painting needs to be done for walls,
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 60

ceiling of the building, and wooden furniture, metal items in the house. Applying
a coat of paint to items mentioned above is known as ‘Painting’. After completion
of construction, painting needs to be done so decorate the building. Painting is
needed so that the plastered walls in the house look attractive and beautiful.

Necessity of Painting –
· The main objective of painting is to prevent any adverse effects of changing
climatic factors of atmosphere (like rain, humidity, change in temperature, etc.)
on the constructed building and its surface.
· Along with the walls and ceiling, painting needs to be done also for wooden
furniture and metal items in the house.
· Due to painting, household items and building look attractive.
· Painting protects wooden furniture and metal items from rusting and termite
that may occur due to exposure to climatic factors like humidity and chemical
reaction with oxygen (called as oxidation).

Characteristics of Good Paint –

· A good paint spreads on the wall uniformly and does not consist of clots, dirt,
or foreign material.
· A good quality paint can be easily handled by a brush
· A good quality paint is not injurious to human body.
· A good quality paint is available at reasonable rate in market.
· A good paint looks majestic, radiant, and attractive on the wall and lasts long
(remains durable).
· Being fire retardant and antifungal is also characteristics of a good quality
paint

Following ingredients are present in paint –

· Base – This is the solid component present in the paint. This is the main
ingredient that spreads on the wall surface. The base material defines quality
of paint. This ingredient defines paint’s quality of durability and uniform
spread on the wall surface.
· Binder – This is a liquid component present in the paint that is mixed with the
base component, helping it to spread uniformly all over the wall surface. As it
helps the wall surface to hold the paint, it is known as ‘Binder’. It adds luster
to the paint and it protects the wall from water and humidity (i.e. the act of
waterproofing).
· Refined pure linseed oil is used as binder in paint.
· Paint driers like red lead, lead acetate, cobalt are added to paint to promote or
accelerate the curing or hardening or drying of paint.
· Coloring Pigments – These are added to paint to give it a specific colour or
tone.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 61

Minimum 3 coats are applied during painting.

· The first coat is known as ‘Primer’. This protects the wall surface from erosion.
· The second coat is known as ‘Undercoat’. This coat helps to make the wall
surface uniform.
· The third coat is known as ‘Finishing Coat’. This coat helps the wall surface to
become neat, clean, uniform, majestic, attractive, and radiant.

Precautionary measures to be taken during painting –

· It is necessary to have the application area of painting ventilated. If the room is
not adequately ventilated, it may lead to stuffy (bad odour) experience and
leave stains of paint on the wall surface.
· It is necessary to protect the painted wall from water and direct sunlight. A
continuous exposure to direct sunlight or water may fade the paint.
· If the quantity of oil (binder) in the paint is excess or the surface is wet during
painting, it may lead to occurrence of bubbles on the painted surface. To avoid
this, the wall surface should undergo uniform priming.
· To avoid any potential damage to flooring during painting, cover the flooring
with a scrap carpet.
· Inspect the target wall for any potential moistness and/or water leakage before
painting.
· Before beginning painting, scrub the wall surface with a good quality scrubber
to remove dried scales or flakes of plastering material. If a hollow sound is
heard after tapping the surface, it may be due to substandard quality of
plaster. Such plaster is prone to wear off, exposing wall to further deterioration.
· If cracks are visible on the target wall, they should be smeared over by applying
either Plaster of Paris (POP) or a mortar of cement and sand in the ratio of 1:3.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is plaster?
2. Describe the advantages of plastering.
3. Mention any two types of plastering.
4. What does ‘Lime Plaster’ mean?
5. What is mean by ‘Painting’?
6. Describe the characteristics of good quality paint.
7. What are the precautionary measures to be considered during painting?
8. Paint is applied through three coats. Explain these three coats of painting.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 62

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Describe safety precautions while plastering with mortar
· Describe the benefits of plastering
· Describe the benefits of painting
· Function of cement, sand and water
· Plaster & paint the given area
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 63

UNIT 2: ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES
In the 21st century, there has been tremendous development in technology due to
the extensive scientific research going on in the world. The invention of electricity
has been one of the most important inventions in the history and progress of
mankind. Electricity plays a vital role in our day to day life. Majority of household
equipment like tube lights, fridge, machines, electric motor etc. runs on
electricity. We are going to learn the basic concept of electricity to understand the
working of these electrical equipment. What is electric current? What should be
the type of electric connection for the flow of electricity? Why does it need an
electric wire as a conductor? We will understand all these concepts through the
following lesson.

Objectives -
· To know the basic concept of electricity
· To understand the use of transistor
· To understand the use of capacitor
· To understand the concept of electric circuit

Let us understand the flow of electric current through following illustrations.

· Rainwater flows downwards. River flows down the mountain.
· Air blows from high pressure area to low pressure area
· If we put one end of a metal rod into fire, the heat transfers from the fire end
towards our hand.
· So, we can conclude that air, water, heat, all move from higher to lower areas.
This rule applies to electricity as well.

1. Electric Current -
Every object in nature consists of very
small particles called atoms. Protons and
neutrons are present in the nucleus of
the atom. Electrons are rotating in
different levels around the nucleus. They
are attracted weakly towards the center
because of central forces. These
Electrons are called free

Fig 1- Structure of atom

Electrons. Free electrons are present in all metal elements when electric current
passes through it. Free electrons are the cathodes. Electricity current passes
from the cathode to the anode of battery. The speed of these free electrons creates
electricity current.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 64

Cathodes transfer with free electrons. Therefore, passing of electric current in

specific time and duration is known as electric current. Electrons transfer from
cathode to anode. Direction of electric current is from anode to cathode.

Concepts of electric technology:

Conductor:
The objects through which electric current can pass without any obstacles are
called conductors.
All metals are conductors. E.g.: Iron, Brass
Bad conductor:
The objects through which electric current cannot pass easily are called bad
conductors of electricity.
All non-metallic objects are bad conductors. E.g.: Wood, plastic.
Voltage:
The element, which is responsible for the transportation of electrons, is called as
voltage. Voltage is measured in Volts (V). Voltage is sometimes called the push or
force of electricity. Voltmeter is the instrument measure of voltage.
Resistance:
In an electric circuit, there are some obstacles while passing the current. These
obstacles are called resistance. It is measured in ‘Ω’ Ohm unit.
While flowing, the electrons hit each other and other ions and this creates some
obstacles in the electric current. This property of a conductor is called
RESISTANCE. Ohm is unit of resistance in SI system.
Potential differences:
Observe the following examples to understand electromotive forces [potential
forces].
Have you seen the lightening in the sky? What is the direction of its light?
Is it earth to the sky? The answer is NO. The direction of light of the lightening is
from sky to land. It is from more electromotive forces to zero electromotive forces
(earth)]
The unit of these potential differences is VOLT.
Flow of lightening:
From clouds à High electromotive forces
↓
Towards the earth à Zero electromotive forces.
Difference in electric level between two points is called as potential difference. The
electric current passes when there is difference in electric level at the two ends of
conductor. Current passes from high electromotive force to low electromotive
forces. It continues until it becomes equal at both the ends. When the potential
difference between the two ends becomes zero the flow of current will stop
automatically.
+ve à -ve
There are more electromotive forces at +ve electric charge whereas less
electromotive forces at –ve charge. The difference of this level is called as the
potential difference.
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
The objects which conduct electricity only in certain situations or mediums are
called semi-conductors. Unlike conductors, Semi-conductors may not conduct
electricity in all mediums.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 65

Semi-conductor has electric properties somewhere in the middle, between those

of a conductor and a bad conductor.
E.g. silicon, germanium, selenium.

TRANSISTOR
The instrument, which converts the more electric current force into low electric
current force, is called a Transistor. It plays a vital role as a semi-conductor in
many electronic gadgets. Transistor is a small sized semi-conductor. It is used as
an amplifier switch in many equipment. It is compact and hence portable.
Although it is small, it is highly efficient and also uses less electric power. Due to
its small size, it is used in place of electron tubes in modern electric gadgets.
For example, the vacuum tubes from the old radios have been replaced by
transistors, hence making them
smaller in size.
Fig 2-
Radio with vacuum tube

Fig 3 - Transistor Radio

Capacitor stores and regulates the fluctuation in

current and transfers it to the electric circuit.
Capacitor is used to temporarily store electric energy.
There are two electric conductors in a capacitor.
These are separated by an insulator. Glass, vacuum
air, paper or plastics may be used as an insulator in
the capacitor.
Fig 4 - Capacitor
In an electric connection or circuit, capacitor is used to block direct current in
order to allow flow of alternating current.

As per Ohm's law If Potential differences in a conductor is V and the current is I,

then their ratio is constant. Ohms law is applicable when the physical condition,
area, temperature, objects of medium of the conductor are constant.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 66

Vµ I = Electricity increases when potential differences increased.

Fig 5
V/I = R where R is the resistance which is constant for a given conductor.

Direct Current [DC] - Direct current passes in one direction. Direct current passes
from area of high potential to the area of low potential. Direct current flows
through closed electric circuit. It is found in low voltage applications.
Alternating Current (AC) -Alternating current periodically changes the direction
of flow. In our hose we use alternating current.

Fig 6 - Direct & Alternating current

If the highest current frequency is 50 Hz then highest voltage is + 311 V

AC is more dangerous to human life than DC.

Because of this, appliances using DC like
batteries, cells, toys etc. do not cause electric
shock. However, the household appliances using
AC may be fatal to human life.

Series Circuit
In a circuit, if the resistors are arranged in such
a way that equal current passes through each
resistor, such a circuit is called a series circuit.
In case of a series circuits, Fig 7 - series circuit

1. Current passes in equal proportion and in every part.

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 67

2. sum of all the resistances in the circuit is equal to the resistance of the circuit
3. Potential differences of two polar joint is equal to the sum of every potential
differences of volt.
4. The sum of the resistances of the circuit is more than the resistance of each
resistor in the circuit
5. Series circuit is used to increase the resistance of an electric circuit

Parallel Circuit
The components of a parallel circuit will have the
same voltage across their ends and will have
identical polarities.
In case of parallel circuits,

1. For Each component of a parallel circuit the

voltage is same across.
2. The total current that flows from the source is
equal to the sum of the currents in each path.
Fig 8 - Parallel circuit
3. The resistance and the current within the resister are inversely proportional.
4. The electric current of circuit is equal to addition of accumulate current in
circuit which flows in all resister.

Fig 9 series & parallel circuit comparison

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 68

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1. ----------------- is more dangerous than direct current (DC).

2. The resistance and current are -----------------proportional in a parallel circuit.
(Meaning, if resistance increases, current ----------------)
3. The electric level at a certain point is called as -------------.
4. The unit of measure of resistance is -------------.

Subjective Questions
1. What are the uses of the heat generated from electric current?
2. Explain the importance of transistor and capacitor.
3. Differentiate between direct and indirect current
4. Explain the uses of a capacitor.
5. Explain the importance of transistor in electric appliances.
6. Where is direct current used?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Understand basic electrical concepts
· Prepare the diagram of a simple electrical circuit
· Prepare a simple electrical circuit for operating one lamp by one
switch and 2 lamps by two switches.
· Connect two or more lamps in a series
· Connect two or more lamps in parallel
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 69

SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC PUMP,

DOL STARTER, AND INVERTER

We use several electric appliances in our day to day lives. The working of these
appliances is dependent on electricity. Several times, there is a power cut from
the source. What options are available in such cases? How can the electricity be
provided in such cases? How does an electric motor work? We shall be learning
these Chapters in the following lesson. We will also be learning the working of
various electrical appliances and what care should be taken while using them.

Objectives
1. To know the structure of inverter and electric pump
2. To pursue the technique of using an inverter and electric pump
3. To study the working of a DOL starter
4. How to do the maintenance of inverter and electric pump

INVERTER:
An inverter is an electronic circuit. Its job is to convert the DC voltage from the
battery into AC voltage i.e. into a form usable for supplying electricity for
household use. Along with the inverter, the circuit includes another small
electronic circuit called the battery charger to
charge the battery when the battery is not in use.
When the main electric supply stops in our home,
we require another source of electricity to run the
electric equipment. In this situation, we may store
the electricity in battery and use it according to
our necessity. The charged electricity in battery is
in DC Voltage and the inverter converts the DC
Voltage to AC voltage.
Fig 10 - Inverter

INVERTER+ BATTERY
'Inverter + Battery + Battery charger' works as a
contingency system for situations when the main
electric supply stops. But the system does not
automatically switch on when the electric supply
stops. This needs to be done manually. Hence this is
called an offline system.

Fig 11 - Inverter + Battery

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 70

For the switch to happen automatically from the main power supply to the
inverter +Battery system on an event of power failure, we need to have a “Mains
failure sensing system” attached to the system. This system continuously
assesses the electric supply and switches from the main supply to the inverter
system immediately on failure of
electric supply. Hence this
system of inverter + battery +
battery charger +mains failure
sensing system becomes an
emergency electric supply
substitute. The factors which
affect the duration for which this
system will continue to supply
electricity on failure are:
Fig 12 - Working of
inverter

1. Number and type of appliances attached (lights, fans, TV)

2. Capacity of battery and type
3. Inverters capacity [400,800,1000,2000 VAE]

There is movement of electron in AC and DC wire. Electrons in DC pass in one

direction. While in AC it is fluctuating, its speed is 50 to 60 times in one second.
This is known as electric frequency. In India, this frequency is 50Hz while in
other countries like America it is 60 Hz. AC is used for Homely electric
appliances. For computer, mobile DC is used because they need low electromotive
power.

Fig 13 - Inverter - converting direct current to alternate current

How does inverter work?

Inverter is a part of the uninterrupted power supply/source - UPS. As shown in

the above diagrams, when the main source of current is on, the power supply is
everywhere and the power is stored in battery. As the supply of power is off, the
stored power is converted from D C to A C by inverter.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 71

What exactly happens in an inverter?

We see in simple electric circuit, electron move in one direction and the light is
on. If we place the battery in opposite direction, the light will be on and the
electrons will move in opposite direction. If we change the direction of battery for
50 to 60 times per second, the direction of the
electrons will fluctuate. That means DC will be
no more, it will be convert into AC. Their
frequencies will 50 to 60 Hz. This is the basic
mechanical concept of inverter. In UPS, this
job of changing the direction is done by an
electromagnetic key.
The Inductor and capacitor of UPS avoid the
jerks caused by this process and helps in the
free flow of power supply.
Fig 15 - Simple circuit

Maintenance
To ensure that the inverter does not fail in time of need, and provides continuous
power supply, we need to take care of it from time to time. This is called the
maintenance of the inverter.
UPS consists of two parts. 1) Inverter 2) Battery
Inverter is an electronic circuit kept inside a sheet metal box. The battery may or
may not be kept inside the box. The following steps need to be taken for
maintenance of the inverter and battery:

1) INVERTER: Dust hampers proper working of electric equipment. As dust

gathers, it may generate moisture and increase the risk of a short circuit. To
avoid this, it is necessary to clean the inverter box regularly. A fan is provided
in the box for proper ventilation and cooling. The fan should be cleaned
regularly with cloth. A vacuum cleaner also may be used for cleaning if
possible.

Connections: All the connections need to be checked regularly. If necessary,

the connections should be tightened using a screw driver.

2) Battery

Battery is the most important part of the UPS and so its regular maintenance
is necessary. If the battery is of zero maintenance or a dry cell battery is being
used, there is no need of much maintenance except cleaning of the terminals.
Large scale industrial UPSs use electrolyte filled batteries. These require
regular maintenance.

Following factors should be kept in mind during maintenance of inverter.

1. Temperature: Check the temperature of battery regularly; it should not be
more than the room temperature.
2. Terminals: A white layer begins to form on the terminals due to oxidation.
Due to this the conduction capacity gets reduced. The terminals should be
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 72

cleaned regularly and a layer of petroleum jelly should be applied on the

terminals to slow down oxidation.
3. Battery: Check the battery for leakage of electrolyte. Keep the battery clean
and dry.
4. Vent cap: Vent cap of the battery has small holes. We need to ensure that
they should not be blocked by dust. Keep them clean.
5. Level: The minimum and maximum level of electrolyte is shown on battery. If
the level is below the line, fill distilled water into it.
6. Battery voltage: Measure the voltage and record it in Voltmeter regularly
ensuring that it is correct.

MAINTENANCE RECORD: For maintenance, this record book is important. The

maintenance record will be date wise. It is very important for repair of defective
equipment.

SECURITY: Switch of the incoming and outgoing power supply of the inverter
before maintenance. After maintenance, the power supply can be switched back
on as before.

Sample of maintenance table

Date:
Battery voltage: No. of batteries:
Battery no. Voltage V Temperature Battery level
Normal/ High low/high
1
2
3
4

1. Cleaning of battery terminals Done/Pending

2. Tightening of connections Done/Pending
3. Inspection of operation Done/Pending

Next maintenance --------------------------

Name and signature of the person doing the maintenance --------------------------

Pump:
Pump is used in various places like at home, at construction sites, in buildings to
lift the water, in farms etc. to transfer liquid, solid or gaseous substances.
Working of the pump is dependent on various sources of energy like electric
energy, wind energy, mechanical energy etc. Pumps can be used to pump water
out of wells, purification of water bodies, for aeration in car industries, for filling
fuel, for filling oil and natural gas and so on. In the medical field, pumps are used
in many bio chemical processes.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 73

Parts of pump:

Casing: The coating of the pump needs to be such

that the pump remains safe from damage due to
contents of atmosphere. The coating of a submersible
pump should be water proof and rust proof.

Motor: Motor is the main source of power to

pump.AC and DC motors are the main source of
power for pumps.

Impeller : An impaller is a moving rotor in a pump. It

helps in increasing the pressure and flow of the
liquid in the pump.

Shaft: Shaft joins the impeller to the engine. The

pump receives power through the shaft.
Fig 16 - Piston pump
Valve: The valve regulates the flow of the liquid
substances in the pump
1) Piston pump:The best example for a piston pump is the hand pump used to
pump water from bore wells. These pumps may also work on electricity, diesel
engine or using wind or steam pressure.

Parts of a piston pump:

1. Cylinder: The cylinder in made of bronze from inside so that it stays rust free.
The outer material of the cylinder needs to be strong and so is made of iron.
2. Piston: It moves in the pump in an up-down or forward-backward motion.
3. Valve: Valve ensures unidirectional flow inside the pump. In case the flow of
liquid is the opposite direction, the valve remains shut tight.

Stroke of a piston pump:

The distance by which the piston moves in an up-down or upward-downward
direction inside the cylinder is called the stroke of the pump. The volume covered
by the piston inside the cylider during one stroke is called the displacement of the
stroke.
πr2h= the displacement of one stroke
r: radius of cylinder
h:distance/height of stroke.

Important Features:
1. These pumps work at a less speed. So these are used with engines with lesser
rpm or as hand pumps.
2. The cylinder is submersed in water and a big rod is brought to the surface and
attached to a handle or a motor. By doing this, these pumps can be used to
pump watre out of 200-300 feet deep wells.
3. These pumps do not require priming and are suitable for high pressure
operation.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 74

4. As this pump has many parts like valve, washer, connecting rod etc it requires
higher maintenance to ensure continous working.

Centrifugal pump:

Main Principle:
The circular motion of the fan throws the liquid in outer direction creating a
vacuum in the middle portion due to which the outer liquid is pulled inside. The
force of the liquid being thrown in the outer direction is used to provide a
direction to the flow of liquid.
Centrifugal pump works on principle of centrifugal
force. An impeller is set in the casing of a
centrifugal pump. There is suction pipe inside the
pump to suck the water in. To avoid the need of
priming the pump every time, a foot valve is set at
the end of suction pipe. It holds the inner water
inside so that no priming is needed every time the
pump is switched on. In case the water is needed to
be lifted to a height, a non return valve is fixed at
the mouth of the outlet pipe. An electric motor is
attached to it for the providing power. The suction
pipe is completely filled with water. When the pipe
is full, as soon as the power supply to the motor is
switched on, the impeller starts rotating and
creates a pressure in the water due to which the
water starts getting thrown out of outlet pipe at a high speed. Fig
17 - centrifugal Pumpthe
Features:
· Water is more but pressure is less.
· Priming: For first use, water needs to be filled. Air is light in weight so it is
thrown out by fan. At the moment it does not get the force required to pull the
water.
· These pumps require higher speed to pump the water. So they need to be
connected to a diesel engine or a motor before use.
· No need to fill the water to start the motor because at the end of suction pipe
foot valve is fitted.

Working of a pump:
When we suck water from straw, there is vacuum in straw. The outer pressure of
water pushes the water into the straw. As the water is sucked, outer air has to
balance the water weight. Water is pushed into vacuum till the water pressure
and air pressure are equal. Air pressure is equal to 9.8 meter water pillar. Hence,
eventhough there is full vacuum,the water will get lifted upto 9.8 meter by air
pressure. After this the level of the water will be same.
This means that in a vacuum, whether the water will get lifted upto 9.8 meter or
not is not dependent on the vacumm itself but on the air pressure outside the
vacuum. But if the vacuum created by the pump is not full, then the pump might
not be able to lift water even upto a height of 9.8 meter i.e. 33 feet. Generally
pumps can lift water upto a height of 25 to 26 feet. The same pump will lift m ore
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 75

water at sea level, lesser on a mountain and even lesser in the Himalays due to
lower air pressue. These natural factors affect the suction
capacity of the pump at the suction end, however, the
discharge end of the pump is not affected by these natural
factors.
To pump water out of a well, we set the pump at a lower
height inside the well. For hands pumps, we submerge the
part where the vacuum is generated into the water and so
such pumps can pump water out of the deepest of wells.

Fig 18 - Hand Pump

Working system of a DOL starter:

Direct on-line starter [DOL]
Some decades ago, farmers used oxen to lift the water from well and to water the
crops. To make it easier, the researchers invented the diesel engine and it was
very useful. Then electricity was invented and started being used in villages. The
electric motor was invented so that electricity could be used by the farmers for
farming.
The farmers started using the electric motors regularly. But, they realized that
the motor was in a state of disrepair very regularly. The biggest problem was the
fluctuations in the electricity which caused the motor to get burned. The motor
used to start automatically after a change in power supply. The farmers did not
want this to happen. This led to the invention of a DOL (Direct Online) starter.
This turned out to be so useful that now-a-days, every motor comes with a DOL
starter fixed to it.

DOL Starter:
To start three phase induction motors of capacity one to five horsepower DOL
starter is used. This starter is directly connected to the motor without lowering
the line voltage and so it is called a direct online starter.
This starter has an overload relay at the top. This relay is joined to the fixed
contacts on the base using four screws and bolts. The contacts on the plunger
below the base are called moving contacts
because they move as per the movements
of the plunger. A laminated core with a no
volt coil is fixed at the bottom side of the
plunger. A shaded core ring is fixed on a
slot near the mouth of the core. A start
and stop switch is connected in series
with the no volt coil which is connected in
parallel with a two-phase supply. Fig 19 - DOL starter circuit

Advantages of DOL starter.

1. It makes it easy to start and stop the motor.
2. If there is overload current, overload coil gets activated and disconnects the
motor from the power supply.
3. The on-off switches can be installed away from the motor
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 76

Application of DOL starter for connecting a three-phase motor:

Equipment: Screw driver, all types of spanner, hammer, tester, wire cutter,
electricians' knife, pliers, chisel etc.

Tools: Three-phase motor, grease, starter, polish paper etc.

Preparation:
1. Take one three phase motor which is not working
2. Keep spare parts required for motor, like grease, copper wire, nut bolt etc.
ready
3. Divide students in groups.
4. Ensure availability of a starter
5. Keep the things required for the starter, like, contact strips, and polish paper
etc. ready for use.
6. Check that the multimeter is in working condition
7. Draw the circuit diagram for a DOL starter in the department.
8. Draw and display the diagram of DOL starter to motor connection.

Expected skills:
1. Ability to draw the circuit diagram for a DOL starter
2. Ability to handle the equipment required to dissemble and assemble a DOL
starter
3. Skill to dissemble and assemble a DOL starter
4. Skill to measure the single phase, three phase voltages.
5. Skill to dissemble and assemble a motor
6. Skill to connect the DOL starter to motor.
7. Skill to rub the contact strips of DOL starter with the help of polish paper.
8. Skill to set the relay.

Contact strips: Regular cleaning of carbon and dust which gather on contact strip
with the help of polish paper
Overload relay: Bi metal strips are made up of two metals. When bi metal strips
are heated, they bend. Each metal expands at a different rate. Three such strips
are connected. Each strip is wrapped with a coil corresponding to each phase of
the power supply. When the current from any of the three phase’s increases
above a certain limit, the metal gets bent, the strip moves forward and the circuit
breaks near the red button and stops the power supply. After some time, when
the strip cools down, the strip returns to original position and the motor can be
restarted by pressing the green button.

Connecting the three-phase motor:

Equipment: Spanner of 6 to 30 no., plies, hammer, bearing puller, screwdriver,

chisel.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 77

Tools: one dissembled three-phase motor, polish paper, grease etc.

Action: Firstly, clean all the parts of the motor. Rub the inner side of the stator
using a polish paper. Then clean the bearing between the non-drive cover and the
drive cover using kerosene. Clean both bearings with a dry cloth and apply grease
to them. Arrange all nut bolts at one place in ascending order of length and start
assembling the motor. Firstly, fix the non-drive end cover to the stator and then
carefully fix the rotor inside the stator. Fix the drive end cover to the other side of
the stator. Then fit the outer cap of the bearing with the help of nuts and bolts.
Then fit the key to the shaft in the non-drive end cover and fix the cooling fan on
top of it, Then connect the wires coming from the starter to the terminal box on
the cast iron frame on the stator.

Dissembling the motor:

Assemble all necessary instruments and equipment. Make a marking on the
side cover of the motor. Remove the cooling fan cover. Remove the bearing
cover. Make a marking on the non-drive end cover and body. Dissemble the
drive cover. Remove the rotor from the stator. Varnish and dry the stator.
Grease the system. Assemble as before.

Note:
1. Motor stays safe due to a DOL starter.
2. The overload relay of the DOL starter can be set to required level of ampere.
3. DOL starters setting is in three parts: overload relay, contactor, NVC coil. So,
it is easy to dissemble.
4. Three phase voltage is 440 Volt.

Motor
Electric motor is a machine that converts the electric energy into mechanical
energy.
The electric motor has the following parts:
1 Stator: the part, which is stationary in the motor, is stator. It is laminated.
Stator is made of silicon steel. There are some slits on the stator. Winding is
done in those slits. These slits on the stator are called slots.

2 Rotor: Rotor is the moving part of the motor. On starting the power supply, an
electro-magnetic field is created in the coil and the rotor starts rotating and
this motion created in the rotor can be used by connecting it to a pulley or a
pump.

3 Side cover: Every three phases motor has two-side cover: drive end cover and
non-drive cover. Bearings are installed at the center of these covers. The side
cover protects the coils and supports to rotor.

4 Bearing: Bearing is used to reduce friction during the operation of a motor.

5 Coils: different sizes of copper wires are used for making motors of different
horse power. To avoid short circuit, insulation is done on the coil and varnish
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 78

is painted to avoid the heating of motor. Several coils of specific number of

turns each are made and they are put into the slots of the stator.

Universal series motor:

In these motors, the armature and field winding is connected in series.
In case the direction of the motor needs to be changed, the ends of the armature
winding are connected in the opposite way. The speed of this motor can be
changed by changing the voltage supplied or several taps are taken from the
series field winding and joined to the rotary switch.
Using the rotary switch, the taps on the field winding can be changed and the
number of turns can be changed to change the speed of the motor.

Advantages:
1. It works on both AC and DC supply.
2. By regulating the voltage, we may increase or decrease the rpm.
3. Motor will not burn easily after over load.

Disadvantages:
1. There might be sparking in the commutator near the brush
2. Load hampers the speed of the motor

Induction motor:
When a conductor coil gets vibrations in an electromagnetic field, it produces
electric current. Instead of providing
vibrations to the conductor coil, if the
vibrations are given to the magnet keeping
the conductor coil stable, even then
current is produced. This means that to
produce current there should be mutual
motion between the magnet and the
conductor coil. In case the magnetism in
an electromagnetic field is fluctuating,
even then there is vibration corresponding
to the Fig 20 - Induction motor
Conductor coil and even this will induce current. This current is called the
induction current. Now, if we pass AC current through the coil of a DC motor, the
electro magnetism induced in it varies constantly around 50 times per second.
Due to this induction current is generated in the conductor of the rotor. In case
the rotor coil in shorted instead of joining it to the commutator, an electro
magnetism is induced in the rotor and it starts rotating. This means that if AC
current is passed through a field coil, the motor starts rotating. Such motors are
called induction motors. In such motors, we need not pass external current
through the rotor. That’s why it does not require split ring or a commutator. For
passing the induction current, an aluminum or a copper rod is used in the rotor
to wind a thin coil of insulated wire over the armature. All these conductor rods
are shorted using an end ring. Rotors shorted using such a technique are called
squirrel cage rotors. They are used in induction motors. These rotors are used in
motors having single phase or three phase windings.
Properties of an induction motor:
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 79

Induction motors run only on AC power supply

There are chances of burning in case the load increases or there is a fluctuation
in power supply
Since the winding coil is only on the stator, it’s cheaper and sturdier for use.
In recent times, induction motors are used everywhere as AC supply is commonly
available.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What are the applications of an inverter?
2. How does an inverter work?
3. What are the steps in the maintenance of an inverter?
4. What are the types of pumps?
5. What are the technical components used in an electric motor?
6. Describe the working of pump.
7. What are the uses of a hand pump?
8. Read the nameplate of pump and collect the data.
9. What is DOL starter?
10. What components are used in DOL starter circuit?
11. Read the nameplate of motor and understand the information.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Identify the various parts of an inverter
· Perform maintenance of an inverter
· Demonstrate installation of DOL/starter to motor
· Describe purpose of DOL/Starter and how it works
· Demonstrate the understanding of motor / pump and its operation
viz. priming, foot valve etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 80

SESSION 3: SOLAR ENERGY

Energy is an important part of our life. For any work, we need energy. The word
energy is derived from Greek word energia. The meaning of it is constant working.
Energy means the inner capacity of an object. The unit of energy is Joules in SI
method. Moreover, in CGS method it is Erg. Units of energy change as per its
usage. Even though there are several sources or forms of energy, it is possible to
convert energy from one form to another. There are two sources of energy –
Renewable sources of energy e.g. Solar energy, wind energy etc.
Non- Renewable energy e.g. Coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

We are going to concentrate on solar energy in this unit.

Solar Energy:
Solar energy can be used in day to day lives by converting the energy received
from the sun into other forms of energy. The solar energy received from the sun is
used by us for heat, light and daylight energy. On its way from the sun to the
earth, this light gets emitted and absorbed in the atmosphere. The energy
reaching the earth gets reduced due to this. These rays are in the form of small
waves. Every object on the earth reflects light in proportion to the amount of light
it absorbs from the sun rays. This happens in form of heat waves due to which
the temperature on earth stays regulated.
When the heat waves from the earth are absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere, it
leads to serious issue like global warming. Gases like carbon dioxide retain the
heat in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of earth. Study of solar
energy is important to understand the issues caused by global warming and
weather changes.
The central government announced the program Jawaharlal Nehru national solar
campaign on 19 Nov. 2009 for the development of solar energy. Solar energy is a
clean source of energy and should be used to generate electricity. It’s
advantageous to use solar energy in everyday life as it does not require any
meters or generate any bills. If everyone starts using solar energy in their daily
life, gradually there will be a change in the quality of human life. Solar cookers,
solar heaters, solar lights should be used in place of conventional sources of
energy so as to reduce pollution, control global warming and protect our
environment. In order to do this, it is important to find a way to make these
alternate sources of energy available to laymen in an affordable price through
government policies.

Importance of solar energy:

Electricity and wind energy are expensive sources of energy compare to solar
energy for which is much more affordable. Solar energy is available to us for 12
hours a day. We can store this energy and use the same for the rest of the 12
hours at night. The cost associated to do this is not very high. Solar energy is
unlimited and readily available and so we should make the most of it in the
coming years. We should learn to use appliances which run on solar energy.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 81

Working of solar panels and other appliances running on solar energy:

Solar Panel:
The appliances working on solar energy require a solar panel. Solar panels are
used to trap the solar energy received and convert it into a usable form of energy
like electricity. Solar panels are large, rectangular, flat plate-like objects. These
solar panels are made of innumerable small cells called the photovoltaic cells.
These solar cells consist of semi-conductors. When sun rays fall on the
conductors, current gets created by electrons and photons. For this several solar
cells are connected in a parallel circuit. The current generated is stored in a
battery and the power supply to all appliances happens through this battery.

Appliances using solar energy:

Solar water heater:
It is a solar equipment used for domestic and industrial purposes to heat the
water. The most common use of solar energy in the world is to heat the water. As
an example, heating 100 liters of water using solar energy saves around 1500
units of current every year.

Parts of solar water heater:

Solar water heater consists of a flat plate solar collector which traps the heat in
the sunlight. This system also has a water tank installed at a height to store
water and a set of taps and piping for the flow of this water.
The solar water heater system generally has a set of copper pipes welded together
to a copper sheet. They are painted
with a layer of highly heat absorbent
material. A strong mirror like sheet
of glass is placed behind it and
further behind it is a highly non-
absorbent material. This whole
system is places in a flat box. Some
models use vacuum glass pipes
instead of copper pipes. Such models
do not require separate absorbent
and non-absorbent sheets.
Fig 21 - solar water heater

Working of a solar water heater:

The solar heater system is generally installed on the roof tops, terraces or in huge
grounds. The solar panels face the direction of sunlight and the system is
constantly provided with a flow of water. Water get heated with the help of
sunlight. Since the storage tank is made of a material which can trap heat, the
water in the tank stays hot throughout the night and can be ready for use in the
morning.

Applications of a solar heater:

To heat water:
At domestic level, hot water is utilized for cleaning, washing, and bathing. In
many industries as well, it is useful for many reasons.
Advantage:
Saves electricity:
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 82

Solar heater is the best substitute to electric water heater. If an electric heater is
replaced by a solar heater for household use, it will save up to 1500 units of
electricity for every 100 litres of water heated.

Economical in energy production:

1000 water heater of 100-liter capacity saves 1 Megawatt electricity.

Environmental benefit:
It prevents CO2 from mixing in air. It keeps the environmental balance. A 100-
liter solar water heater prevents 1.5 ton CO2 in a year.

Life of solar water heater:

It is approximately 15 to 20 years.

Expenditure:
The smallest water heater capacity is 100 liters for 4 to 5 person’s family. The
cost is around Rs.15000 to Rs,
20000.Moreover, it saves 1500
units electricity per year.

Solar street lights:

Photovoltaic technology is used
in street light. It converts the
sun light in to DC current. We
may use the light at daytime or
use it in nighttime by charging it
in battery.

Fig 22 - solar panel

Structure of solar street light:

Parts of solar street light:

· Solar photovoltaic module [solar panel]
· Battery
· Solar charging controller
· Light pole.

Details of the parts:

· 74-watt solar photovoltaic module
· 12 watts, 75 tubular battery with box, charge controller cum inverter [20-
35 KHZ]
· CFL lamp 11 watt
· Steel pole of 4-meter height.

Solar Street light in remote area:

It is the best option for such areas. The battery used in this has the capacity to
save the energy for 10 to 11 hours. In addition to this, it has an automatic
switch, to switch the light on or off. This can be used from evening to morning.
The button saves the battery from over charging, extra drain and losing the
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 83

power. The life of solar photovoltaic module is 25 to 20 years. There is not much
maintenance required for the battery. These batteries stay in a good condition for
a long time.
Expenditure: Price depends on the quality of material used in construction of
these solar lights. Approximately, it is Rs. 24000.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install
2. Freely available in Environment
3. No electricity required
4. Easy to handle. Less maintenance

Solar lantern:

The simple way to produce light from photovoltaic technique is solar lantern. It is
also useful in urban areas where there is a problem of load shedding as it is
technically very simple to install and use.

Working of solar lanterns:

Battery, photovoltaic panel and lamp: these
are the parts of solar lantern. It works in a
very simple way. Solar energy converts into
electric energy by photovoltaic panel and
this energy is stored in a sealed battery. The
battery works for 4 to 5 hours after charging
it.
Fig 23 - solar lanterns

Advantages of solar energy:

· It is pollution free. Solar energy is the most important form of non-
conventional energy today.
· It is Easy to handle and has less maintenance.
· It is freely available in the environment.
· It is important for long-term benefit.
· Its instruments are easy and simple to handle.

Limitations of solar energy:

1 It is not yet affordable to common people. Its equipments are costly.
2 It is a challenge to produce affordable solar equipment. Government needs to
undertake a research program on it to develop the solar energy technology and
produce affordable solar equipment.
3 For mega projects, huge land number of batteries are required
4 Need to maintain the battery.
5 Photovoltaic cells are delicate. They need more care.
6 The solar machinery is expensive.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 84

1. What are the traditional and non-conventional sources of energy?

2. What are the advantages of solar energy?
3. Note down the instruments which use solar energy.
4. Explain the construction and working of solar lamps.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Identify the various components of solar devices and gadgets (any one of
solar cooker, solar heater, solar lamp, etc.)
· Demonstrate the knowledge of functioning and maintenance of solar
devices and gadgets (any one of solar cooker, solar heater and solar
lamp)
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 85

SESSION 4: DEMONSTRATE THE FUNCTIONING

AND OPERATION OF A PETROL &
DIESEL ENGINE

I.C. Engines:
An engine is a machine which converts the chemical energy from fuel into mechanical
forms of energy through heat waves.
In an engine, initially heat is generated by burning of the fuel which creates a pressure
which in turn induces motion.

Chemical energy → heat→ pressure→ motion

When fuel is burnt in an open furnace and then the heat produced by it is used
in engine, such engines are called external combustion engines. For example,
Steam engines. In this, the fuel converts the water into steam. The pressure
created due to the heat of the steam is regulated as necessary to induce motion.
Unlike this, in diesel and petrol engines, the fuel is burnt inside the engine and
such engines are called internal combustion engines. Only liquid or gaseous fuels
can be used in such engines. Due to this, such forms of fuel have become
popular. For example: Kerosene, Petrol, diesel and LPG.

Fig 24 - Steam Engine

Types of engine by combustion:

1) External combustion:
Fuel is burnt in an open furnace and then the heat produced by it e.g. Steam
power railway engine and coal power engine.
2) Internal combustion:
Fuel combustion is inside the cylinder and piston and this heat produced is
used by the engine.
Types of engine by stroke:
1) Two stroke Engine
2) Four stroke Engine
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 86

Stroke means the displacement of the piston inside the cylinder in one direction.
Types of engine based on fuel used:
1) Diesel engine
2) Petrol engine.

Diesel engine
When diesel engine was invented, it was used for railway engines. Gradually it
started being used for vehicles and agriculture. In diesels engines, after burning
of diesel, the chemical energy in the diesel is converted into heat which generates
pressure and then induces motion. Alfred diesel is the inventor of the Diesel
Engine.

Parts and functions of engine:

1. Cylinder + piston to increase the pressure at
combustion.
2. Valve: regulate the in and out paths of the gas
3. Pump nozzle: supply fuel to diesel engine.
4. Flywheel: it stores the kinetic energy.
5. Starter lever: Avoids compression at the
beginning
6. Inlet valve: it sucks the air inside.
7. Out let valve: it lets out the burned gases.
8. Open and shut the inlet outlet in guide valve by
rocker armor. Fig 25 - Disel engine
9. Push rod protection pipe: it protects pipe.
10. Push rod: open and shut at rocker time. Fig
11. Tappet: it gives timely motion to push rod.
12. Cylinder head: it controls the produced pressure.
13. Copper gasket: it restricts the gas leakage in cylinder. It bridges the gap
between cylinder cap and cylinder.
14. Piston ring: it fills the gap between cylinder and piston.
15. Oil ring: it supplies oil and reduces friction between cylinder and piston.
16. Connecting rod: it connects the piston to the crankshaft.
17. Crankshaft: straight motion of piston comes through connecting rod and it
becomes cyclic on crock shaft.
18. Gearbox: it protects the gear assembly

The function of diesel engine: Air and fuel is required for the combustion of the
fuel. The air is compressed at a ratio of 1:18 due to which its volume decreases
and temperature increases. Just before the piston reaches the top dead center
(TDC), the diesel is sprayed into the cylinder through a nozzle. Due to the high
temperature inside, this fuel burns immediately. It creates small sparks. The
volume of the combusted air inside the cylinder is high (around 2-2.5 times that
of cold air). These sparks and burning of air inside the cylinder gives motion to
the cylinder. The energy is stored in the flywheel.
Stroke:
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 87

Displacement in upward direction is one stroke and downward direction is the

second stroke. This means that in one rotation of the crank shaft, there are two
strokes. Since one power stroke of the engine is achieved in two strokes, this is
called a two-stroke engine. If one power stroke of engine is achieved in four
strokes, it is called a four-stroke engine.

Engine cycle
There are some actions which happen
cyclically in an engine. A set of these
actions is called as a cycle. If two strokes
of an engine complete one cycle, it is
called a two-stroke engine. If four strokes
of an engine complete one cycle, it is
called a four-stroke engine.
Two-stroke engine is lighter in weight. It
gives more power than a four-stroke
engine in one cycle, it is used in moped. It
gives power to every turn.
Fig 26 - Engine cycle

Increase pressure

Fuel and air comes combustion and explosion

Motion to piston burned gas comes out

Two stroke Effect

Piston 1stStroke Air and fuel compressed. Air comes in crank cage.
direction Piston gets motion by an explosion at stroke end.

2nd Piston moves, burned gases exhale out air and fuel
stroke pushed into cylinder from crankshaft. The cycle
completes.
Four stroke engine Result
Piston 1st Opens in coming valve, fresh air comes in, piston
direction stroke comes down.

2nd Piston moves up, air gets compressed in cylinder, at

Stroke the end of the stroke fuel is injected into cylinder
through nozzles.
Sparks are created and piston is pushed.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 88

3rd Piston gets motion. It comes down.

Stroke
4th Outlet valve of piston is opened, it throws out the
Stroke burnt gases & moves up.

Stroke Piston valve Inlet valve Outlet nozzle Pump

Goes down, sucks Open By
1 Closed Closed
air filter
Showers fuel at
Takes air inside.
2 Closed Closed the end of
Compresses air
stroke.

Because of
explosion, piston
3 pushes down. Closed Closed Closed
Energy moves to
flywheel.
Open. Piston
throws out
Piston comes up.
4 Closed burnt gases Closed
Gas comes out.
through
silencer.

Petrol engine:
Air is sucked in cylinder in petrol engine. While going through the venture, the air
takes petrol along with it. The air and fuel mixture is prepared in the carburetor
and moves to the cylinder in case of four stroke engines or to the crank cage in
case of two stroke engines. Then it is
compressed inside the cylinder. Then
when a spark of fuel is injected to the
spark plug into the cylinder, the fuel
burns, creates small explosions and
flywheel gets motion through the piston.
To spark is created using a spark plug
due to a magnet which rotates along with
the flywheel due to which the ignition
voltage increases leading to a spark. The
breaker point is opened at the time of
sparking.
Fig 27 - Petrol Engine

Two stroke engine Four stroke engine

1. One power stroke in one turn of 1. One power stroke gets in two
crankshaft. turns of crankshaft.
2. Oil is used as lubricant for 2. There is separate lubricant
moving parts of engine. Separate system for moving parts of
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 89

lubricant is not needed. engine.

3. Easy engine design 3. Engine design is complicated.
4. Parts are light in weight. They 4. Parts are more in numbers and
are less in numbers. heavy in weight.
5. Moving parts are less in engine. 5. Moving parts are more. Engine
Therefore, because of less efficiency decreases because of
friction, mechanical efficiency is more friction.
more.

Actual use of petrol and diesel engine parts while fuel combustion:

Function of parts Diesel engine Petrol engine

Increasing pressure at combustion Cylinder, piston Cylinder, piston
Motion by an explosion Piston Piston
Fuel supply Pump, nozzles Carburetor
Igniting fuel Automatic by Crankshaft
pressure
Storing of kinetic energy Flywheel Flywheel
Static energy to kinetic energy Crankshaft Crankshaft

Spark ignition engine [S.I. engine] Compressor ignition engine. [ C.I.

Petrol engine engine] diesel engine
1. The mixture of air and petrol is Only air is sucked and compressed.
sucked in and compressed in
suction stroke
2. The sparking is done at spark plug The explosion occurs when there is
in air and petrol mixture and spray on diesel in hot air done by
explosion is made. the injection nozzles.
3. Spark plug functions in it. Injection nozzles function here.
4. Light weight engine Heavy engine.
5. Engine works softly so, vibrations It rattles more because of vibrations.
are less.
6. Need to maintain engine. Maintenance free engine.
7. When engine works, the carbon The carbon deposits more in
less or more deposits in engine cylinder engine.
cylinder.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions

1. Differentiate technically between petrol and diesel engine.

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 90

2. Where is diesel engine useful?

3. What do you mean by two-stroke engine?
4. What is four-stroke engine? Describe.
5. What are the functions of piston in engine?
6. Give examples of external combustion engine.
7. Function of spark plug.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 91

SESSION 5: BIO GAS CONCEPT AND USE

There are less resources of fuel in rural area. Cutting the tree for fuel is not the
final solution. It hampers our environment. As the number of people in the family
increase, more fuel is required. Many times, rural people purchase wood and
kerosene for the fuel. To avoid the depletion of environmental resources, biogas is
a good substitute to fuel in rural area. It is made from animal dung, food waste,
vegetables etc. Moreover, the urine and dung of pet animals and birds and the
connection of toilet is given to biogas plant. It provides us fertilizers, gas and at
the same time it prevents infections by reducing the waste around us and keeps
the environment healthy. It is a boon to the farmers as they get compost from it.
The other option is to produce coal at home by using bio waste disposal. It is easy
to make it. The bio waste material is used for this. Raw material is also readily
available in the field. The waste from the field is in tons, that will be utilize in
proper disposal way.
In this Chapter, we are going to study the concept of bio gas, its types and
procedure for manufacturing of coal from bio mass.

Biogas:
Material require for biogas:
· Cow dung
· Waste oil cakes [ground nut oil cake.]
· Waste food and vegetables.
· Rotten fruits and foods.
· Sewage water.
· As compare to animal dung, the sewage water does not have much organic
factors. Therefore, the gas is also in less proportion.

Gas fuel from animal, cow dung is biogas. Biogas is produced when the organic
factors in animal dung are bio degraded by some bacteria and other
microorganisms. In Biogas, the proportion of methane to carbon dioxide is 65:35.
Methane is an inflammable gas. The proportion of dung and water put into the
machine is 1:1. The temperature for required to create biogas is around 20oC to
40oC. If we do not dispose the domestic waste carefully, it hampers our health.
Hence, the biogas production is necessary.

We get slurry and usable gas from biogas. Biogas production helps in disposing of
the waste created by humans. Proper waste management ensures prevention of
contagious diseases. Therefore, it avoids water and air pollution and keeps the
environment healthy.

Types of biogas plant

The process of gas production in biogas:
A biogas plant is used to store the oxygen-less gas produced by the bio
degradation of the organic waste. Methane and carbon dioxide are produced in
this plant. Methane is an inflammable gas. The producer gas made in the
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 92

biomass gasifier can be used to pump water, create electricity and for cooking.
Biomass gasifiers are available in various capacities as required. Biogas has 55-
70% methane, 30-40% nitrogen and traces of hydrogen sulphide. The
biodegradation starts by the bacteria and other micro-organisms and they create
more types of organisms and produce methane and carbon dioxide gad. The heat
value of methane is 4700Kcal and it is highly inflammable.

Types of biogas plant:

Biogas plant has the set up to store the gas created from the biodegradation
of natural waste. There are two kinds of set ups.
1) Fixed dome type – Public plant
2) Floating dome type – KVIC, Khadi gram udyog

1) Fixed dome type:

The main chamber is dome shaped and is made of concrete or brick. Dung, water
and human waste goes to the main chamber through pipes of the filter tanker.
There is an outlet path for slurry at one
end of the plant. As the pressure inside
the main chamber increases with the
increase in gas, slurry falls out from a
greater height.
Fig 28 - Fixed dome type

2) Floating dome type:

This structure is easier to construct. Due to this they are more popular and
widely used. In the floating dome structure, the main chamber doing the bio
degradation of the waste is installed below the ground level. An iron tank which
can move downwards is placed on it. These two parts are a part of the floating
tank plant. Other important parts: Inlet pipe, outlet pipe and pot. The iron tank is
floating in the biodegradation
chamber. As the

Fig 29 - Floating dome type

biogas in the tank increases, it starts moving upwards and starts floating. When
the gas is let out of the outlet tap, the tank starts moving down as the tank
empties. A support structure is provided so that the tank does not topple. This
support structure is called a guide frame or a guide pipe.

Size: Construct the degradation tank 40-50 times to the water and sewage will
come to septic tank and biogas plant.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 93

For example, if sewage water is 30 liter then the size of the tank should be
around 30*50=1500 liter. This will be the volume of tank. If 100-liter dung water
mixture is poured, the volume of tank will be 100*50= 5000 liter. In rural areas,
the sewage water is 5 liters per person and 20-liter cow dung mixture for per
animal [10-liter dung +10-literwater] is consumed. In the fixed dome plant, as the
gas collects in tank, the pressure increases as the size of the tank cannot
increase.
Fixed Dome Floating Dome
1. Gas storage is in underground Gas storage is in iron tank on
dome ground
2. If the gas storage is more, the Gas pressure is maintained at the
pressure is more. If gas storage same level.
is less the pressure is less.
3. The plant is underground. It is The plant is on the ground. It is
not easy to handle and maintain. simple and easy to handle and
maintain.
4. We cannot increase the capacity We can increase the capacity of
of tank mixing [delusion] pot and gas
storing tank.
5. Construction cost is more. Construction cost is less.
6. All the parts of plant are The plant is on the ground.
underground therefore, cold Therefore, the cold weather
weather cannot affect. hampers the gas production.

Advantages and usage of biogas:

· The cow dung is more useful for gas and produces more fuel than dung cake.
Its inflammability is more and it is very simple and easy to use.
· We get compost from slurry.
· The gas fuel is without smoke. It is safer to the eyes and environment than
burning wood
· The energy from biogas may be used for fuel, electric lamp etc.

Uses of biogas energy: Biogas Fuel is used for cooking, for engine and for lamp.
o Note:
1. 1.3 cube feet gas is produced from 1 kg cow dung.
2. Construct the tank 40 to 50 times of dung mixture. If you have 30-liter dung
mixture, the tank will be of 30*50 =1500 liters.
3. To avoid rust, apply black coating to the iron tank from inner and outer side.
4. Rotate the tank every day so that the slurry and dung layer will not block it.
5. Clean the gas pipe in a month.
6. Clean the tank two times in a year.
7. There is no smoke from gas.
8. Leave a gap of 2 or 3 inch between construction and tank.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 94

9. Use the black oil to protect the rusting of tank by moving the tank up and
down by dung mixture.
10. The proportion of cow dung and water is 1:1 and the ratio of methane to
carbon dioxide is 65:35.
Total mass of living matter is called as biomass.
Waste from plant & animal origin can be used as biomass. The husk after
harvesting, dry leaves, dry vegetables, shells of nuts, crushed sugarcane, rice
husk, domestic bio wastage these all are the elements of biomass.

Sources of biomass: all the above elements are easily available to us. They can
be use as bio fuel. The coal that is made up from bio elements is called bio coal
[lonari coal]. Coal is easily available in rural area but the coal made up from
biogas is very useful. This coal is environment free. We can produce it at
domestic level. It can be a source of income. It is less expensive. It does not
require any skill. It can be produce at large scale.

Procedure of making biomass:

Procedure one:
The research done by the Appropriate Rural technology institute of Pune gives the
procedure to produce one batch of coal in 15-20 minutes by using a normal
furnace.
Bio waste from the farms or home is put into the furnace, set on fire and covered
with a lid with a chimney. After a certain amount of time, the lid and chimney is
removed. On removing the lid, the material may set on fire due to sudden
availability of oxygen. The capacity of the furnace is around 6-7 kg of crushed
sugar cane, 5 kg of cardboard, 10-12 kg of dry grass at a time. The coal produced
is around 1/3rd of the total bio waste. All waste material from the farm can be
used in this plant.
The earned coal is in the form of powder or dry bushes. It cannot be used as fuel
directly. To make blocks, add 1 kg starch paste in 10 kg coal and put it in block
making machine. For large-scale production, bracketing machines which run on
diesel and petrol engines are available.
Procedure 2: by keeping organic elements in a big air-tight box and heating it
by external heat. It is pollution free and smoke free. The best quality of biomass
coal we get from this procedure.

Required material:
· Waste of coconut [crests], dry leaf, dry bushes, crushed sugarcane, nutshells,
husk etc.
· Carbonizing chamber.
· Starch powder.
· Block making machine [ small size- 10 kg per hour ]

Chronological steps of making coal:

Collect the biomaterial: Separate them by grade, dry all the material in
sunshine. Make small pieces of large material.
Structuring the kiln [furnace/ oven]:
Outer drum: take a metal drum of 200-liter capacity, cut the upper lid. Make a
hole of 12inch width and 10inch height at the bottom. At the bottom of the drum,
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 95

fix two iron rods, 8 inch each, parallel to each other. These are for the support to
inner steel drum.
Inner drum: it is a steel drum of 100-liter capacity with lid. There are 6 holes of
3.8-inch diameter at its bottom. This drum is kept in outer big drum.
Carbonization of biomaterials: Fill the drum with all the biomaterials. Heat
them as per their sizes for 45 minutes to 1 hour by using biomaterial. This
procedure is known as firing. Collect all the material after firing from inner drum.
Weight it. We get 30% carbonized coal from this method.

Making binder [starch]: it is useful for making the material strong. Take 100 kg.
Carbonized coal powder, mix it in 60 to 100liter water and add 5 to 6 kg starch
powder as binder. The ratio depends on the raw material.
· Mixing: Mixing is important to ensure proper binding of the binder to the coal
which gets prepared. This ensures even sized bricks.
· Block making: from the coal mixture, bricks are made by hand or machine.
The mixture has to be set into brick shaped molds. It will make the same size
bricks.
· Drying and packing: all the bricks are set to dry in a tray in the sun. These
baked bricks are packed in plastics.

General qualities of bricks:

Moistness: 7.1% to 7.8%
Inflammability: 13 to 13.5%
Stable carbon: 81 to 83%
Ash: 3.7 to 7.7%
Calories (combustion): 100 to 7300-kilo calorie/kg.
Density: 970 kg. Cubic meter.

Advantages of this technology:

1. Smokeless: this coal never makes smoke.
2. Ash less: remains less ash {only 5% of coal weight].
3. Ratio of Stable carbon level and combustion level: stable carbon level is more.
4. Odorless: the level of vaporizing factors in these bricks is very less. Therefore,
these are odorless.
5. Long time lasts burning: these bricks lasts burning for longtime as compare to
wood coal.
6. There is less sparking in this coal as compare to wood coal.
7. It is not brittle in structure. It is hard to crack. It burns for long time.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 96

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is biogas?
2. Advantages of biogas.
3. Types of biogas plant.
4. What is biomass?
5. State the benefits of biomass coal making techniques.
6. State the different sources of biomass.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Identify the various components of a biogas plant
· Draw a diagram of a biogas unit
· Make charcoal out of locally available biomass material
· Describe the basic principle involved in biogas production
· Describe the working principle of biogas plant
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 97

SESSION 6: WATER CONSERVATION CONCEPT

Every year, water is stored in dams or on bunds in the river after it rains. And
then we also plan on how to use this stored water. However, if in some year, the
rains are late, then all this planning goes for a toss. Then we face with challenges
of water scarcity. To avoid this situation, it has become important to save water
by using rain water harvesting throughout the year. We cannot continue to rely
on traditional ways of storing water. We can increase the ground water level using
rain water harvesting. We should stop taking rainfall for granted.

Water conservation to increase ground water level:

· Only 3% water is drinkable on earth, the rest is mostly salty.
· Out of this 3%, 11% of drinkable water is ground water; we find it up to 800
meters from ground.
· Ground water is precious and rare. Its quantity is getting less because of
irresponsible usage of it.
· We can raise the ground water level by rainwater harvesting.
Types of rain water harvesting:

Urban area Rural area

Storing of flowing water from Stream bund
the roof. Percolation tank
Harvesting pit Gambian weir
Well Nula bund
Harvesting tube. Well harvesting
Underground bund
Harvesting corrugated.
Control cut trenches

Rainwater harvesting technique:

What is rainwater harvesting: We store the rainwater in rainy season. Purify it
and reuse it is rainwater harvesting.

Why to save rainwater?

The rainwater is clean and drinkable but it is wasted if not collected. These days,
there is shortage of drinking water. Therefore, we need to store this clean and
pure water.

Advantages of saving rainwater:

· It is an alternate means of water supply to ground water and corporation.
· The construction and farming would be possible in areas with no water supply
· High quality of water: clean, pure without chemicals.
· Zero expenditure on water supply
· Soil erosion and flood will be less.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 98

The rainwater storage is necessary,

when
· There is low ground water level.
· Ground water is polluted.
· The area is rocky and hilly.
· Flood and earthquake occurs
frequently.
· There are chances of mixing the salty
and polluted water in water sources.
· The population density is low
· The charges of electricity and water
high
· Water is heavy with minerals.
Fig 30 - Rain water Harvesting

Usage of rainwater:
1. Cooking, drinking, bathing.
2. Toilet cleaning
3. Washing clothes
4. Irrigation
5. Animal husbandry.

Rainwater harvesting Technique:

What is rainwater harvesting?
The system of rainwater storage:
There are three levels of water storage, catchment area, flow and storage.
There are two parts of rainwater harvesting. One is store it from the roof of the
house and use it for domestic purpose. Other is at field level near a catchment
area and is an alternate water supply to the farms.
Six elements of Water storage system
1. Catchment area: House roof to collect rainwater.
2. Flow: pipes from roof to catchment area
3. Washing roofs: First flush diverter method to filter and omit the polluted
particles.
4. Storage: store clean water in the tank.
5. Purification: Filtration should be done using sieve, ozone or using ultra violet
rays make it suitable for use at domestic level.
6. Distribution: distribution of water is done by small pump and pressure tank.

Rainwater storage in rural area:

Build common wells. Next to it on 10/12 foot, make hand pump. Avoid bathing,
washing, excretion, washing animals, vehicles, utensils. Maintain cleanliness.
Clean the water supply tank after every 3 years. Build horizontal weir on stream
and small rivers. It stores the water and percolates in the ground. This water can
be use after rainy season. Apply roof water harvesting system.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 99

Roof water harvesting in rural schools:

This system is very economical. Since centuries together, this method has been
used in desert regions. In remote villages where water is rare, two objectives will
be achieved if this is done:
· Drinking water will available in summer
· Public hygiene level will improve because of keeping lavatory clean by using
water.

Rainwater Harvesting Project for schools.

Construction of rainwater system:
Before the construction, collect the data of all schools where there is water
shortage. What are the present water resources, area of available roof, type of
land etc.

Why the water storage tank is below the ground?

The water stored in tanks made of lime or available sustainable materials
remains fresh and potable till the next rainy season. The tanks installed below
the ground level are always more durable than the ones installed above ground
level. Very low maintenance is required for such tanks.

Location of the tank: it should be near the schools so that it is easily accessible
for the students.
· The distance of tank from the closest building will have to be at least 3 to 5
feet if the soil is hard rock.
· If the soil is soft, the distance of tank will be 10 feet.
· The length of pipe needs to be minimum to avoid the obstacles. The diameter
of connecting pipe of tank and storage should be a minimum of 4 inches.
· If the ground surface is hard then it is not necessary to dig deep. The tank will
be 1/3 on ground and 2/3 will be under ground.

Material for construction:

· Local construction material
· Lime / cement
· Gypsum
· Coarse sand
· Roof making material

Size of the tank:

Size of the storage tank depends on the type of soil. The traditional size is round
or in square. If the soil is hard and rocky, the size is square. The construction
technique is easy. Make a square pit and cover it by stones. This can be used as
a school’s stage for performances in winter season. Round size tank is in desert
region.
The rural people of the Thar Desert are very well informed about such techniques
of storing water. Local people from such areas build 100-meter-deep well or tank
by using available material. Such excavations prove to be a motivation for other
scientists.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 100

Some facts of ground water resources:

· Well is not to store the water whereas it is a link to connect the water sources
to the surface. The water level changes according to the rainfall every year.
· After rainy season, the water percolate for long time in well from underground
sources.
· Water from bore well is percolated rainwater from rocky surface area.
· Every bore well gets dry after some time
· Use bore well in reverse direction. Make a percolation duct above the dried
bore well to store available water and increase the ground water level.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions

1. What is rainwater harvesting?

2. How will you harvest the rainwater?
3. State the remedy for increasing the water level in rural area.
4. Advantages of rainwater storage.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 101

SESSION 7: RAINFALL MEASUREMENT METHOD

The climate of a certain place changes due to factors like temperature, wind, air
pressure, humidity, clouds, rain etc. This short-
term change in climate is air.
After a long observation and research, the
average state of air in a region is finalized, it is
called weather. The long state of atmosphere in
an average is weather of that region.
Meteorologists conclude by observing the
changes in temperature, direction of air,
humidity in air and rain. Atmospheric situation,
elements of climate is closely related to time and
place. There is daily report and map of weather
in India. The meteorological department studies
the weather. Fig 31 - Rain gauge

How the rain falls?

When the clouds in the atmosphere go higher and higher, the dew drops in the
clouds turn into water drops because of low temperature. Since they are heavier
than air, they can’t float in the air. Therefore, they fall on the earth and we call it
as rain.
When the water dew becomes big, heavy, and solid, it becomes hail. When the
upward air speed becomes less and hail falls on the earth, it is hail fall. When
temperature is very low, the dew in the clouds forms into small snow. They float
in air. They become heavy and big when they come united down towards the
earth. This is snowfall.

Rainfall measurement:
In ancient times, measurements were used for counting the rain. There is an
evidence of it. In Koutilya’s economics, there are some entries of rainfall
measurements. In 1662, Christopher Ren made measurement of rain. It is called
RAIN GAGE/ GAUGE. Other names of Rain gauge are Udometer, Pluviometer and
Ombro meter. As per the standardization of measurement, the rain gauge should
be generally of 203 ml. [8-inch diameter]. This makes measurement of rain easy.

Usage of rainwater measurement

Keep a bottle in rain. Count the water in it after 24 hours. The size of the bottle
should not be excess or less. It should be optimum to measure the rainwater.

Unit of rainwater measurement:

Rainwater is measured in a rain gauge in mm, cm, and inch.
Classification of collected data of rainwater fall:
By observing the data, we conclude how the rain was.

Sporadic rainfall 0.25 mm rain less than 1 hour

Less rainfall 0.25 to 1.00 mm rain in 1 hour
Medium rainfall 1 mm to 4 mm rain in 1 hour
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 102

Heavy rainfall 4 mm to 16 mm rain in 1 hour

Heavier rainfall 16 to 50 mm rain in one hour.
Heaviest rainfall More than 50 mm in more than one hour.

The place to keep the rainwater measurement:

The measurement bottle should be in open space. It should not be surrounded by
walls. Otherwise the rain water will not get stored from that direction. The ground
around the measurement need to be flat otherwise the water will store around it
and will splash into it. The bottle is kept in a cover but it's open. Otherwise,
because of vaporization, the measurement count will be less. The cover of bottle
should not be in black color. Because, it heats more. The white color will be
soiled [dirty]. In India, the trend is to give green color. Its height should be at
medium level so that observer can count easily. Animals should not be able to
destroy it. It should not be placed on the roof, else it will be hot, and the water
stores on the roof and condensation will be formed.

Making a rain gauge:

Material:
Pen, Graph paper, Black marker, Funnel measurement cylinder, Plastic bottle,
notebook, and scissors.
Steps to rainwater measurement instrument:
1. Cut the upper side of the bottle.
2. Pour 10ml. water by cylindrical
measurement
3. Make a mark on bottle at 10 ml.
4. Again pour 10 ml water and mark at
10 ml. water level
5. The marking will make the scale to
the bottle.
6. Make the bottle empty.
7. Keep funnel on bottle
8. This is the rainwater measurement
instrument i.e. a rain gauge.
Fig 32 - Material required for making rain gauge

Marking the rainfall on graph paper:

1. Keep the rain gauge at a proper place.
2. Record the daily rainfall.
3. Without fail, keep the record of daily rain.
4. Record the rainfall of a month of three seasons.
5. Record the numbers on graph paper.
6. Draw X axis for days on horizontal line and Y-axis for rainfall on vertical line.
7. Joint all the points on graph paper
8. We can calculate the average rainfall for a month by using this
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 103

We can make the following observations from the above activity:

1. Are there any changes in monthly rainfall?
2. Are there any changes in seasonal rainfall?
3. The days of highest rainfall
4. The days of least rainfall

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is a rain gauge and what is its use?
2. State the Procedure of making a rain gauge
3. Mention the various instruments used to measure weather conditions
4. What is weather?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Make a rain gauge using a plastic bottle and funnel
· Record the rainfall
· Analyze other weather parameters measurement from a secondary
source (e.g. newspaper, TV)
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 104

SESSION 8: LAND SURVEY METHOD

Some years ago, to measure the land the rope or chain were used. Distance was
measured by British measurement system e.g. inch, foot, miles etc. Since 1972,
we applied metric measurement system. E.g. mm, cm. m, km. etc. In this modern
technological development, Dumpy Level system is useful for survey. Below are
listed the few basic concepts of this survey method.
Map and index lines: map is a picture of a land taken from a height. It adds to
the verbal information provided. The language, drawing, reading of the map is
standardized all over the world. The mountains, rivers, roads, the sea, lakes,
temples, fort, houses, valleys are shown in standard symbols. Therefore, any
person can read the map without knowing the script of a language.

Definition of map:

A figure of specific area seen from the top, in a proportionate scale, presentation,
symbols and signs, direction etc. drawn on a plain surface is map. Index is
shown in corner of map. Index clears the meaning of signs and symbols, direction
and scale. Index is important in map reading. Following technical things are to be
considered:
1. Proportion: the ratio of distance between two places and the distance between
two points on map is in proportion. There is correlation between actual
distance on land and the distance between two points on map. Proportion is
based on the area of landscape. E.g. if 1 cm is considered for 10,00,000 cm
then 100,000 cm is equal to 1 km. hence, 1cm is 10 km.
2. Direction: the direction is shown by the upper side arrow symbol
in the map. The upper direction is considered for the north
direction. By this sign, we can determine the other directions.

3. Signs: different signs and colours are used in a map. These are
standardized and each symbol means the same all over the
world .E.g. the narrow bridge.

4. A degree of latitude and longitude: to show a fixed place on

map, use of imaginary lines as X-axis and Y-axis is done. X-
axis presents a degree of latitude and Y- axis as a degree of longitude.
X-axis and Y-axis make fix a point on graph, likewise a degree of longitude
and a degree of latitude fix the location of a place.
Uses of map:
1. To find out the routes in new places.
2. To measure the distance between two places.
3. To find out the options of the roads.
4. To know the geographical situation.
5. To know highs and lows of a place.
6. We can also get the information of crop, weather, wind flow, rainfall, minerals,
population etc. from maps
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 105

7. Map is very useful in the engineering and architectural fields. There are so
many types of maps; we can choose them as per our requirement.

Types of maps:
· Atlas.
· Political
· Thematic
· Topological
· Physical
· Climatic
· Street map.

Who prepares the maps in India?

In India, “Survey of India” is the institute that makes the map by surveying all
the area of India. The village map scale is 1: 25000 and city map scale is 1:
100000. Maps are made after survey. The location becomes certain after
measuring the distance, angle, and location. They need to determine a point from
which the mean sea level of the place will be determined. This place is called the
benchmark. By benchmark, we may ascertain the height of surrounding places
by using dumpy level.

Contour lines:
In our everyday life, we need to mark the height of some places or mark places
with the same height. To flatten the ground for farming, to count the highs and
lows of the ground contour lines are useful. To fetch the water from other side,
there is necessity to measure the difference in height. The difference in heights is
measured by dumpy level or level tube.

Spirit level:
To keep a surface in plane horizontal level, spirit level is used. Fill the spirit in a
tube, by placing a bubble in it and close the tube by two sides. At the middle of
the tube, make a mark of bubble size on tube. When the bubble is between the
two lines, the place is horizontal flat.
Spirit levels are useful in construction and installations to ensure that the object
is installed vertically. e.g. Setting pavements and some machines.

Level tube:
Every liquid keeps its surface parallel to the horizon line. Using this principle, the
level tube is used to determine the parallel lines between two places or objects.
This is done by filling a transparent tube with water and comparing the ends of
the liquids on both sides of the tube. The same or different levels are seen based
on the level of the liquid. We should make sure that there are no bubbles in this
liquid. The level tube is regularly used in construction business.

Dumpy level:
To draw a map of uneven ground, dumpy level is used. Dumpy level is applicable
for survey. It includes spirit level and telescope. Spirit level sets telescope in
parallel line. In this condition, all the places are in same level. The cross is drawn
on the center of telescope. On the top and bottom, there are two horizontal wires
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 106

which are called Stadia. The distance in stadia is in centimeter, that much
distance is the distance in meters of the location from the telescope. There is a
compass on Dumpy level, by this, we can find out the directions. We may draw a
map and contour lines. With the help of dumpy level and staff, height, directions,
distance can be found out.

Contour lines:
To show the altitude of a particular place contour lines are shown. These contour
lines join places of equal height on a map. These are used to make decisions
while building bunds on rivers and to determine how much water can be stored
in such bunds etc.
From a specific place, the line, which connects two places of same height, is
Contour line. We perceive the uneven land by contour lines. The Hills, valley,
river, and stream come to notice by this contour lines map. We may identify
whether a certain place is flat or steep, or uneven or a hill. Contour lines are
drawn at a difference of a specific height. The hills, valley, plateau all the types of
can be identified by watching contour lines.
The contour lines never cross to each other or coincide into a common point.
There is no end to contour lines.
The contour lines of peaks and valleys look similar.

The uses of contour lines:

· To find out the place to build dam and weir and to guess the capacity of
storage, it is necessary storage length etc.
· To estimate the work needed for excavation
· To determine whether one place is seen from the other place or not
· To find out the suitable, appropriate land to construct the rail tracks or roads.
· Just like we draw contour lines by measuring the height of each point, same
can be done to indicate ground water level at various places.

Plane table method:

Survey of India is the institute which prepares all kinds of maps in India.
Accurate measurements of the land and topography can be done though land
survey. The plane table method is the most widely used method for land survey.
It is very easy to teach the students to take measurements and create maps using
this method. The plane table survey method can be used to make maps of farms
and rural areas. The knowledge of the symbols used for direction, scale and
topography is a lifelong advantage for the students.

We need two things to find out the exact location of the place. They are the
latitude and the longitude of the place. In plane table survey method, each point
is marked by checking the distance and direction from the survey point and
marked on the map as per scale. Once all the important points are marked on the
map, these are joined to make the map of the area.

Objectives:
To draw a map on paper in proportion.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 107

Expected skills:
1. To handle the all instruments
2. To decide the directions of map
3. Map proportion according to drawing sheet.
4. Tally the distance on land and distance mentioned on map.
5. After drawing the map, to find the total area, we should be able to draw the
correct right-angled triangle.

Materials and their uses:

· Plane table: to fix drawing sheets
· Tripod: to fix plain table
· Raising rod: to fix on the point of land of survey.
· Trough compass: to mark direction
· Alidade scale: to see the raising rod in straight line
· Spirit level: to bring out plain table level.
· Drawing paper: to draw map
· Pencil: to mark point and to draw map
· Pin: to mark central point
· A plumb line: to fix central point of plain table on ground.
· Meter tape: to measure distance [30 meter]
· Scale: to measure lines.

Procedure:
· Fix the plane table at center where the map is to be drawn.
· Fix the drawing table over it and finalize the north direction.
· Find the distance from middle point to the farthest point on the paper, so that
it fits in the scale.
· Put up the raising rod anywhere on the border of field and draw a line by
Alidade scale.
· Measure the actual distance of raising rod from the point you have taken
Mark the distances on paper accordingly.
· Choose maximum points at boundary and finalize it to referential points.
· Connect all the points.
· Mark all the symbols and information of places on paper. Complete the map
by connecting all-important points

Try this:
To verify your map accuracy, measure the difference between any two points on
map and actual distance of it on sight. Check the errors if any. Difference will be
25 to 40cm. If it is more than this, the map is incorrect.
Example. In fig. A, the area of map is 175cm2 its scale is 1: 500
Actual area from this data is:
Ratio 1: 500
Map area 175cm2
Map area unit is cm2. Therefore, convert it into m2.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 108

∴ 1cm x 1cm= 500cm x 500cm

If on paper- 1cm2 then on ground 250000cm2
If on paper, 175cm then what on ground?
∴ Ground area= 175 x 250000cm2= 43750000cm2
1
Conversion of cm2 to m2= 100cm=1m
100cm x 100cm=1m x 1m
10000cm2=1m2
∴ground area = 43750000cm2
1000
∴ground area = 4375m 2

∴100m2 = 1 guntha.
∴ground area = 4375m2
1000m2
∴ground area = 43.75 guntha..

Details of Ground Area:

1 33 foot*33foot= 1089sq. 1 guntha
foot
2 100 sq. met. 1 guntha
3 4000 sq. met.= 40 guntha 1 acre
4 10000 sq.met.=100 guntha 2.5 acre

Advantage: it is an easy and accessible method. The equipment is familiar.

Therefore, there is less scope for error.
Usage:1. Field measurement. 2. Map of small places. 3. Bunding and other work
related to land

Traverse Plane Table Survey:

1. This method is used to determine the area of a place which cannot be seen
from the place where the survey is being done
2. Plane table survey action verification is to change the place after completing
the first one.
3. Mark any five points and fix the raising rod on any one
4. Place raising rod at plane table and plain table at raising rod, check the
distance first and then the direction.
5. Put the raising rod on the place for which we need to determine the area and
mark the points.
6. Mark the points as per the plain table method, draw the map and find out the
area by marking triangle.

Information: Fix the raising rod towards the place for which we are calculating
the area.
While using traverse method, fix the direction of the table while moving it from
one point to another.
Draw the center point while traversing the plane table.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 109

Dumpy level method

To use dumpy level to mark points with same level and construct.
Expected skills:
1) To know how to draw the stand and level from dumpy level
2) To mark the direction, expect to measure the bearing angle.
3) To read an accurate reading on the staff through the telescope.
4) To understand the reading and mark the distance on land on the paper
correctly
5) To be able to draw contour lines.

Material and equipment:

1. Dumpy level. 2. Spirit level. 3. Staff. 4. Compass 5. Plumb line 6. Note book 7.
Pen 8.Meter tape. 9. Drawing sheet. 10. Pencil.11. Eraser.

Upper
reading

Middle reading

Lower reading

Procedure:
1. Fix the tripod at the middle of the weir in a low-lying place. Take level of
stand.
2. Fix the dumpy level on tripod. Find the north direction.
3. Fix the telescope of dumpy level parallel on 2 feet screws out of three. Then
turn the screws in and outside at the same time till the bubble of the spirit
level is in the center.
4. Turn the remaining 3rd foot screw in 90 degrees to telescope. Now turn this
screw in and outside and till the bubble of the spirit level is at the center.
5. While turning the telescope round, check the bubble is at the middle or not.
6. There is crosswire on the telescope. There are two horizontal lines on
crosswire. They are stadia. Keep white paper before telescope, set the lenses
until the crosswire is not seen.
7. The place where height is to be measured is the station. Place the staff
perpendicularly at that place.
8. Turn the telescope to staff, set it until the staff is not in front of crosswire.
9. Focus the telescope on staff, take the reading, and register it in notebook.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 110

10. This number tells us the how much is the telescope higher than station. It
means, station height+ no. on staff = height of telescope_ number on staff =
height of station.
11. Use the stadia to measure the distance between station and telescope. The
distance on staff stadia [in cm.] is equal to the place from telescope [in meter].
12. Set a final position of telescope. Show different points on page by using
telescope centrally. Draw a contour line by joining the points with the same
altitude.

Station Telescopic angle to Middle Upper Lower Distance from

north direction reading reading reading dumpy level to
staff.
A 20 1.000 1.200 0.900 30
B 30 1.000 1.400 1.000 40
C 40 1.000 1.100 0.900 20
D 50 1.000 1.300 0.800 50
E 60 1.000 1.800 0.600 120
F 70 1.000 1.400 0.900 50
G 80 1.000 1.400 0.800 60
H 90 1.000 1.200 0.800 40

Ask students to measure the height of the windows. Contour line means a line
that connects all the points with the same height from a specific place.

Precaution: check the bubble level in spirit level while using dumpy level.

Usage of contour: Contour line is used to find the appropriate place to build a
dam or weir. To know the storage capacity and its limitation contour line is
useful. The exact location to build the roads and rail tracks on sloping ground
can be decided by studying contour lines.

Formula of distance from telescope to staff

[Upper reading – lower reading] 100 = distance.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is contour line?
2. State the concept of plane table survey method.
3. What basic concepts are applied in land survey?
4. Usage of contour lines.
5. When is the land survey method applicable?
6. When is Dumpy Level Method applicable?
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 111

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Describe what a contour lines is and what are they used for.
· Describe application of different survey instruments.
· Find points on the ground which are at the same level and draw contour.
· Use plain table/dumpy level to mark contours.
MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 112
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 113

UNIT 3: GARDENING, NURSERY AND

AGRICULTURAL TECHNIQUES
SESSION 1: NURSERY TECHNIQUE
The simple meaning of Plant Nursery is a place where saplings, grafts and plants
are prepared.
A place where saplings of various plants, Grafts, cereal plants are develop/ kept
under supervision. Small to large gardens are then prepared from these.

Nursery technique has helped in conservation of rare and special plant species in easy
way. In a nursery, research is being done on many varieties of plant species in a
scientific way. In Nursery, use of advance technology in small spaces, new
scientific techniques for productive farming will come into existence for the
future.

The business of Nursery in India is very old. In a Nursery, Pure breed seeds,
grafting and saplings are prepared; the saplings are taken care of and conserved
in the most scientific way. Demand for fruit tree & flower saplings is increasing,
thus nurseries are necessary to supply good quality crop breeds. Hybrid seeds
are, comparatively, a bit costly. Such seeds can be produced on a large scale at
one time, in nurseries.

Objectives -
• Understanding the concept of Nurseries
• Understanding the procedures and benefits of Nurseries
• Understanding hybrid plants and methods of preparing the same
• Studying the methods of filling the buds of plants

Nursery Procedures / Integrative Components

After deciding about setting up a Nursery or nursery, make a plan as

follows–
• Make sure to select the best Nursery. The current and future demand for
plants needs to be taken into consideration.
• How much land do you require? - For the setting up a Nursery, the total area
required and the composition of the soil on the land is taken into
consideration. Test the soil if needed.
• Water supply –Water is a prime necessity for a nursery. Check the availability
of water.
• Availability of laborers - Find out which laborers will be required, when and
how many. A rough estimate of labour should be drawn, be it permanent,
seasonal, skilled, unskilled, supervisory, office work, Nursery work, collections
of sale and purchase, etc. Provide proper facilities and training for their overall
advancement.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 114

• Mother plants – Mother Plants are of great importance in a nursery. Without

mother plants, there cannot be a nursery. Maintain a separate division for the
same.
• Sheds for preparing hybrids and saplings, Shed-Net house, green house,
arrangement for keeping tools & equipment, many such arrangements are
required.
• Space for growing primed saplings – Preparation of Primed saplings is
necessary. Primed saplings are required for preparation of hybrid plants.
• Services such as electricity, telephone should be nearby.
• Road coverage is essential for the customers to reach the nursery or to carry
the saplings.
• Accreditation –Necessary licenses and permissions to be acquired from
authorities for setting up a nursery.
• Consulting technical advice - There arise many problems in Nursery. These
problems are technological, financial, management related. A Technical
Consultant having information related to nursery is necessary for solving such
problems.

Importance of Nursery
1) Many slow growing trees can be planted and taken care of properly and can be
prepared for further planting.
2) Large number of saplings can be grown in a small space.
3) The plants are well taken care of and well-formed.
4) It becomes easy to control crop diseases.
5) Scientific procedures can be performed on plants like nurturing buds,
grafting, providing nutritional supplements etc.
6) The plants can be better fed by water, fertilizers and so on in a timely manner.
7) Productive and well-breed fruit plants and saplings can be cultivated.

Types of Nursery:
A) Depending upon the time required for preparation of the Nursery, nurseries
can be divided into 2 types:

1) Seasonal Nursery –This type of nursery is set up to prepare seasonal

vegetables and flower saplings. This type of Nursery is usually for duration of
6 to 8 months. For example - Onion, Brinjal, Marigold, etc.

2) Permanent Nursery - In this type of Nursery, saplings of different types of

permanent trees are prepared. There is facility for a maternal or mother tree in
this nursery. There is permanent arrangement for preparing saplings in a
shed-net and different space to store tools and equipment. This type of
nursery is more business oriented, which means that seasonal and all year-
round trees saplings are prepared here and supplied to farmers and customers
as per demand. For example, saplings of fruit trees like mango, guava, etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 115

and flower bearing tress like rose, hibiscus, jasmine, etc. Plants of wild /
indigenous trees - Mahogany etc.

Types of nursery as per types of saplings –

1) Nursery of fruit trees - in which only fruit tree seedlings are
prepared. E.g. Mango, Chikoo, Guava, Amla, etc.
2) Nursery of Vegetable trees - All types of vegetable seedlings are planted in this
nursery. E.g. Onion, Chili, Brinjal, Tomato etc.
3) Nursery of Floral trees – This nursery consists of varieties of seedlings of floral
and garden trees. E.g. Rose, Jasmine, etc.
4) Nursery of Wild trees – Nursery in which only wild plant seedlings are
grown. E.g. Mahogany, etc.
5) Special Nursery- In this type of Nursery, medicinal, rare, and expensive
seedlings are planted. E.g. Ayurvedic medicinal trees, Christmas tree, Bonsai,
etc.

Methods for seedlings preparation or Preparing seedlings in Nursery –

There is a difference between sowing in open field and sowing of plants in a
Nursery. We will mainly look at sowing seedlings in a nursery.

Methods of Sowing Seeds in Nursery–

1) Sowing seeds in a straight line –
2) In this method, fruit, vegetable, or flower
seeds, with the help of a machine, are
planted i n a straight row. For example -
Wheat, Millet, Flowers.
Fig - 1
3) Sowing seeds in a flat tray -
A flat piece of plastic of a specific shape is taken and soil and fertilizer is mixed
on it and seeds are then planted. To avoid vaporizing of water from this tray, a
sheet of thermocol or newspaper is put over this as a
cover.
E.g. – Flowers, etc.

4) Preparation of saplings in bags -

A plastic bag of a specific size is taken and seeds are
planted in it. A mixture of soil an d fertilizer is put
into the bag. To aid seepage of water, 4-5 holes are
made in the bag. The seeds that have undergone
seeding process are then planted in this.
Fig 2

5) Preparation of seedlings in a seedling tray-

In this process, the scraped tray is to be washed with
water. Ready cockpit mixture is then added into the
tray. Seeds that have undergone seeding process are
then planted in it. E.g. Fruits and Vegetables

Fig 3 - seedling tray

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 116

6) Cushioned beds – Water seepage is aided well in these beds. These beds
should not be in shade. They should receive plenty of sunlight. But a little shade
is necessary during summers. The land of these beds should be fragile. There
should be no parasite plants, before preparing these beds the land should be
ploughed properly. Decayed Dung manure should be used in these. To aid better
seepage of water, a little sand should also be added. The overall shape of this bed
should be 3 meters in length, 1 meter in breadth and 15-20 cm in height or 6
meters in length, 1-meter wide and 15-20 cm high.

7) Flat Beds - In the beginning, seeds that are prepared in cushioned beds are
planted into flat beds at a later stage. These beds are bigger in size as compared
to cushioned beds. The saplings that are planted from cushioned beds onto these
flat beds should be categorically planted at proper distances. The shape of the
bed should be based on the size and gradient of the land. The land should be
coarse and should aid in proper water seepage. Saplings stay for a longer time in
these beds. During turnover, some green crop should be planted in these beds. At
the same time, precaution should be taken against parasite plants. There should
be proper division of the bed, based on the crop. There should be a different zone
for preparing of small stubs. This area should be used for turnover. For ease of
access to this bed, there should be a walkway between two beds.

Care to be taken while sowing the seeds –

1) Seeds used for Sowing should be disease free.
2) The seeds should be sowed at a proper depth in the soil. If the seed remains in
the upper layer of the soil then the seeds will be picked by birds. On the contrary,
if the seeds are sowed too deep, there will be lack of oxygen and the sapling will
be under nourished.
3) There should be proper distance between two plants. Every plant gets proper
amount of medicine, fertilizer, water and sunlight because of this.
4) Do not plant seeds in dry soil or too wet soil. For sowing seeds, the soil should
be wet in a uniform fashion.

Some important Components of a Nursery -

1. Maternal or Mother Plant -
This is a very important component of Nursery. To produce good quality of
trees, only those plants should be cultivated as maternal plants for preparing
grafts and buds whose history and quality is known for sure. As getting fruits
from these is not the target, these have to be planted at a distance of 2.5meters
to 4 meters or 5x5 meters instead of the normal distance. Planting of selective
mother trees is an important part of a Nursery. There should be different zones
for different mother trees and their names should be mentioned properly.
Hybrids prepared from these should be duly noted in different enrolment
sheets. There should be proper record of the place from where the mother tree
is brought, its family line and output capacity.

2. Place for keeping pots –

Build sheds with shade for keeping pots. Water should be near for watering
these pots. There should be separate space for keeping shed leaves. There
should also be a separate space for keeping empty pots.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 117

3. Shed for packing saplings

All saplings from beds and nurseries have to be packed properly for sending
them outstation for sale. There should be a separate shed for this. This space
should be big and airy.

4. Warehouse and Offices –

There should be a robust repository for material that is required for Nursery.
There should be an office just adjacent to this. There should be boards, labels,
plastic bags, and other required items in this store. There should be a book
with proper record of all the trees from the Nursery.

5. Green House -
Green houses are required for cultivating fruit plants, flower plants and
decorative plants in a controlled environment, especially in controlled
temperature. In a season, normally, 4000-5000 saplings are cultivated in a
100-sq. meter green house. Taking into consideration a number as 80, around
10,000 to 12,000 hybrids can be prepared in a year.

6. Taking care of grafting and saplings -

It is important to maintain the hybrids and saplings in a nursery. So that they
will grow properly and the resultant productivity will be good.

Taking care of Saplings –

1) Proper action has to be taken against parasite plants in a bed and proper
medicine should be sprayed for their eradication. And then the seeds should
be planted.
2) Seed treatments procedure should be done before planting the seeds (Process
done on seeds to increase their productivity). Seeds having a tough shell
should be soaked in warm water for 12 to 24 hours. Similarly, semi-hard-
shelled seeds should be soaked for 2-3 hours. The quantity of Germinator
should be 25 ml in 1 litre. Depending on the quantity of seeds, proper amount
of liquid mixture should be prepared.
3) Decayed compost should be used in cushioned beds to the quantity of 20-25
kilos.
4) The seeds that have been treated should be sowed in cushioned beds and
should be regularly watered. The bed should be covered with dry grass and
then water should be poured.
5) To avoid death of saplings, Germinator and Copper oxy-chloride should be
used.
6) To avoid infestation, pesticides and fungicides should be used.
7) To retain moisture, some sort of cover should be used.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 118

Taking care of Grafting: -

1) Keep the prepared grafting in shade.

2) The stub on which the grafting has been

made, the occasional offshoots should be cut
regularly.

3) The joint between two stems of grafting

should be very strong.

4) The saplings should be watered regularly

and proper care should be taken for their
growth. Fig 4 - Grafting

5) To arrest the decaying or infestation of saplings, proper medicines should be

used in consultation with the technicians from Agricultural Science Centre.

6) Change the soil in the pots every once in a while. So that all the essential
nutrients become available to the plant.

1) The quantity of Germinator should be 25 ml in 1 litre. Depending on the

quantity of grafts, proper amount of liquid mixture should be prepared.

8) Dip grafting cuts (scion) or buds for 10-15 minutes in the solution mentioned
above.

Management of Essential Food nutrients:

Always provide essential fertilizers to the mother plants, grafting and saplings in
a nursery. The root growth of these plants is limited. So, providing essential
nutrients to the roots becomes very easy.

Plant propagation methods –

The process of making new saplings by using the stem, bud of a mother tree is
known as propagation technique. Most of the flora around the world gets
regenerated by means of self-manufactured seeds. This type of regeneration is
specially seen in floral trees. To get well-breed saplings, good quality of seedlings
must be used. Since the time humans have started farming, it has been seen that
fruit trees do not get all the qualities of the original tree even if its seeds are used
for regeneration. Joint copulation, Pressed copulation, filling in the buds are the
techniques which man can use.

Plants can be propagate using two techniques –

1) By use of seeds
2) By use of stems (Any part of the plant) –

Majority of the fruit trees except Coconut and Papaya can be grown by using
propagation technique using parts of mother tree instead of seeds sowing. In this
technique, new sapling can be created by using a part of the original mother tree.
The bud or the branch part of fruit tree is used for this technique.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 119

1] Plant Propagation by using Seeds / Sexual reproduction –

The regeneration done by use of seeds is the most natural one. As the sapling
grown this technique does not get all the qualities of its maternal plant and takes
time for bearing fruits, this technique is not used everywhere. Else, there are
some fruit trees in which stem based regeneration is not possible or the
technique for such stem based regeneration is not yet developed, hence this
technique is used for commercial reasons. Papaya, Coconut, Tamarind, Custard
Apple, etc. are regenerated using seed based technique.

Following points must be considered while selecting seeds for this type of
regeneration –

1) The seeds should be of good breed; Seeds should be taken from maternal tree
having good health and productivity

2) Seed should be taken from fully ripened fruit

3) Well-formed and good seeding capacity seed should be used for sowing.

4) The germination of some seeds is less due to the hard shell over it. In such a
case, germination processing becomes necessary. The shell should be rubbed,
seeds should be soaked, deep in cold water, and acid treatments technique
should be used for proper growth of such hard-shelled seeds.

Advantages of Regeneration using seeds –

1) This is the most easy and economical regeneration technique. As a result,

saplings can be prepared at a cheaper price as compared to other techniques.

2) Trees grown from seeds are used for generation of new breeds or for preparation
of hybrids

3) The trees grown from seeds have a longer lifespan. And these trees bear a lot of
fruits.

4) Some fruit trees like Lemon, Papaya can be regenerated using seeds and
economical it is very profitable.

5) Plats grown from seeds can generate excellent breed of fruit trees sometimes.
E.g. All the well-known of mangoes are first prepared from seeds. Then they are
regenerated using stem technique.

6) Stem regeneration is done by use of branches prepared from seed grown trees.

Disadvantages of Seed based regeneration –

1) The plants grown from seeds are not of uniform height and growth
2) Seed based trees bear fruits at a slower pace than stem based regenerated
trees
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 120

3) The trees grown from seeds are much bigger as compared to those grown from
stem based technique. As a result, harvesting, pruning and disinfestation cost
increases.
4) Good quality mother plant cannot be grown using its own seeds. Stem based
regeneration has to be used for this.
5) The cost of internal nutrition enhancement increases.
2] Stem based regeneration –
In this type of regeneration, a part of the mother or maternal plant is used to
create new plants. The qualities of the seed tissues are received as a result of
this. The plants created from this have all the qualities of the mother plant.
Similarly, using physical regeneration, absolutely matching trees can be
regenerated.

Advantages of Stem based regeneration technique –

1) Plants grown using this technique are just like their mother plant. They have
the same height, output is the same and quality of fruits is excellent.
2) The fruits of the trees are of same size and hence it’s harvesting and sale
becomes very easy.
3) Some fruits do not bear seeds. Such trees cannot be regenerated using seed
based technique. Such trees have to be regenerated using stem based
technique. Egg, Banana, Pineapple, Seedless grapes, etc.
4) These trees bear fruits faster than those grown from seed based technique.
5) Some fruit trees do not have disease fighting power. Such trees can be
enhanced by grafting a branch of this tree on a tree having good disease
resisting power.
6) Some trees do not grow in unfavorable climate and soil. Stem based
regeneration technique, if used on these trees, can be grown even in
unfavorable climate and soil condition. E.g. In North India, Orange stems can
be transplanted onto Trifoliate Orange to aid in growth.
7) If stem based technique is used, then the growth of such trees, quality of
fruits and productivity can be controlled. By selecting short stems small trees
can be grown. As a result, per hectare number of trees can be increased.
8) Many different types of such hybrid trees can be planted in a Nursery and
because of formation of pollen, productivity, and growth increases.
9) By using stem based propagation, many types of fruits can be grown on a
single tree.
10) The size of seeds of fruits such as Orange, Sweet lime or the thorns of some
fruits can be reduced using stem based technique.
11) If there are some mistakes during Nursery, those can be rectified after the tree
bears fruits.

Disadvantages of Stem Based Technique –

1) The life span of trees generated from this technique is comparatively less
2) More labour and expenses are incurred for Nursery
3) Hybrids are economically costly

Types of Stem based grafting –

Grafting by trimming the tree
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 121

Cut Grafts –
The stem of a fruit tree is cut into specific shape and size and grafting is made.
There are 3 types of this grafting.
a) Hard wood cutting – The stem of the grafting is very hard. E.g. Bougainville,
Grapes, etc.
b) Semi hard wood cutting – The stem in this type is semi hard. E.g. Acolifa,
Burberry, etc.
c) Soft wood cutting – In this type the stem used is soft and not fully matured.
For making these grafting use well breed, healthy and well grown trees. E.g.
Duranta, Runners, etc.

Simple Tongue Layering –

This type of graft is prepared from the offshoots of the maternal tree. In this type,
before breaking away the grafting stem, roots get
developed on this stem at the time it is cut off the
mother plant. For rooting, the bark is removed,
scrapped, gaps are created or holes are created.
This part is then pressed into soil or wrapped with
wet moss. This grafting bears roots in a span of 4-
5 weeks without harming the food and water pipes
of the maternal tree, and hence this technique is
more successful.
Fig 5 - Simple Tongue Layering
Guava regeneration takes place using this technique. Stem of the size of a pencil
should be used for this type of grafting. The part where rooting is expected, the
leaves around it should be trimmed off. The mature part of the stem should be
identified and a cross cut should be made just below its bud. A hole up to 2.5-3
cm. is made in the stems centre and to keep the cut open a small stick is inserted
into it. This stem is inserted into the soil and a stone is kept over it along with an
arrangement for keeping the soil wet. The open stem or its tongue stays in
constant contact with the soil. Such a pressed grafting bears roots in a span of 2-
3 months. After proper rooting, this stem is separated at an interval of 10-15
days by making 2-3 cuts. Such pressed grafting can be prepared in a plastic bag
also.

Air layering –
To make this type of grafting, the branch of the mother plant should be shaved
off and the open portion should be wrapped with moss or polythene bag. Once
proper and sufficient rooting is found, this portion should be separated from the
tree. Polythene cover should be removed when planting this grafting.
Pomegranate plants are prepared using this technique. Monsoon season is the
best for preparing this type of grafting. If the weather is favourable, then leaving 2
months of summer, this type of grafting can be prepared throughout the year.
To prepare this type, a healthy and matured stem of the maternal tree must be
selected. Leaves and branch around the portion that has to be shaved should be
removed. This should be done about 45-50 cms below the tip of the branch.
Using a knife, the peel of the branch should be shaved off between two buds of
the branch. To aid in proper and sufficient rooting in this portion, EDOL
BUTERIC ACID should be applied. Then wet moss should be wrapped. Then this
entire portion should be covered with a polythene bag and its upper and lower
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 122

ends should be sealed off using jute rope. The shaved portion bears roots in 1-2
months. Once it bears roots, they are easily visible through the polythene. Once
sufficient roots are visible the portion should be cut off from the main branch. In
this type of grafting, there is no need for water in the entire process. Monsoon
season is best for preparing this type of grafting. E.g. Pomegranate, Guava, Amla,
etc. Fruit trees are regenerated using this technique.

A) The grafting stem is not detached from the mother plant –

1. Inarch / Joint grafting –

In this type of grafting, the stub and stem are merged together to generate a new
tree. In a Joint coupled tree, the upper portion is that of the joint stem. Joint
grafting regeneration is used for regeneration of Mango and Chikoo trees. To
prepare joint grafting, small trees having stub are prepared. These saplings are
then potted. Once the stub is 30-35 cms in height and thickness resembles that
of a pencil, they are brought near the mother plant. The stems of both the trees
are matched for thickness and are shaved and joined together. The shaving or cut
should be made about 20-25 cms above the land. The joint gets merged in a span
of 50-60 days. Till such time, these saplings have to be watered regularly. This
joint is cut out from the main stem at a distance of 5 cms above the stub once it
gets merged. Mango, Chikoo, Cashew, etc. are regenerated using this technique.
Since this technique is a bit tedious and time consuming, this technique is fast
falling back in usage. Whip or Tongue Grafting, Saddle Grafting and Root
Grafting are included herein.

(B) Separating the stem from the Mother Plant:

1. Cleft Grafting –
In this technique, the stem of the mother plant is given the
shape of an arrow. The stub is given a V-cut and the cut
stem is fitted into this. The joint is tied up and sealed
using wax. This technique is used in Apple, Pear, etc.
saplings preparation. If the diameter of the stub is big,
then more than 1 V-cuts are made and similar grafting is
done.

Fig 6 - Cleft grafting

2. Stone Grafting –
Mango is regenerated on a large scale using this technique. In this process, large
sized and disease-free seeds of Mangoes are selected. These seeds are spread out
on cushioned beds and a 4cm layer of Cow dung manure is laid upon that. As a
result, the off-springs from the seeds come out well formed. Hence the question of
grafting is sorted out. A seed that has just sprouted and the leaves are dark red
in colour should be selected. It should be removed from the bed without hurting
the roots. If grafts having green leaves are used, there is less chance of such trees
surviving.
The stem selected for this technique should be 2-3 months old with healthy and
well-formed buds and should be 10-15 cms in length. The thickness of this stem
and the grafting stem should be the same. Make cuts at 2-3cms from both ends
and give the stem shape of an arrow. A hole should be made right in the centre
of the selected sapling. The arrow shaped stem should then be inserted into this
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 123

hole. The entire edge of the graft should be wrapped up with a polythene bag.
This graft should then be kept in a pot or a 10x20 cms polythene bag in such a
way that the grafted portion stays above the soil. The stem starts rooting in a
span of 10-15 days after grafting. Once the leaves attain green colour and once
rain reduces, the saplings should be kept in open
space.

Budding – There is a difference in grafting technique of

stems and budding. In other techniques, mother plant
having many buds or bud stems are used. But in
budding technique, single bud on the stem is used.
Lemon, Rose, etc. are regenerated using this
technique. A proper breed mother plant’s bud is used
in grafting. The resultant tree has all the qualities of
the mother plant.

Fig 7 - Budding

Various methods of budding –

T Budding-
For filling the buds, the stub should be 9-12 months old. The thickness of the
stub should be the same as that of a pencil. On this stub, 1/3rd diameter deep
cuts should be made at a height of 15-20 cms. Starting from the centre of these
cuts, vertical cuts should be made, that too of 25-40 mm. Which means the cuts
should resemble English “T”. Using the back of the knife, the outer peel should
then be loosened up. Care should be taken that the internal wood or bark is not
damaged. Then the bud on the stem should be removed using
a sharp knife by making cuts at a distance of 10 mm below the
bud. The bud is then fitted into the T cut made earlier. Care
should be taken that the peel or bark covers the internal
tentacles of the bud. For sealing this joint, Wax or strip of
cloth or strip of plastic should be used. While tying the strip,
care should be taken to keep the bud open. The buds get fitted
firmly within a span of 2-3 weeks. When the piece if the leaf
stem falls, it is a sign that the bud has fit properly. The main
stub should be trimmed off about 25 mm above the grafted
bud.
Fig 8 - T Budding
Patch Budding: In this technique, the peel is taken from the stub. It should be
around 25 mm long and 10 mm wide. A similar sized piece containing the bud is
removed from the stem. For this, deep cuts are made
on all four sides of the bud. As a result, the bud along
with the patch gets removed easily. This patch is
fitted on the stub from where the first peel is removed.
Immediately that portion is tied up using polythene
strips. Care should be taken to keep the bud open.
After about 2 months, the strip should be removed.
This technique is very rarely used.
Fig 9 - Patch budding
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 124

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) What are the items required to start a Nursery?
2) List the types of nurseries?
3) Explain the importance of Nursery?
4) List the techniques of preparing saplings?
5) List out the advantages of seed based regeneration?
6) How should the saplings in a nursery be taken care of?
7) List out the types of grafting?
8) How should the grafts be taken care of?
9) Give information with regards to cleft grafting.
10) Explain any two grafting techniques in detail?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Identify various plants suitable for growing in nursery
· Prepare seed bed/raised bed
Sow seeds in propagation trays and seed bed
Propagate plants asexually
· Perform potting &repotting
· Maintaining records of plant growth
· Describe the various components of a plant nursery
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 125

SESSION 2: IRRIGATION & WATER CONSERVATION

METHODS
Water is an important aspect of human life. Proper planning is essential for
conservation of rain water.
Every year we store the rain water and prepare plans for water supply; but this
planning falls short because of delayed monsoon. Then the struggle for water
starts. Controlled usage of water is necessary to fulfill the needs of a growing
population.
In this chapter, we are going to learn about water conservation and irrigation
methods.

Objectives
· Understanding the need and methods of water conservation.
· Study of different irrigation

Water Conservation

The need of water-conservation: -

Freshwater contributes to only 2% of the total water on the earth. Groundwater
contributes to 11% of total freshwater.
Ground water is a very scarce and a valuable natural resource. Due to
uncontrolled usage of water, the amount of ground water is gradually decreasing.
Rain water harvesting is essential to improve the ground water level.

What is rain water harvesting?

Rain water harvesting is the method for conservation or storage of rain water.
Simply put, it means collecting the rain water from the roof tops of homes,
storing it and then using it later after purification.

Urban Areas Rural Areas

Rooftop runoff water collection Gully plug
Recharge pits Level-line dam/Contour Bund
Recharge trench Gabion Structure
Tube wells Percolation tanks
Recharge wells Check dams/Drain Dams
Recharge shafts/trenches
Dug well recharge
Ground water dams/Subsurface
dams
Ground water enrichment in rural areas:-
In rural areas, the main technique is surface spreading (let rain water soak over
maximum area) since large open surfaces of land are available for soaking.
Following methods can be used to avoid flow away from roofs, slopes, rivers,
rivulets, and drains:
Gully plugs: -
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 126

These small dams are built using locally available stones, clay, nearby bushes
across small gullies and streams running down the hill slopes and are used to
accumulate and soak the water from streams and rills flowing down the hillside
slopes. This helps in improving the moisture level and fertility of the soil. Such
gully plugs can be built where there is a local break in slope and the flow of water
is blocked or slows down.
The system of bunds connecting places at same elevation (level-line dam) is very
useful in retaining soil moisture in the watershed for long time. Useful in low
rainfall area

Percolation tank: -
It is suitable for highly permeable land. In this water conservation method
surface water runoff is made to percolate & recharge the ground water storage.
We can provide this storage water to nearby wells. The objective of these kind of
tanks is to facilitate water absorption and recharge levels of ground water.

Recharge pits:-
With the help of recharge pits we can store rain water. We can use this water
conservation method in area where surface
rocks are permeable.
The recharge pits are constructed 1-2 meters
wide and 2-3 meter deep.
The pits are then filled with boulders (5 to 20
cms), gravel and coarse sand, so that the silt
content that will come with runoff water will
be easily removed.

Fig 10 - Recharge pits

For the buildings with smaller roof areas, the
pit can be filled with pieces of broken bricks
and gravel. To maintain the water recharge rate, it is essential to periodically
clean up the silt and other waste materials from the top layer of sand.
What is rain water harvesting?
Rain water harvesting is a process of storage the water from rain fall and then
using it later at appropriate time. Simply put, it means collecting the rain water
from the roof tops of homes, storing it and then using it later after purification.

Why rain water harvesting?

Today, scarcity of quality water has become a major problem. Available sources
drinking water are depleting. Considering this, it is essential to enrich the
available natural sources of water. The rain water is left unused and lost as run
off. Therefore, rain water harvesting is necessary.

Benefits of rain water harvesting:

· Rain water harvesting can become a supplement for other sources of water
supply. (e.g. groundwater or municipal water)
· The areas without water supply Rain water harvesting has a ability to build or
for farming.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 127

· Recourse of pure, chemicals free and high quality water.

· Reduced flood situations
· Prevention of topsoil loss

Irrigation-
Water supply is very important for crops. Crops cannot grow without water.
Compared to seasonal crops, the roots of fruit bearing trees go deep
underground. Since fruit crops are perennial they need continued water supply
even after rainy season. Crops can utilize only 50% of the water supplied, the rest
is wasted by seepage in the ground and by evaporation. Also, due to
overwatering, all the water cannot get soaked into the ground and soil becomes
marshy, saline, and infertile (non-cultivable). It also results in a lot of wastage of
water and reduction in crop production. Water is scarce and its utilization must
be monitored strictly and scientifically. Water must be used cautiously and
appropriately and watershed development programs must be undertaken to
increase the water level underground and in wells.
Instead of traditional/conventional water supply methods modern irrigation
techniques must be adopted. Nowadays various modern irrigation facilities are
available. Using these modern technologies for irrigation the crop production can
be increased multi-fold. For horticultural purpose, if advanced irrigation systems
are used instead of traditional methods, water is saved and supplied to a larger
area of the farms. It also reduces the risk of pests and diseases and increases
yield. There are two types of irrigation methods for fruit crops – traditional and
modern. Instead of using an irrigation method because it is common in the area,
appropriate method should be chosen depending on the soil condition and crop.
Before deciding the irrigation system to use it is essential to study the type of soil,
availability of water, type of crop, water supply mechanism, and cultivation
method. In this chapter, we are going to study various types of irrigation
methods.

Types of irrigation systems:

Irrigation methods

Traditional methods
Modern methods

Ground Surface irrigation Drip Irrigation

Sprinkler Irrigation Subsurface Irrigation

Check Basin Irrigation Plant basin Irrigation Furrow Irrigation Pot Irrigation
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 128

Traditional Methods: -

1. Check Basin Irrigation :

Check basin irrigation method is used for levelled fields where ample water is
available. In this method, there is a probability of wastage of water due to seepage
in drains and of water logging. This method is used
for crops cultivated at low interval distances like
bananas, papaya. In this method, the whole field is
divided into basins. The basins are connected
through drain type flow ways. There is a possibility of
excess water accumulation and damage to the crops
due to water logging.

Fig 11 - Check Basin Irrigation

2. Furrow Irrigation :
In this irrigation method, furrows are made between two rows of trees and water
is supplied via the furrows. The local fruit orchards do not use this method of
irrigation. This method is recommended for fruit orchards with medium quality of
soil. Water should be released slowly in these
furrows, so that instead of flowing away it
will seep into the nearby soil. For small fruit
trees, the water from the furrows on both the
sides is sufficient. As the trees grow, the
number of furrows between the two rows of
trees is increased for supplying the required
amount of water.

Fig 12 - Furrow irrigation

The furrows should be long and there should be 5 feet distance between the
furrows. If the ground had slope, the furrows should be made across the slope.
The slop should not be more than 0.6 %. In this method water is wasted by
evaporation. This method is not suitable for dry sandy/desert soil.

3. Pot Irrigation :
In southern India, in saline soil farmers place an earthen pitcher filled with water
at the base of the tree. This is a very easy and cost-effective method for supplying
water to trees on unlevelled surfaces. This
method needs more manual labour. It provides
all the same benefits of drip irrigation. This
method is very good for saving the trees in areas
with shortage of water. A hole is made at the
bottom of the earthen pitcher and it is filled with
coconut husk so that water drips slowly at the
root of the trees and supplied the required
moisture.
Fig 13 - Pot irrigation
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 129

Modern methods: -
1. Drip Irrigation :

In this method, small amount of water as per

the type of crop is supplied with the help of
narrow pipes of diameter 12 – 16 mm. A
computerized sensors can be used to measure
soil moisture or soil water content and schedule
drip irrigation. Water can be supplied directly to
the base of the trees using this cost-effective
irrigation method. There are different
mechanisms used for this. Fig 14 - Drip irrigation

In drip irrigation, mainly a network of main pipe, sub main pipes and laterals is
created. The water undergoes filtration before coming in the drip pipes. The main,
submain and lateral pipes are made of plastic and they have perforations at
regular intervals which supply water at the roots. This is the most superior
method of irrigation which results in high quality crop yield in minimum amount
of water, minimum expense, and short time intervals. Drip irrigation give high
levels of crop growth. In addition, liquid fertilizers can be supplied via the drip
irrigation system. This system is very beneficial for orange, Chikoo, lemon,
pomegranate, pineapple, coconut, guava, mango, papaya, banana, spices, and
vegetables.

Ø Properties of drip irrigation: -

1. Water is supplied at low speeds
2. Water is mostly supplied as per need
3. Water is supplied at the base of the trees closer to the root system
4. Water is supplied at low pressure.

Ø Benefits of drip irrigation: -

1. Efficient utilization of available water
2. High level of crop growth and significant increase in yield
3. Reduced risk of damage from underground salts
4. Easy and efficient use of fertilizers and other chemical solutions
(insecticides)
5. Less nuisance of weed and time saved in maintenance
6. Less electricity and manual labour needed

Ø Limitations of drip irrigation: -

1. Accumulation of salts near the roots
2. The roots grow in a limited area
3. High cost of initial investment
4. Possibility of blockages in the perforations on the pipes
5. Risk of damage to the plastic pipes
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 130

2. Sprinkler Irrigation :
In this method water is sprinkled under high pressure through pipes. This
method is convenient for areas affected by high levels of soil erosion and uneven
ground levels.
Water can be supplied effectively to uneven ground with this method and the
expense to level the surface can be avoided.
Small plants and fully-grown trees both can be
watered appropriately. Fertilizers can be
provided via the water. The couplers can be
easily attached or detached, so the lightweight
pipes can be easily moved and connected as
required. Even if the ground has uneven slopes
the pipeline can be setup as needed. The
automatic sprinklers are attached on these
pipes at convenient intervals.
Fig 15 - Sprinkler irrigation
After the pump is started, the water is lightly sprinkled adding moisture to the
soil. Sprinklers of various heights are readily available, so this method can be
used for any kind of crops. The method of connecting the pipes is easy. Even one
worker can supply water to a large area with this method. Though the initial
investment of this system is high, it proves to be cost effective considering the
amount of water saved and the increased yield. This irrigation system is useful
for fruit trees of moderate height e.g. guava, pomegranate, pineapple. In the
initial days of the cultivation in a fruit orchard, this system can be used for
irrigation.

Ø Benefits of sprinkler irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water during transport is avoided
2. Effective area under cultivation can be doubled
3. Large amount of water is saved
4. This method can be easily utilized in areas with sandy, erosion-prone soil and
uneven ground levels.
5. Fertilizers and insecticides can be provided via the sprinkler system

Ø Drawbacks of sprinkler irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water if the climate is hot and dry
2. Electricity is necessary to supply water
3. Hi cost of initial setup
4. There is a need for technical personnel to run this system
5. Useful for only certain types for fruit crops

3. Subsurface Irrigation or Bi-wall irrigation :

This method is suitable for fruit orchards. Before supplying water using this
system, sand and screen filters are required to filter the water. Water soluble
fertilizers are effectively supplied directly at the roots via the bi-wall tubes. This
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 131

method is also called as “Bi-wall method”. For the crops cultivated in rows and in
confined areas (vegetables, tomatoes, sugarcane, pineapple, bananas etc.)

Ø Benefits of bi-wall irrigation: -

1. Wastage of water by evaporation is avoided
2. Avoids damage to roots caused by water logging
3. Land area is not wasted as there is no need to have furrows
4. Very low maintenance, complete utilization of water and fertilizers is achieved

4. Bubbler Irrigation :
Some fruit trees can have a different type of root structure. So, there is a slight
change done in the drip irrigation system. Instead of drip supply, water is given
as a higher volume adjustable flow directly at the base of the trees. Bubbler
system has one fundamental difference – in this method the sub pipes bring
water to each tree, and there is a lateral pipe at the base of the tree which
provides water in a basin around the tree. Water is supplied at the speed of 225
litres per hour. In this method, the speed of water supply is significantly higher
than the rate of absorption, so the water is accumulated and a small basin
around the tree is necessary.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1) Explain the need for water conservation?
2) Describe the methods of water conservation in urban and rural areas.
3) Explain the concept of recharge pit?
4) Explain the traditional methods of water conservation?
5) Write detailed information about percolation tanks?
6) Explain the concept of Rainwater Harvesting with a diagram?
7) Explain the benefits of rainwater harvesting?
8) Explain the pot irrigation method?
9) Explain the modern methods of irrigation?
10) Differentiate between drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Demonstrate the knowledge and application of different irrigation and
water conservation methods
· Identify various irrigation methods
· Demonstrate installation and maintenance of drip/sprinkler irrigation
system
· Demonstrate various water conservation methods (bund, rainwater
harvesting, trenching etc.)
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 132

SESSION 3: INTERPRETING RESULT OF SOIL

TESTING

Use of fertilizers is very important for the bumper crop yield. Crops receive
essential nutrients from the soil. Out of these nutrients, crops require nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potash in large quantities. So, their percentage in the soil
changes always. For testing the quantity of nutrients essential for the crops, and
the percentage of lack of them, i.e. for testing the fertility of soil, different
physical, chemical and biological methods like soil testing, crop analysis, growth
of organisms, etc. are there. In these testing methods, soil and plant samples are
taken and tested in the laboratory or inspection and experiments are done in the
farm itself.
Testing of soil samples indicates which nutrients are deficient in the soil
and whether the soil is suitable for growth of crops or not. Also, the relation
between soil testing and crop yield indicates the percentage of nutrients received
by the crops from the soil and the amount of nutrients needed to supply from
outside.
From testing, the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil are
understood. Accordingly, if required organic fertilizers, bio fertilizers and chemical
fertilizers are provided in integrated way, the health of the soil can be maintained.

Objectives: -
· To understand the necessity of soil testing
· To understand the information about the essential nutrients for plant growth
· To study the detailed concept of the method of identifying the pH of soil using
soil testing

The care and precautions to be taken while testing the soil: -

1. While handling the soil testing kit, take care that the chemicals do not spill on
the soil.
2. Use dropper wherever it is instructed to be
used.
3. While handling acid, take care that it does
not spill.
4. Follow all the instructions given in the
user guide.

Method of taking a sample: -

1. The tools used for collecting samples e.g.
spade, hoe, ghamela, sickle should be
clean.
2. The soil sample should be collected after
harvesting of crops but before next ploughing. Fig 16 - Soil sample
3. If chemical fertilizers are given to the crop, do not collect sample from the
respective soil, for three months.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 133

4. Do not mix samples of different types of soils or soils from different farms.
5. Do not use empty bags of chemical fertilizers for collecting a soil sample or for
sending it to the laboratory for testing.
6. Soil samples should not be collected from or near these places: the storage
space of the fertilizers in the farm, garbage place, and animal shed, under the
tree, wells, water channels and boundaries of farms.

Method to collect the soil sample: -

1. When you go to the farm for collecting soil sample, first inspect the farm, and
divide the farm into different sections as per the soil type. While determining
these sections, consider things like colour of the soil, texture, unevenness,
marshy land.
In this way, collect a separate representative sample from each section.
2. Collect soil from 15 to 20 places from one hectare of farm. For taking soil
sample, make a zigzag line in each section, and dig at every curve. Remove
plant parts, trash, or stones from every selected place. At each place, make a
25 cms. Pit of ‘V’ shape for seasonal crop and 60 cms. Deep pit for fruit crop.
Take out soil from that pit.
3. From all the sides of pit, the soil layer should be scraped from top to bottom
evenly and it should be collected in a clean pan and collected on a gunny bag.
4. In this way, make pits on all the marks and mix the collected soil well and
divide it into four parts. Except the two opposite parts, mix the remaining two
parts again and divide them into four parts. Again, skip the two parts
opposite each other.
5. Continue doing this till the soil in one part is handful or half kg. Along with
the soil sample, write the detailed information about name of the farmer, name
of the village, district, survey/group number and the crop to be cultivated in
the next season and then send the sample to the soil testing laboratory.

Making the soil sample ready for testing: -

After the soil sample is collected, it needs to be processed before its analysis. So
that sample becomes fit for testing. The soil sample dried in the shade should be
crushed lightly in a wooden mortar and remove plant parts, gravel, and other
unwanted things from it. The crushed sample should be sifted using 2 mm sieve.
The sample thus prepared, should be used to test the factors like pH, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potash. For testing the organic carbon content, a sample of very
small weight is needed. The sample created above should be again crushed in a
wooden mortar and sifted from 0.5 mm sieve. This very fine sample should be
used to test organic carbon.

Learn to test the soil (pH of soil and percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium) and prepare the report- To measure pH of soil and percentage
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, colour chart is used. Required
chemicals are added to the soil sample and then the changed colour of the soil is
matched with the color chart. This gives results for pH of soil, percentage of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 134

Identifying pH of the soil: -

As per pH of the soil, to be able to identify whether the soil is acidic, alkaline, or
neutral.

Equipment and chemicals: -

Soil agar, test tube, rubber cap, methyl orange,
barium sulphate etc.

Soil testing colour chart

PH of the soil: -
PH indicates the percentage of acid and alkali in
the soil. PH of 7 is considered as neutral.
If pH is 7-14, the alkalinity is more and if pH is
between 0-7 acidity is more. But pH of the soil
should be between 6.5 to 8.5. Fig 17 - Soil testing

Procedure: -
1) Take water up to 5 ml. mark in a clean test tube and using 2 gm spoon from
the soil testing kit, add soil sample to the water.
2) Add barium sulphate of 0.06 to 1 gm weight in the test tube. Close the test
tube with a clean rubber cap. And let the test tube stand for 20 minutes. Stir
the mixture in it in between.
3) After 20 minutes, add 5 drops of methyl red in it, close the test tube with
another clean cap and mix the mixture well by shaking it. Let the test tube
stand so that the soil settles down at the bottom of the test tube.
4) After the soil settles, match the colour of the soil solution with the colour
chart.
5) If as per the chart, pH of the soil is around 6, repeat this experiment by taking
soil again and replacing methyl red with methyl orange. Match the colour of
solution with the colour in the chart.

Precaution and care: -

1. Do not collect soil sample in the rainy season.
2. From one farm, collect samples from 10-15 different places, of the soil at
depth of 15 to 30 cms.
Observations and conclusion: -
Observation of pH Conclusion
< 6.5 Soil is acidic in nature, to improve it appropriate
quantity of lime should be mixed with it.
6.5 to 7.5 The percentage of acid and alkali in the soil is the
same. The soil is suitable for any crop.
<7.5 Soil is alkaline in nature, it is necessary to mix
Sulphur in appropriate quantity.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 135

· Test for phosphate in the soil -

Equipment and chemicals: -

Soil agar, marked test tubes, rubber cap, dropper, 5 gm spoon, beaker, filter
paper, funnel, sodium bi-carbonate, bleaching carbon, 0.15% ammonium
molybdate, stannous chloride etc.

Procedure: -
1. Take solution of sodium bi carbonate in the test tube up to 10 ml. mark and
add pinch of Darko from bleaching powder (helper for filtration).
2. With the help of 5 gm spoon, add soil sample to the test tube, fit the tube with
a clean rubber cap and shake the test tube continuously for 3 minutes. Filter
this solution with the help of filter paper.
3. Pour the filtered solution in another test tube up to the 2-ml. mark and add 2
ml. of ammonia Cal moly date solution to it. Clean the inner part of the test
tube. Stick a label reading ‘a’ on the test tube and keep it aside.
4. Take 66 ml. of water in a 100-ml. beaker. Add 2-3 cubes of zinc to it and add
2-3 drops of HCl. Add 0.5 ml. stannous chloride solution to it.
5. Add 1 ml solution from the beaker to the test tube having label ‘a’. Fit rubber
cap to the test tube and mix the solution well. After that add water to this test
tube up to 10 ml. mark. And match the colour of the solution to colour in the
colour chart.

Observations and conclusion: -By observing colour on the colour chart which
matches with the colour of solution, conclude that the soil sample has the
phosphate percentage written beside that colour.

Precaution and care: -While doing this experiment, to keep temperature of all
solutions below 20 ° Celsius add ice cubes to all the solutions.

· Test for Potassium in the soil: -

To be able to identify amount of potassium in the soil.

Equipment and chemicals: -

Marked test tubes, rubber cap, dropper, 5 gm spoon, filter paper, funnel, 10%
sodium acetate, 3% acetic acid, 95% ethanol, sodium cobalt nitrite etc.

Procedure: -
1. Take solution of 3% acetic acid in a clean test tube up to 10 ml. mark.
2. With the help of 5 gm spoon, add 5 gm soil sample to the test tube, Fit the test
tube with a clean rubber cap and shake it continuously for 1 minute to mix
the solution properly.
3. Filter this solution with the help of filter paper and let it stand.
4. Take 2 ml. solution from 95% ethanol in another clean test tube and add 6
drops of sodium cobaltinitrite in such a way that they will not touch the sides
of test tube and will go down directly.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 136

5. Add 2 ml. solution with a force from the test tube kept aside, to the test tube
having ethanol using a syringe.
6. After 5 minutes, this solution will turn milky. Compare this milkiness with the
test chart.

Observations and conclusion: -From the colour of solution in the test tube,
determine how many lines shown in the test chart are clearly observed and
accordingly decide the kg/hectare percentage of potassium present in the soil.
Precaution and care: - While adding ethanol solution with the help of syringe to
the test tube, take care that it does not spill.

· Test for Nitrogen in the soil: -

To be able to identify amount of nitrogen in the soil.

Equipment and chemicals: -

Marked test tubes, 5 gm spoon, syringe, funnel, filter paper, 0.5% di-phenyl
amine, sulphuric acid, Nessler reagent.

Procedure: -
1. To prepare water solution of given soil sample. Take 10 ml. water in a clean
test tube. Add a 2-gm soil sample to it. Close the test tube with a cap and
shake it for 5 minutes. Filter this solution and use it for the next 2 tests.
A. To find percentage of nitrate, nitrogen in the soil. Take a drop of soil
solution in a small test tube of 2 inches height. Add 6 drops of sulphuric acid
to it carefully. And match the colour of resultant solution with the colour in
the test chart.
B. To find percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen in the soil.
2. Take 3 drops of the soil sample in another small test tube of 3 inches height.
Add a drop of Nessler reagent to the test tube. And match the colour of
resultant solution with the colour in the test chart.

Observations and conclusion: -By comparing the colour of solutions in both the
test tubes with colour chart, determine the kg/hectare percentage of nitrate,
nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen in the soil.

Additional information:
Main nutrients in the plants and their functions: -
A) Main nutrients in the plants: -
This includes six nutrients viz. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potash. These nutrients are absorbed by the plant in the large quantity. So,
they are called as main nutrients. Out of them oxygen, hydrogen and carbon are
required by plants in very large quantity. But generally, the plants don’t face
deficiency of these nutrients as they are easily available from water and air in the
soil. These three basic nutrients are very important for biological processes. Out
of total weight of the plant approximately more than 94% is occupied by these
three nutrients. The function of creating energy is related to these nutrients.
Apart from them, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash are also required by the
plants on large scale. These nutrients which are soluble in the soil moisture are
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 137

used by the roots of the plants. The supply of these nutrients from the soil is
generally in medium to low quantity. So, to fulfil the requirement of the plants,
organic as well as chemical fertilizers need to be given.
B) Secondary nutrients for the plants – The three nutrients calcium, sulphur and
magnesium are called as secondary nutrients for plants. Which requires in
medium quantity.
C) Micro nutrients for the plants – These include eight nutrients: manganese,
zinc, copper, iron, molybdenum, boron, chlorine, nickel, cadmium. The plants
need micro nutrients in small quantity. These nutrients are sufficiently supplied
to the plants from the soil naturally. But in the specific soil and for specific crops,
these nutrients need to be provided by organic/ chemical fertilizers. Apart from
these nutrients, some specific crops need nutrients like sodium, cobalt, silicon.
Functions of main nutrients in the plants: -
1. Nitrogen: - Due to this nutrient, the plant grows many leaves, the growth is
vigorous and fast. More shoots grow and it ensures increase in the yield. The
photosynthesis increases. The protein content in the grains as well as leafy and
fruit vegetables increases and quality of the agricultural product improves. The
fresh, shiny green colour of the crop depends on the chlorophyll content in the
plant. The amount of chlorophyll depends on the nitrogen supply to the plant.

2. Phosphorus: -Phosphorus has significant role in bio-chemical processes in the

plant. Due to these nutrients, mainly growth of the roots becomes fast and
vigorous, and the capability of the plants to absorb water and other nutrients
increases. This stimulates production of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. These
nutrients help to increase oil content in the oil seeds and protein contents in
cereals, pulses. Due to nitrogen, mainly vegetative growth of the plant is
stimulated. Phosphorus increases reproduction activities. So, the crop enters
flowering stage early and becomes mature early. The number and size of nitrogen
fixation nodules on the dicotyledonous plants increases due to Phosphorus. So,
the nitrogen fixation process increases. Due to sufficient supply of nitrogen and
phosphorus, the capacity of plants to withstand water stress in the drought
situation also increases.

3. Potash: - The role of potash in the biological processes in the plant is

important. Because of potash the skin, stems or leaves of plants get strength. So,
the crop does not fall on the ground but stands vigorously. It is not susceptible to
the diseases and pests. For the crop to stand sturdily and to achieve maximum
yield even in the adverse situations like less moisture in the soil, salinity, very
cold weather and cloudy weather, potash is very important. Due to this
substance, mainly the processes like production of carbohydrates and their
conversion into sugar become active. So, sugar containing crops like sugarcane,
watermelon, sweet potato, and fruits need this nutrient more. Due to this
nutrient, the sugar content increases. It gives good colour and shape to the fruits.
It increases the shelf life of fruits-flowers and vegetables. So, in turn it helps to
improve quality of the agricultural product. The quality of fibres in the fibrous
crops improves. So, the crops like cotton and jute need potash more.

4. Calcium: -The nutrient, calcium is present in the cell walls of plants in the
form of calcium pectate. For proper functioning of roots and increasing cell
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 138

division, this nutrient is essential. Organic acids are created in the plants
continuously and if their amount becomes excess, they are harmful. Calcium
works on decreasing this acidity. For making different bio-chemical processes
happen in the plants and to speed them up, specific organic substance
containing protein are active, they are called as ‘enzymes’. Calcium helps for
actions related to enzymes. This nutrient helps to increase the number of
nitrogen fixation nodules on the roots and their size, so that the capability of di-
cotyledon family crops to fix nitrogen increases.

5. Magnesium: - Magnesium is an important element in the chlorophyll of the

plants. This nutrient has a role in the function of photo synthesis. Like calcium,
this nutrient is helpful to keep actions due to enzymes active. The citrus family
trees which grow in the soil containing lime stone face more magnesium
deficiency.

6. Sulphur: -This nutrient is very essential for crops for preparing protein, fats,
and chlorophyll. In pulses and oilseed crops, the amount of proteins and oils
respectively increases due to this nutrient. Sulphur is helpful to produce Sulphur
containing amino acids in the plants (e.g. methionine, cysteine, and growth
regulators (e.g. thiamine, biotin). Due to this, there is more nitrogen fixation.
Absorption is almost as much as phosphate; the quality of agricultural product
improves. So, after nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, now a days Sulphur is
mentioned as the fourth main nutrient.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. Why soil testing is important? Explain the reason.
2. What care should be taken while testing the soil?
3. How to test nitrogen in the soil?
4. Explain the methods/procedures to take soil samples?
5. Write any three nutrients essential for the growth of plants and their functions.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:

· Demonstrate the knowledge of Interpreting results of soil testing
· Demonstrate the procedure for collecting soil sample for testing
· Interpret the results of soil test for fertilizer application
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 139

SESSION 4: INTRODUCTION TO DAIRY

TECHNOLOGY (ARTIFICIAL
INSEMINATION)
In the animal breeding, many natural insemination methods are available. But
artificial insemination method is the most modern method. In artificial
insemination method, direct contact between cow and bull is avoided and
breeding is done using modern technology. In this method, the semen artificially
collected from the bull is deposited into the reproductive tract of the cow at the
right time, as it is or after specific processing, using technical methods. Artificial
insemination method is useful for the overall improvement of the cattle. In this
chapter, we are going to take detailed information about artificial insemination in
cows and buffaloes.

Objectives: -
· To understand the concept of artificial insemination
· Get information about various hybrid breeds
· To study actual methods of artificial insemination

Artificial insemination: -
India ranks first in the world in terms of number of milk cattle. But out of total
milk production in the world, only 6% milk is produced in India and in per capita
production India ranks 94th in the world. Our native cow gives 100 to 300 litres of
milk in a year. For increasing milk production,
we need to improve quality of cows. To make
improved cow using the traditional method
(genetical method) we will need a span of 70 to
80 years. After so many years, the milk
production from this improved cow will be of
only 600 litres. So, the fast and easy way to
increase milk production in India is artificial
cross breeding. Compare native and hybrid cows
given below.
Fig 18 - Artificial insemination
Native cow Hybrid cow
First brood After40-42 months After20-22 months
Lactation period 150-180 days 240-300 days
Next brood After 6-8 months After 3-4 months
Dry period 7-8 months 2-4 months
Duration between two broods 18-20 months 13-15 months
Average milk 3 litres per day 8 litres per day
Total milk 540 litres 24000 litres
Growth of calves 200-300 gms daily 500-700 gms daily
By studying the above chart, we understand that we need to decrease number of
unwanted cattle and increase cattle of good quality. For that, cross breeding of
cattle is a good solution. Those who have native cows, should cross breed the
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 140

best cow they have by artificial insemination. The calf which is produced from
this cow, will have first brood after 2.5 years and more milk will be produced.
Many people give fodder to the cow in the farm itself. But it has low productivity
as compared to the fodder given. So, there is unnecessary expense for fodder. The
unwanted animals which are let loose in the in the villages destroy trees planted
in the farms and villages so the villages become barren.
To avoid all these, we need to cut down the number of unwanted cattle and
need to create cattle with the best productivity. It will be beneficial to get a hybrid
calf by cross breeding the native cow. This hybrid cow will eat grass of 3 cows,
but will give milk of 4 cows. So, in return of the expenses for fodder, we can get
good productivity with the hybrid cow. So, the village and the dairy farmers will
not face losses but will be benefited.

What is artificial insemination: -

In artificial insemination, the breeding is done by avoiding direct contact of cow
with bull. In this method, semen is collected from bull artificially and it is
deposited into the reproductive tract of the cow or buffalo, as it is or after
dilution. Sometimes, in this method semen of the bull is collected in an artificial
vagina. Then this semen is inspected under microscope. And then semen mixture
is created by adding some chemicals and yellow egg yolk. This mixture is kept in
the refrigerator for 6-7 hours at 5 degrees Celsius in very cold liquid nitrogen.

Methods of artificial insemination–

For artificial insemination, 1 ml diluted semen is released in the uterus or cervix
of the cow. Two main methods are used for artificial insemination –
1. Recto-vaginal method: - This method is widely used. In this method, a
rubber or plastic gloved hand is inserted into the anus and cervix is held and
using another hand a plastic tube for insemination is inserted from vaginal
track into the cervix and semen is inserted through the tube into the uterus.

2. Speculum method: - In this method, a special type of forceps, speculum is

inserted through vaginal track and cervix is inspected through it with the help
of light. Then semen is taken in the insemination tube and that tube is
inserted in the cervix and using syringe, the semen from tube is released in
the uterus.

3. Efficiency of artificial insemination: - The percentage of conception by

artificial insemination is more than conception by natural breeding. If there is
infertility or reproductive diseases then artificial insemination is more
beneficial than traditional breeding methods. Some bulls are not that good for
using inartificial insemination, but if proper care is taken, the percentage of
conception can increase significantly.

Care to be taken in artificial insemination: -

1. The place where artificial insemination is to be done must be clean.
2. All material and instruments to be used for artificial insemination should be
sterilized. E.g. gloves, long forceps etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 141

3. Keep away from the bowl in which actual semen is stored. Substances in the
bowl can be harmful to the body.
4. While performing actual insemination, take special care of skin and eyes.
5. Always use long stainless-steel forceps.
6. Avoid artificial insemination in very hot weather.
7. Provide open space for the cattle to stand.

Breeds of cows and buffalos useful for artificial insemination: -

Breeds of cow: -

Sindhi: - Name is Sindhi as the breed originated in the Sindh region. Red in
colour, small and horns are small, too. The skin is soft and is not stuck to the
body. The colour near the bull’s neck is dark red-black. This breed is good for
cross breeding and its mother calf matures within 40 to 42 months.

Sahiwal: - The animals of this breed are found in Punjab and North India. The
animals are reddish brown in colour. Sometimes, there are light red, white spots
on the body. This breed has large body, lose skin, broad forehead, and short and
horns curved inwards. This breed is good for cross breeding.

Gir: - The name is Gir as it is found in the Gir forest. Famous in the Saurashtra
region of Gujrat. The body is large, attractive, and huge. They are red and black
in colour and have white spots on the forehead.

B. Breeds for draft use: -

Khilar: - The cattle of this breed are mainly found in south Maharashtra. They
are white in colour. The body is long and tall. The hump of the bulls of this breed
is big and graceful.
The bulls are agile and sturdy. This breed is not good for milk but the bulls of
this breed are famous.

Dangi: - The cattle of this breed are found in Dang, Nashik and some parts of
Konkan. The characteristics are oily skin and strong legs. The animals have white
and black spots. As the bulls are very strong, they are good for draft purposes.

C. Dual purpose breeds: -

Deoni:-The animals of this breed are found in Marathwada, Hyderabad, Udgir,

Devgiri area. They are white in colour and sometimes red, brown spots are also
seen. The body is big and long.

Haryana: - The animals of this breed are found in some parts of Haryana,
Punjab. They are big but proportionate. The colour is white, slightly light red and
sometimes bluish.

Exotic Breeds: -
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 142

Jersey- Origin in England.Colour white and reddish. Weight 450-675 kgs. Among
all the exotic breeds this breed is small and compact in size. Weather in India is
suitable for this breed. So, jersey breed is used for cross breeding on large scale
in India. The jersey cow cross breed with native breed, gives 10 to 15 litres of milk
per day and this cross breed calf gives first brood in 20 to 24 months.

Brown Swiss- Breed originated in Switzerland. Colour is brown. Weight is 625-

900 kg. Big body and wide forehead. This breed is sturdy. The bulls are used in
farming.

Red Danish - The origin of this breed is in Denmark. The animals are brown in
colour. Sometimes red-white spots are also seen. The animals are of huge built.
The bulls of this breed are used for beef in foreign countries.

Buffalo breeds: -
Jafarabadi: - The breed has its origin in Gir forest of Gujrat. Also, famous by
name ‘Bhavnari’. Black in color. Horns are very broad and grow downwards from
the sides of neck and then turn upwards. Their size is big and diet is more too.
Average weight is 450 kgs.

Murrah/ Delhi: - This breed has its origin in the state of Punjab. Colour – black
and grey. Their bodies are smaller than Jafarabadi buffalos.

Surati:-Origin is Kheda district in south Gujrat. They are smaller in size than
Murrah buffalos. The weight is 400 to 450 kgs. There are white stripes on the
backs of buffalos.

Pandharpuri: - This breed is found in Solapur, Nagar, and Kolhapur regions near
Pandharpur. Among all the breeds, the buffalos of this breed have the longest
horns. Colour-black (white on forehead and tail). This breed is called as Dharwadi
in Karnataka. They have less weight (average 350 kgs) and being sturdy, they can
withstand drought situation.

Nagpuri: - The buffalos of this breed are mainly found in the border area of
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The animals of this breed are smaller in size.
Colour is black. Horns are long, thick, and curved.

Mehsana: -The animals of this breed are found in Mehsana district in Gujrat and
adjoining areas. The colour is black and grey. White spot on the forehead. Tail
end has a white spot.

Benefits of artificial insemination: -

1. Many dairy farmers can benefit from the proven bull that has genes of good
milk production.
2. In natural breeding, one bull can impregnate 50 to 60 cows in a year. On the
other hand, using artificial insemination one bull can impregnate thousands
of cows.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 143

3. Every dairy farmer need not keep a bull. He can get rid of the expenses and
trouble of maintaining the bull.
4. The expenses for artificial insemination are very less as compared to the
expenses of maintaining a bull. This is particularly true for a dairy farmer
having a small number of cattle.
5. The reproductive diseases which are spread by natural breeding do not spread
via artificial insemination.
6. In natural breeding, it cannot be detected early if the semen of the bull is not
suitable for breeding. On the other hand, in artificial insemination, the semen
of the bull is tested first so there is no chance of using unsuitable bull.
7. In natural breeding, it is difficult to use big sized bulls for small cows. This
problem is eliminated in the artificial insemination.
8. Some bulls are not useful for natural insemination due to injury or some other
reasons. Such bulls can also be useful in artificial insemination.

Drawbacks of artificial insemination (limitations): -

1. For artificial insemination, a skillful and trained person is needed. Otherwise it
might result into injury to the animal and there will be less chances of
conception.
2. The instruments to be used for artificial insemination need to be clean and
sterilized. If it is neglected, it can lead to spreading of disease.
3. As bull is not needed for artificial insemination, sale of the pure breed bulls
can decrease significantly.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is artificial insemination?
2. Explain different methods of artificial insemination.
3. Explain efficiency of artificial insemination.
4. Explain speculum insemination method.
5. What are the benefits of the artificial insemination?
6. Write in detail about care to be taken while performing artificial insemination.
7. Explain limitations of the artificial insemination.
8. Write information about different breeds of cow.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:
· Demonstrate the knowledge of Interpreting results of soil testing
· Demonstrate the procedure for collecting soil sample for testing
· Interpret the results of soil test for fertilizer application
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 144

SESSION 5: PREPARE FODDER FOR ANIMALS

Though large quantity of milk is produced in India, average milk production per
animal is very less. The animals need to get balanced fodder regularly throughout
the year. But it is not possible due to irregular rains, lack of water and lack of
land needed for fodder. If there is less availability of green fodder during summer,
then milk production decreases even if the production capacity of the animals is
more. But keeping consistency in milk production is very important for dairy
farmers. For that, it is necessary to understand the process to prepare fodder. In
this chapter, we are going to understand, different animal fodder preparation
methods.

Objectives: -
· To understand the concept of animal fodder
· To study the methods to prepare animal fodder
· To study the effect of fodder on the animals

The animals need fodder for two reasons –

1) physical growth
2) Productivity or for ability to work.
All the fodder given to the animals may not be digested. As per the type of fodder
and its ingredients, its digestible contents differ.

Feed Management: - Animals need feed for the nourishment of body and for milk
production. The diet from which the nutrients needed for nourishment of body
and for milk production are provided in digestible form and which satisfies the
hunger is called as ‘nutritious diet’.
Generally, a cow/ buffalo producing 10 litres of milk (weight approximately 400
kgs) needs 6-8 kgs dry fodder, 25 kgs green fodder and 5-6 kgs concentrates. If
dry fodder and green fodder is converted into chaff, 25% feed is saved. Generally,
animals need dry fodder equal to 2 to 2.5 % of their weight. If dry fodder is not
available, they need green fodder equal to 4 to 6% of their weight. That means,
generally a fully-grown animal needs 8 to 10 kgs of dry fodder and 20 to 30 kg/s
of green fodder.

The feed and water required for animals

Animal Average weight Average feed Average water
category (kg) per day (kg) per day (litre)
Cow and buffalo 150 3 3 to 4
category 175 5 5 to 20
200 5 to 6 20 to 22
250 5 to 7 18 to 27
350 9 45 to 65
500 10 90 to 100

From the given chart, we can estimate how much feed and water should be given
to the animals. So accordingly, diet should be decided rationally.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 145

Methods of fodder preparation: -

What is Silage?

When the green fodder is stored in a closed environment without destroying its
nutrients, its sugar content is decomposed by the bacteria and lactic acid, acetic
acid is produced from it. These acids do not allow fungus or microorganisms of
that kind to grow in the stored fodder. So, the stored fodder is preserved with its
nutrient contents and green colour. It is called as silage. But for that fodder
needs to be stored in an anaerobic condition for at least one month. If air enters
the stored fodder, the fungus grows on it and it is decayed. The silage can be
made of mono- cotyledon fodder crops like corn, sorghum, pearl millet, oat, and
the grass on farm boundaries.

Preparing Silage: -
1. In cold weather, more energy is required to control the body temperature.
2. For fulfilling the energy demand, feed the cattle with high energy fodder and feed.
3. This need can be fulfilled by increasing quantity of animal feed by 0.5 to 1 kg per
animal, too.
4. In the beginning of winter, green fodder is abundantly available and then day by
day availability of green fodder decreases, we can convert the excess fodder into
silage & store it for future use.
5. Considering 15 kg silage for one animal, and the number of days for which the
fodder needs to be stored, plan to prepare silage.
6. To prepare silage, corn fodder in a flowering stage, should be cut to chaff and
pressed and kept in air tight condition.
7. The paddy, wheat straws, soybean and Bengal gram bran should be treated with
urea and jaggery to increase the nutritional value of this low-quality fodder. For
that, 100 kg fodder should be treated with 3 kg urea, 1 kg jaggery, 1 kg salt and
20 liter of water and should be kept in air tight condition for 21 days and then
used.
8. Sugarcane leaves are used as animal feed, which has high percentage of oxalate.
Oxalate cannot be digested by animals. When it is being thrown out of body, it
creates a compound called as ‘calcium oxalate’ and it also takes out calcium
along with it. To avoid it, one kg quick lime should be added to water and kept
overnight and the lime water created should be sprayed on the sugar cane leaves
and it should be fed to the cattle after 24 hours.
For preparing silage, buy a bag with 5 feet diameter and 4 feet height and a
plastic role and prepare silage in it. First tie one end of the plastic role firmly. Cut
a three-meter role and keep it in the bag. Add fodder chaff and some mineral
mixture to it and press it well. Tie the other end of plastic role again. Make it air
tight and seal the bag by stitching. The silage fulfils demand of fodder for next
four months.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 146

Azolla – food supplement-

Azolla is a type of fern. This is aquatic plant.

Azolla production: -
· The land is levelled and cleaned.
· Bricks should be lined horizontal way in a rectangular style.

Azolla
· A thin UV stabilized silpaulin sheet of 2m x 2m size is spread all over the bricks.
The sheet spread in such a way that it should cover the margin of the rectangle
which made by bricks
· 10-15 kg sieved soil is spread over the silpaulin pit
· 2 kg cow dung is made into slurry and 30 gm super phosphate is mixed in 10
liters of water, and poured on the sheet.
· About 0.5 to 1 kg pure azolla mother culture seeds, soil and water is mixed
uniformly and spread on the azolla.
· Water should be immediately spread on the azolla bed.
· Within a period of one week, azolla spreads on the bed everywhere and looks like
a thick mat.
· 20 gm super phosphate and approximately 1 kg of cow dung should be added
once in 5 days so that azolla grows fast and it can consistently give 500 gm yield
daily.
· Micronutrients mix which contains magnesium, iron, copper, and Sulphur etc.
should also be mixed once in a week. So that the mineral content of the azolla
increases.
· Once in every 30 days, approximately 5 kg soil from bed should be replaced with
fresh soil so that it acts as a solution for increase in nitrogen and micro nutrients
deficiency, too.
· After every 10 days, 25 to 30% water should also be replaced, so that it will keep
check on the increase in nitrogen on the beds.
· Bed should be kept clean. Water, soil should be replaced and new azolla should
be planted every six months.

Harvesting: -
· Azolla will grow fast and will spread all over the pit in 10-15 days. From that
time onwards, 500-600 gms of azolla can be harvested every day.
· From the 15th day, it can be harvested using a sieve or a tray. Washed azolla
with fresh water so that it will get rid of cow dung smell.
· Azolla is green algae. It has capacity to absorb nitrogen in the air and fix it.
So, it has 25-30% proteins, 10-15% salts and large quantity of vitamins.
· The beds should be in a tree shade. The bed length should be approximately 2
m, width should be 2 meter and depth should be 10-15 cm.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 147

Azolla Bed Preparation –

To drain the excess water from one of the corners of the bed, the height of this
corner should be kept 2 cm less than the other
sides. A waste plastic sheet should be spread at
the bottom of the bed. So, the roots of the trees in
the surrounding area will not enter the bed. Then
spread a good quality plastic sheet. In the created
bed, 10-15 kgs of sieved soil should be spread on
the plastic sheet evenly. Create a mixture of 3 kg
dung and 30 gm single super phosphate in 10
litres of water and pour into this bed from all the
four sides. Then pour water up to 10 cm height.
Mix this mixture lightly by hand and remove the floating garbage. Fig 19 - Azolla
Put 1 kg pure azolla in the bed water. Then sprinkle water on it. To prevent azolla
from flowing with the water, install a net in the corner from where the excess
water drains. If the bed is under the tree shade, put a plastic cover on the bed.
After 15 days, 400-500 gms/day azolla is produced. Azolla grows very fast. When
the bed fills completely, we get 1-1.5 kg/day azolla. Separate the azolla using a
sieve and wash it properly and if it is fed to the cattle by mixing it with cakes in
1:1 proportion, the milk production increases by 10-12% and the digestion
capacity of the cattle also increases. Azolla can be fed to cattle along with
concentrates and separately, too. 0.5 to 1 kg of azolla can be given to the cattle
with cakes.
On the first day, if azolla is removed from the bed no.1, it should be
removed on exactly the day no.4 from the same bed. Mix 1 kg dung and 20 gm
single super phosphate every week in this bed. It stimulates good growth of
azolla. Remove half of the water from the bed every 10 days and replace it with
the same quantity of fresh water. Remove 5 kg soil every 1.5 to 2 months, and
put it into the new bed. Every six months, clean the whole bed and mix new
azolla to it. Azolla can be given as animal feed to the cows, buffalos, pigs, and
hens. Take advice from veterinary doctor before using it as a complete animal
feed.
Hydroponic fodder: -
Use of low cost technique: - Installing racks for hydroponics fodder production.
Create shelves as needed. Use drip irrigation for watering. Use shade net for
keeping the rack in shade.

Production process: - For fodder creation, soak

corn in water for 24 hours every day. Then it is
covered in a gunny bag for 36 hours for
germination. This germinated corn is spread in
the trays. These trays are kept in the rack. This
tray has 6 to 7 small holes at the bottom. So that
the excess water in the tray will be drained.
Fig 20 - hydroponic fodder

This is how it is produced: - In a tray of 1 X 1.5 foot approximately 450 to 500

gms of germinated corn can be spread evenly. It gives approximately 5 kg
production in nine days. 2 kg germinated corn is spread in a big tray of 3 X 2 feet
size. We can get production up to 20 kgs from it. From total production, up to 30
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 148

kg fodder is available every day. For irrigation, old drip tube is used and foggers
are attached to it at the distance of 1.5 to 2 feet. Drip tube is attached to a spray
pump which operates on battery. If the pump is operated for maximum 4 to 5
minutes, all trays can be watered at the same time.

Uromeal:-Dietitians have created animal feed by using urea, molasses, and wheat
bran. It is called as uromeal. To make this- urea, molasses should be added to
water and it should be boiled to 100° Celsius in a pan and then it should be
mixed with wheat bran.

Lick – liquid feed: - Lick for animals can be created by using urea, molasses,
mineral salts, salt, and vitamins. Mix 2.5 kg urea, 1 kg and 2 kg minerals salts in
approximately 2.5 litres of water and create a solution. Mix this solution with a
thick solution of molasses or jaggery. And add 15 gm vitamin ‘A’ and ‘D’ to it. A
lick created using this method should be kept in the animals shed itself.

Fodder Processing: -Cattle need to be provided with dry fodder along with green
fodder. If it is not possible to provide sufficient green fodder to the cattle in
summer, it is useful to make chaff from the available dry fodder and process it, it
prevents wastage of the fodder and increases digestibility and quality.
In dairy farming/ animal husbandry business, most of the expenses are done for
animal feed. So, it is very important for the dairy farmers to decrease the
expenses on the fodder and feed. For that processing the low-quality fodder in low
cost and using it for feeding the animals is useful. It decreases the expenses on
animal feed and increases the profits of dairy farmer.

Benefits of processing the fodder: -

1. Usefulness of the fodder can be increased by 10 to 15%.
2. By making chaff of green fodder, green corn etc. the volume of the fodder
decreases. So, the fodder can be used properly. It avoids wastage of feed.
Makes the storage easy. The expenditure for that decreases.
3. Toxicity and unwanted ingredients of fodder can be decreased.
4. Fodder can be harvested at the right time and can be dried properly and
stored.
5. The expenditure on storage and transport can be decreased.
6. Shelf life / durability can increase.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What care should be taken while choosing fodder/ animal feed?
2. Explain necessity of the animal feed.
3. Write in detail about silage production.
4. Explain the benefits of fodder / animal feed.
5. Explain the concept of hydroponic fodder (animal feed).
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 149

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Maintain record and costing of fodder
· Describe different fodder making techniques.
· Describe Advantages of giving particular type of fodder to cattle.
· Select best fodder for animal in the surrounding.
· Carry out the procedure for preparing fodder.
MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 150
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 151

UNIT 4: PERSONAL HEALTH AND HYGIENE

SESSION 1: BALANCED DIET
Human body needs proper diet to grow and maintain itself. Have you ever
thought why do we consume food? We consume food to get energy. Our body
needs energy to perform its usual functions such as walking, speaking, thinking,
working etc. We need adequate amount of energy to perform every small day to
day activity and we get this energy from the food we consume.

Components of the chapter:

1. Balanced diet: definition and elements
2. Benefits of balanced diet
3. Deficiencies of balanced diet

1. Balanced diet: definition and elements

The diet, which provides all the necessary elements for the nutrition of body is
called balanced diet. The balanced diet includes the proper amount of all the
nutrients like carbohydrate, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water.

Classification of the components of balanced diet: We can classify the

elements of balanced diet into two components:
· Organic components:
These components contain carbon.
a) Carbohydrate
b) Fat (Lipids)
c) Protein
d) Vitamins
· Inorganic components
a) Water
b) Minerals

Elements of balanced diet: We will now discuss the elements of balanced diet in
detail.

1. Organic components:
a) Carbohydrate: Generally carbohydrates are found in plant sources.
Carbohydrates are the major and most important component of our diet. Foods
which is high in carbohydrate are rice, wheat flour, jowar, potato, sabudana, ragi,
green gram, Bengal gram, kidney beans, apricot, jiggery, honey, dry dates, etc. In
our food we use carbohydrate in maximum amount.
· Carbohydrates are found in the form of Sugar, Starch and Cellulose in fruits,
vegetables, grains and milk products.
· In green plants, carbohydrate is formed through the biochemical process of
photo synthesis.
· Carbohydrate is formed by the combination of carbon and oxygen.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 152

· In case of excess consumption of carbohydrate, the liver converts the extra

amount of carbohydrate into glycogen and stores it.
· Carbohydrates are the important source of energy for the body. 50% -75% of
body energy need is provided by carbohydrates.
· Through 1 gram of carbohydrate 4 kcal of energy is obtained.

B) Proteins: We get protein from plant as well as animal sources. Proteins

perform main role in muscle development. Proteins are building blocks of the
body.
· Proteins is made from amino-acid.
· Whatever protein we consume our body uses it to prepare different essential
biological compounds such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, hemoglobin
etc.
· Enzymes are protein which are necessary as a catalyst for different body
functions.
· Antibodies are also proteins which bind to foreign material like viruses and
bacteria that enters the body and help protect the body.
· Hormones are also proteins necessary to coordinate biological processes of the
body.
· Through 1 gram of protein 4 kcal of energy is obtained.

c). Fats: Like proteins and carbohydrates fats are also one of the nutrients used
as energy source by the body.
· Fats are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
· Fats make a thin smooth layer on the body organs.
· If fat is consumed in excess it brings obesity.
· Ong gram of Fats produces 9 calories

d). Vitamins: The term Vitamin is coined by ‘Funk’ in 1912. Vitamins are the
substances necessary for the growth & development of the body.
· Vitamins are found only in living organisms in the form of organic compounds.
· We need to take vitamins from outside the body. Our body needs 13 vitamins.

· Classification of
Vitamins
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 153

· Vitamins: Sources, functions and deficiency diseases:

Anemia

Fig 1 - Vitamin - Sources Function & deficiency diseases

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 154

· Vitamin B group: The B vitamin group is consist of total eight B vitamins.

They often work together in the body, each member of

Fig 2 -
· Vitamin B group plays unique, specific and important functions. The chart
below depicts the main functions, sources, deficiency diseases of B group
vitamins.

Fig 3 - Beriberi Fig 4 - Scurvy Fig 5 - Ricket

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 155

Fig 6 - Anemia

2) Inorganic Elements:
a) Minerals: Minerals are important component of dietary nutrition. Minerals are
used to control metabolic processes in the body.
· Minerals have an important role in body metabolism.
· We require minerals as an essential nutrient to perform functions necessary
for life.
Water: - Water is the most important component of the human diet. Water plays
an important role in all the metabolic & physiological processes of the body. In
human being 70% of body mass is water.

· Common minerals, their sources and the diseases which occur due to
mineral deficiency:

Fig 7
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 156

Ø Importance of balanced diet:

1. A balanced diet is important for healthy body.
2. Without good nutrition, our body is more suitable to disease & infection which
results in poor body performance.
3. In present days our lives have become more dependent on junk foods such as
burger, pizza, cold drinks, packaged food items etc. Body have difficulty in
digesting them. Regular consumption of these food items results in obesity,
heart diseases, and diabeties. To avoid these health problems balanced diet &
exercise is necessary.
4. Balanced diet is important for controlling the metabolism and balance of all the
activities in the body.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1. ------------------ is necessary to keep skin and eyes healthy.
2. Through 1 gram of protein ----------------------- k cal of energy is obtained.

3. Hormones are a type of ------------------------------.

Subjective Questions
1. What are the main components of balanced diet?
2. What are the main functions of carbohydrate in our body?
3. What are the results of iodine deficiency?
4. What is the meaning of healthy body?
5. List the components which affects our health?
6. To avoid anemia what we should add in our diet?
7. What are the adverse effects of vitamin deficiency? Please give three examples
and explain.

Match the Column

1. Vitamin D a. Milk, Meat
2. Calcium b. Sun Light
3. Iodine c. Amla
4. Vitamin K d. Salt

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:
· Describe the importance of balanced diet in health and wellness
· Identify the symptoms of nutrient deficiencies
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 157

SESSION 2: PERSONAL HEALTH & HYGIENE AND

COMMUNITY HEALTH & MENTAL
HEALTH
Cleanliness and hygiene is the key to good health and it has a main role in
prevention of diseases. For good health proper diet, dental hygiene, everyday
bath, regular exercise, proper diet all are very important. In chapter 2 we will
study about personal health and hygiene as well as community health and
mental health in detail.
Have you ever felt that when we do not get the proper sleep, then the next day
our body becomes dull and uncomfortable? If we do not eat food one day or eat
too much, how our body feels and reacts? How our body reacts if we do not
exercise or exercise too much? We will study and discuss about the answer to
these questions in the present chapter.
Our actions have a direct impact on our body and its health. Therefore, we
should discipline our body with good eating habits.

Purpose of this Chapter:

1. Understanding the importance of clean and hygienic environment
2. Understanding the factors which affect good health
3. Importance of exercise

For being healthy we should keep away from following things:

1. Smoking
2. Drinking alcohol
3. Addiction of any type
Personal health &mental health are related to each other which also affects
community health. Good health can be achieved by adopting healthy lifestyle and
good personal hygiene. If a person is healthy he can keep and motivate his family
members and the community to adopt healthy lifestyle and be healthy.

Signs of good health:

Parts of body/body Signs of good health
condition
Weight According to age and height
Body Energetic
Lips No cracks, pink
Hair Shiny, clean
Skin Soft, healthy, healthy glow
Urine Light colored,
wounds Heal quickly
Mental health Concentration, no irritability, peace, alertness

Hunger, food Feels proper hunger, clear bowels, no

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 158

constipation
Sleep Peaceful and sound sleep
Legs No swelling
Tongue Pink, no patches
Eyes Shiny, bit watery
Teeth and gums Clean, no blood

Factors affecting health:

· Smoking,
· Alcohol,
· Poor diet leading to obesity or malnutrition,
· Physical exercise
· Proper rest
· Mental health-stress

Maintaining good personal hygiene consists of bathing, washing hands, brushing

teeth and wearing clean cloths.
1. Brushing two times daily is imperative to keep the teeth and gums healthy
and free of diseases. It is necessary to scrub the tongue when brushing.
2. A daily bathing habit helps in keeping body clean, fresh and odor free.
3. Cleaning & Trimming your nails regularly
4. Washing hands: We should
wash our hands before eating
food, also wash your hands
after going to the bathroom
and after coughing, and after
handling garbage. Hygiene
products, like an alcohol-based
soaps or sanitizing gels should
be used frequently.
5. Healthy hair: Washing your
hair regularly is important for
healthy hair.

Fig 8 - Hand washing step

6. Healthy ear: We should regularly clean our ears. Wax has a useful role to play
in the ear, it lubricates and protects the ear. Avoid hairpin or other harmful
tools for ear cleaning.
7. Healthy eyes: We should regularly wash our eyes with clean water. It’s
important to check your eyes regularly. Avoid rubbing your eyes, washing face
and eyes frequently. You’re your eyes with cold water. Try to clean your eyes
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 159

when taking a bath. Common eye infections such as viral conjunctivitis (pink
eye) can be avoided with proper hand washing.
8. Take sufficient and quality sleep.

Importance of Exercise:
The regular exercise is important in our daily lives. The regular exercise helps
people to reduce their risk of developing several diseases such as heart, obesity,
cancer, dementia, stroke, diabetes, arthritis, and Alzheimer’s etc. We should
incorporate exercise into daily schedule.

Benefits of regular exercise:

· Maintain healthy body weight
· Reduced risk of heart disease, cancer, high blood pressure and diabetes etc.
· Reduced symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression
· Strengthens immune system

· Exercise keep bones, joints and muscles healthy.

We should not exercise immediately after consuming food (our stomach should
not be full).
Personal Health

Healthy
being

Community
Mental Health
Health

Community Health:
Personal health and community health are inter related. For healthy society, it is
important that people also maintains their health properly. Taking care of
personal health along with the surrounding community can be called ass
Community health. Community hygiene and cleanliness is imperative for
individual as well as community health. There are few things which we should do
to maintain personal and community health:
· We should always throw garbage in the dustbin and not anywhere else.
· Wet and dry waste should properly be segregated and then it should be
disposed in separate dustbins.
· Sewage water gutter should never be kept open and dirty water should never
be thrown on roads.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 160

· Rivers should be kept clan and garbage should never be thrown in rivers. Also,
washing of dirty clothes, taking bath and bathing animals in river should not
be allowed. These practices pollutes the river and makes it non-usable.
· Open defecation practices should be stopped.

Some other factors that influence health:

1. Peer influence: our life is to a large degree influenced by social factors around
us like the community and institutions like family and school. If the peers
have a positive approach on the issue of health, we also tend to have positive
outlook and it reflects in our habits and vice versa. For example, if one of our
friend having a habit of eating junk food regularly, we are also likely to be little
like him or her. In promoting healthy or unhealthy eating habits role of peers
is an important factor.
2. Effect of Monetary factors on health: Financial condition can have major
effects on anybody’s health. Sometime financial problems can affect a person's
health. People who are financially well can get their treatment from good
hospitals but poor people cannot are not able to afford the expensive
treatment sometimes.

Mental Health: - Our mental health decides our physical health. Our emotions,
feelings, thoughts create a huge impact on our health. Mental health is a state of
mind in which person realizes his inner strengths, he can handle normal stresses
of life & work productively for the wellbeing of society.
Mental health is closely associated with our feelings, our thoughts, our actions&
how we relate to our surroundings.

Some of the behaviors or signs of a mental problem:

· Changed sleeping habits. Either sleeping too much or too little.
· Avoiding public meetings
· Prolonged frustration
· Regular head each, irritations without reasons
· Feeling of loneliness, sadness
· Confused, worried, scared
· Always fighting with others
· Severe mood swings
· Violent actions to harm yourself or others
Chart below depicts the impact of mental health condition on our life

Mental instability/ illness Normal mental state

Dullness, improper sleep, improper appetite Being energetic, feeling happy, proper
sleep
No enthusiasm Enthusiastic and eager to learn new
things
Tiredness, fearfulness Mental peace, stability
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 161

Lack of confidence, do not want to take Full of confidence

responsibility
Poor concentration Proper concentration
Memory loss
No patience patience

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions

1. Explain any three factors which effect personal health?

2. Why doing regular exercise is important for health?
3. Why is it necessary to keep our surrounding clean? How should we do that?
4. How is mental health related to physical health?
5. What are the personal traits of good health?
6. Is it necessary to take care of eyes for its good health? How?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Prepare a personal hygiene plan
· Describe the advantages of being healthy (mental, physical and social
wellness
· Identify the personal health behaviours and factors affecting personal
health
· Describe the importance of a healthy and safe environment.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 162

SESSION 3: COMMUNICABLE & NON-

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES,
VACCINATION, DEHYDRATION AND
EMERGENCY FIRST AID
Disease is the condition of obstructing important biological functions in the body
due to physiological obstructions or mental disorders.
A disease is an unhealthy state when your body shows unusual symptoms. There
are different types of diseases. In this chapter we will study about different
diseases, their causal factors, their symptoms and remedies to avoid them.

Purpose and importance of this chapter

1. Study different types of human diseases
2. Study about different measures to prevent the diseases
3. Vaccination and its importance
4. To understand the reasons, symptoms and treatment of dehydration

Before proceeding with this chapter further, we need to understand the

meaning of some of the terms which are described below:

1.Healthy state - It can be determined by the measurement criteria; For example,

natural temperature of the body, rotation of the pulse of every minute and the
frequency of breathlessness, blood pressure, weight, height etc. These criteria
and their dimensions are statistical (statistical) dimensions determined by many
individuals' observations. These parameters are changing according to age,
gender, geographical area, climate, occupation of business etc.

2. State of health: There are certain parameters through which the doctors
measures the condition of health for anyone. Some of these parameters are
natural body temperature, pulse rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, weight,
height, etc. All these criteria and their dimension (reading) are not rigid and it
changes according to person's age, sex, geographic area, environment, profession
etc. Therefore these are calculated by the experts, keeping in mind above
mentioned factors.

3. Diseases: Disease is a condition of the living (animal or plant) being where

one/several of its parts. There are some diseases which manifests its symptoms
very soon and some diseases keep spreading inside the body and their symptoms
are manifested after several years such as diabetes, low or high blood pressure,
early stage cancer etc. Some inactive genetic diseases rests inside the body for
lifelong and sometimes they manifests themselves in next generation.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 163

Reasons and signs of diseases:

Improper/ Imbalanced
diet

Weight Loss
Not feeling Reduced
hungry Immunity
Reduced

Diseases

Diseases are caused by several factors such as place, environment,

socioeconomic status, habits (such as smoking and drinking alcohol), family
history, age, sex etc. There are certain occupations people working for are more
prone to certain diseases e.g. diseases related to chemicals in chemical industry.
Person’s diet, nature, the individual hygiene, community hygiene are the factors
affecting the health status.

Ø Some of the reasons of diseases:

· Improper/ imbalanced diet
· Change in environment/ irregularity in atmosphere
· Mechanical factors: accident, fall, injury
· Improper functioning of body organs
· Pollution
· Mental illness/imbalance

Ø Infection through food

Consuming contaminated foods, water or beverages results in food born
diseases. Some of the reasons of infection are:
1. Food: consumption of open and contaminated food
2. Hand and nails: Dirty hands and unclean nails
3. Contact with faces, Urine: Consumption of food/water contaminated with
faces/urine. Not properly cleaning hands after defecation/ urination
4. Harmful creatures: Infection through insects/rodents/other creatures such
as cockroaches, rats, spiders etc.
5. Infected utensils/ equipment/things: Infection through dirty utensils, towels,
handles, kitchen equipment (mixer, juicer, toaster etc.), taps, doors etc.

Ø Reasons of food infection: - Food is infected by pathogenic bacteria,

parasites, viruses that contaminate food through contact with dirty hands,
contact with faces/urine, dust etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 164

Ø Classification of diseases
There are several types of diseases. A disease can be categorized as one type
or another depending on certain factors involved in its development.
Diseases contracted through air (Airborne):
These are the diseases transmitted through the air.
Diseases contracted through food (Foodborne)
Spread through consumption of contaminated food.
Diseases related to Lifestyle
These are the diseases which are generated through behavioral choices e.g.
sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy foods, alcohol consumption, too much fat
consumption etc.
Generally we classify the diseases in two major types: communicable and
non-communicable diseases.
1. Infectious diseases or communicable diseases:
Communicable diseases are infectious. Infectious diseases contaminate from one
person to person.
2. Non-communicable:-
These are non-infectious diseases. Some of the examples are heart disease and
cancer.
1. Communicable diseases or infectious diseases: Some Disease causing
micro-organisms like bacteria, virus, and parasite are responsible for
infectious diseases. These diseases can be spread from person to person
directly or indirectly. We will study about infectious diseases caused by
bacteria and viruses in detail.
Diseases caused by Bacteria:
Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that generally affects the
lungs. TB is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The
TB causative bacteria is airborne, which can spread through the air.
Symptoms:
· Cough for more than 3 weeks
· Fever
· Weight loss
· Night sweats
· Weakness
TB prevention and treatment
· Prevention is necessary to control the spread of the bacteria. BCG vaccine is
used to prevent the disease.
· Education awareness about TB not only to people who already have the
disease but also to general public.
· Respiratory hygiene – To prevent the spread of disease it is necessary to cover
the nose & mouth while coughing or sneezing
· Avoid roadside spitting.
· DOTS: - DOTS or Directly Observed Treatment short course is the
internationally accepted treatment for TB control. From 1997 the DOTS
program is implementing in India. In DOTs treatment patient is under direct
observation of health professional.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 165

Typhoid: - Typhoid is a disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi. These

bacteria’s spread through direct contamination with the feces of affected person.
Highest chances of contamination is through water & food.

Symptoms of typhoid
· Fever and rash.
· Slowly increasing fever
· Body weakness,
· abdominal pain,
· constipation,
· headaches
· Sometimes diarrhea, and vomiting.

Prevention and treatment:

· Drink purified clean water.
· Avoid street food
· Typhoid vaccine-it provides protection from typhoid up to three years.
· Wash your hands before eating or preparing food and also after using the
toilet.
Diseases caused by Viruses:
a) Hepatitis:
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver.
Majorly there are 5 hepatitis viruses- A, B, C, D and E. Hepatitis A, B and C are
infectious. Hepatitis is the most prevalent and serious psychiatric disease in
India. Hepatitis A and E are caused by contaminated food or water. Types B and
C are the most common cause of liver cirrhosis and cancer.

Symptoms:
· jaundice (yellowing of the skin, eyes),
· dark urine,
· extreme fatigue,
· Nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain.

Prevention and treatment:

· We can prevent Hepatitis A and B through vaccination but there is no vaccine
available for hepatitis C and E.
· It is very necessary to clean hands after using toilet to prevent hepatitis from
spreading.
· Test of hepatitis B and C is necessary before donating or receiving blood.

b) Rabies:
It is a viral disease in mammals and Rabies is transmitted through the bite of
domestic animals such as dog, cat, and wild animals like foxes, skunks,
raccoons, monkeys, cattle's and bats etc.
The rabies virus affects the central nervous system.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 166

Symptoms:
· Often symptoms increase after 10 days of infection. There are two stages of
growth of symptoms. Headache, fever, appetite, irritability or pain on the
wound. After 2 to 10 days, signs of harm to the nervous system are visible.
· Loss of vision and paralysis, hyper salivation, sudden abnormalities of throat
swallowing, water disruption and obstruction of swelling. A sudden death can
be caused by a stroke or heart attack.

Prevention and treatment:

· Medical help should get immediately.
· Vaccination of pets.
· One of the most important preventive measures is to clean the wound with
soap and water.

c) Polio: You may feel sorry for the disabled, crooked children. Have you ever
noticed their status? Do they have a disability? The answer is 'no'. Do they have a
disability from birth? The answer is 'no'. The disease that has permanently
disabled them is Polio. It is a disease caused by virus which attacks nervous
system. This virus is highly contagious. Children younger than 5years are highly
susceptible to polio virus infection.

Symptoms
· Most of the time there are no visible symptoms.
· Very few times it shows flu-like symptoms (Sore throat, Fever, Tiredness,
Nausea, Headache, Stomach pain).
· Paralysis can lead to permanent disability

Prevention and treatment

· Children should get vaccinated as per the vaccination schedule.

Pulse polio:
· Pulse Polio is an initiative taken by government for elimination of polio virus
by vaccinating the children under the age of five.
· India is a polio free country.
· This program provides polio safety not only to the immunized child but also to
the community in the surrounding.

d). AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome):

HIV is human immune deficiency virus. HIV is causative organism of aids. Once
infected, human body cannot throw out the virus even with treatment. So once
someone gets infected with HIV they carry this virus forever life.
Acquired: To get something from someone else.
Immunodeficiency –Low immune response from body
Syndrome: Body shows symptoms of many diseases at a time.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 167

Symptoms of HIV infection -

Many people don’t show any symptoms for
several months of infection. Some people
shows following symptoms after 2-6 weeks
of infection-
· fever
· chills
· joint pain
· muscle aches
· sore throat
· sweats
· a red rash
· tiredness
· weakness
· weight loss
Fig 9 - HIV virus
Infection from HIV:
· Unsafe sex with an infected person.
• Infected blood transfusion.
• People who use drugs often use each other's needles. This causes HIV to be
transmitted from one person to another.
• HIV can be transmitted to the baby from the infected mother.

Prevention and treatment:

· Health education
· ELISA test is the only reliable test for the detection of HIV/AIDS.
· Avoid using common toothbrush.
· HIV test before blood donations
· Avoid unprotected sex.
· Proper disposal of needles & syringes after use, do not use it again.

2. Non-communicable Diseases:
Diseases which are noninfectious are called as non-communicable diseases.
Cannot spread from one person to other person.

1. Cancer: This is the condition in which cells of body grows abnormally.

Uncontrolled growth of body cells develops tumor.
Tumors are of two types:

Cell division uncontrolled growth Healthy cells

Fig 10 - Cell division
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 168

1. Benign Tumor: If the tumor is not spreading any other part of the body then
it is benign.
2. Malignant tumor: If the tumor is spreading to any other part of the body then
it is Malignant.
3. Carcinogens are substances that are responsible for promoting or generating
cancer. Tobacco, arsenic, radiation of gamma & X ray, asbestos, etc. are some
examples of carcinogens.

Signs and Symptoms:

· Tumors or lumps in any part of the body.
· Appearance of white patches inside the mouth
· change in bowel or bladder function,
· unusual bleeding
· persistent cough

Diagnosis and treatment:

· Stage and type of Cancer is also determined by biopsy test result.
· Treatments may include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

4. Diabetes: -
Diabetes is a disease in which person suffers blood glucose fluctuations.
It is a metabolism disorder. In the process of metabolism food consumed by us
get converted in to glucose. Our body uses this glucose as a source of energy.
Pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin regulates the blood glucose
level.
Diabetic patient shows high level of blood glucose because of improper
functioning of insulin. In diabetic condition body either produce insufficient
amount of insulin or there is complete lack of insulin. This results in too high
level of blood glucose. Body releases extra sugar through urine which results in
lack of important energy requirements in body.

Symptoms:
· frequent urination,
· Intense thirst and hunger,
· weight gain, unusual weight loss,
· Dizziness
· Difficulty in healing wounds,
· Tingling in hands and feet.

Reasons of diabetes:
Causes of diabetes:
• Bad diet and lifestyle habits like consumption of high-sugar foods
• Intake of sweetened tea, milk, etc.
• Cold drinks and other soft drinks
• Overweight/obesity
• Physical inactivity
• Smoking and Tobacco consumption
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 169

• Heredity
• Stress

Treatment:
• Dietary changes- minimize consumption of sugar.
• Increased intake of wheat flour and green vegetables
• Reduce the intake of ghee, oil and fried foods
• Small meals at regular interval
• Avoiding high carbohydrate fruits
• Avoid stress

Measures to keep diabetes in control:

• Take medicine regularly
• Checking blood sugar level periodically
• Regular yoga and exercise
• Consumption of bitter gourd juice

Other diseases that come with diabetes:

Visual impairments, high blood pressure, heart disease, Paralysis, mental illness,
blindness, and cataract.

Immunity and Personal Health

The health & hygiene of a person is the foundation of social and public
cleanliness. Where public cleanliness is not maintained, micro-organisms are
easily reaped. The person should adopt the following measures for his personal
health and public health.
1. Balanced and Nutritious Diet-
We should adopt a diet that is nutritious and balanced and protein rich. This will
strengthen our immune system.
2. Regular Exercise-
Regular yoga and exercise keeps our body healthy and increases immune power.
3. Personal Hygiene-
Personal hygiene practices like regular cleaning of teeth, bathing, washing hands
before eating, cover mouth with napkin while sneezing or coughing are important
to prevent spread of diseases. The use of tobacco, alcohol, cigarettes, etc. is very
harmful from the perspective of personal and social health.
Uncovered food or fast food etc. should not be consumed. Get adequate sleep and
drink plenty of water. If a disease strikes, it should be treated at an early stage,
so that the disease does not spread.

Importance of Vaccination -
Vaccination is an important preventive action against infectious diseases which
creates resistance to disease causing organism. In this process, attenuated
(weakened) viruses are transferred into a person’s/child body through vaccine.
Vaccines stimulate the immune system of the body. Considering the fact that
many diseases like Influenza, small pox, hepatitis, swine flu, etc. can be
prevented with just a few shots and drops of vaccines, Government has been
providing many vaccines absolutely free of cost in government hospitals.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 170

Many diseases have been eliminated from the world because of proper and
effective vaccination programs. Edward Jenner, first discovered the vaccine in the
year 1796. This vaccine was small pox.

Vaccination is important for the following reasons -

· Prevention of bacteria/viruses that cause diseases.
· Bacteria/virus that cause diseases, they are eliminated from continuous
immunization. Thus, the spreading of disease stops altogether. For example:
Polio.
· Vaccination increases the strength of immune system and thereby helps to
avoid many diseases.
· Along with regular healthy diet, exercise, regular health check-up, vaccination
is also very important to keep the body safe from diseases and to fight
diseases.
· In the absence of immunization, especially children and elderly are easily
preyed by many deadly diseases.
· Immunization provides protection against serious diseases like swine flu,
hepatitis, plague, etc.

Dehydration
Dehydration is excessive loss of water from your body. It is very important to
maintain the level of water in the body. Dehydration affects health. Dehydration
of severe forms can be life threatening.

Causes:
• Diarrhea, vomiting, Fever
• Excessive sweating- While sweating you lose water.
• Excessive bleeding due to accident result in shortage of water in the body and
can cause dehydration.
• High dosage of tablets

Symptoms:
• Nervousness
• Dry mouth and tongue
• Extreme thirst
• Fatigue
• Dizziness
• Confusion
• Weakness
• Headache
• Muscle cramps
• Very dry skin
• Fainting Fig 11 - ORS formula
• Thirst, and irritability, headache
• Excessive loss of water can also results in death &hypovolemic shock (loss of
blood volume).
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 171

Treatment:
• Drink adequate amount of water
• Avoid intake of tea, coffee, milk or fruit juice
• Drink fluids that contain electrolytes
• If your dehydration is serious, you may need to see a doctor

Drinking ORS Oral Rehydration Solution will help you to re-establish the
balance of body fluids. The solution of sugar and salt is also helpful.

Method to prepare rehydration solution at home:

1 glass boiled water + ½ spoon of salt + 1 spoon of sugar

First Aid

When a person is injured or suddenly becomes ill, there is a time to give pre-
treatment. First aid is the first treatment for any injury, accidents, and illness.
Collection of medical equipments, medicines which are necessary for giving
medical treatment is called as a first aid kit.

Some things to keep in mind:

Stay calm and give emotional support to the patient
Do not give any drink to unconscious patients. Drinks can cause the airway to
block. Do not wake the unconscious person by shaking him.

First Aid Kit

Make sure you have the first aid material in your home. Keep some simple
medicines in it.
Keep primary aids and medicines away from children. Keep a list of prescription
medicines and their use
A First Aid Kit should have the following contents:
• 2-3 Band-Aids of different size
• Plastic non-latex gloves
(at least 2 pairs)
• Tweezers
• Sharp scissors
• Safety pins
• Bandages of gauze or cloth
• Soap
• Thermometer
• Petroleum jelly
• Aloe Vera gel
• Glucose powder
• Syringe Fig 12 - First Aid Kit
• Cotton
• ORS (Oral Rehydration Salt)
• Small torch
• Antibiotic ointment
• Antiseptic solution
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 172

Essential medications for first aid:

• Painkillers like Aspirin
• Antihistamine cream for bee sting or insect bite
• Anti-diarrhea medication
• Antacid for stomach ache
• Antiseptic cream like Soframycin to apply on wounds
• Calpol, avomine, paracetamol, aspirin, crocin
We need to store all the material in a clean, durable and water-proof box. If any
medicine in the box gets expired, it should be changed immediately.

Essential techniques for first aid:

1. Snake Bite
Giving first aid treatment within 10 minutes of the poisonous snake bite can save
the person. About 15 cm from the bite, tie up a cloth well so that the poison does
not rise above. On the advice of a trained doctor, the anti-venom serum injection
should be given.
2. Scorpion Sting
Pain of Scorpion stings persist for several hour’s results in local redness and
numbness. Wash the injured site and apply potassium permanganate. Give pain
killers such as paracetamol. Alum dissolved in water can also be applied on the
affected area. Seek medical help.
3. Wound
You can stop bleeding by applying slight pressure on the wound with a clean
cloth or tissue.
4. Bone Fracture
Apply ice packs to the injured area to control swelling and pain. Call for medical
help.
5. Electric shock and Heart attack
Check for a person’s breathing pace. If necessary provide artificial respiration. It
should be done only by a trained person. Call for medical help.
6. Ingestion of toxic substance
Induce vomiting (give salty water or putting a finger in the throat). Administering
atropine injection in case of insecticide.
7. Diarrhea or Heatstroke
Giving ORS.Administering saline.
8. High fever
Keep wet napkin on the forehead.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. Explain the use of first aid kit in emergency
2. Differentiate between communicable &non-communicable diseases
3. Explain proper treatment step wise for diarrhea
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 173

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Identify and practice ways to prevent disease and health problems.
· Describe how families and peers can influence the health of adolescents
· Describe Importance of vaccination & essential vaccines for a child.
· Demonstrate the knowledge of identifying causes and treating dehydration
· Demonstrate the knowledge of identifying causes and treating dehydration
· Prepare Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS) Solution
· Learn to use first aid kits in emergency.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 174

SESSION 4: BLOOD & BLOOD GROUP-BASIC AND

MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE & BLOOD
HEMOGLOBIN

Role of Blood is important in proper functioning of body mechanism. It carries

nutrient & oxygen to the body cells & transports waste material away from the
cell.
Blood is circulated through blood vessels called arteries &vein. Arteries carry
oxygenated blood while veins carry deoxygenated blood. The heart sends
deoxygenated blood carried from veins to the lungs & lungs pump the oxygenated
blood to the heart.
In this chapter you will read about the basic components of blood, blood
pressure, measurement of blood pressure, hemoglobin in the blood, blood group
and methods of blood group testing.

Objective –
1. To study the identification of blood group.
2. To study the importance of hemoglobin.
3. The importance of blood pressure and the method of measuring blood
pressure.
4. To study the method of measuring hemoglobin.

Method of testing of blood group – (Students need to observe the practical-

Demonstration should be given by teacher only)
Blood cannot be artificially prepared. Blood of all individuals is red in color, but
everyone has the different blood group. Knowing about your blood group is very
important. Earlier, only photographs, names etc. were required for identity card,
but now with these things, our blood group is also written on the identity card.
Someone's blood group can never be changed. It is extremely important to know
your blood group in the event of casualty, surgical procedures and emergencies.

Pre-preparation to check blood group –

1. Lancet
2. Table, chair
3. Keep the contents of blood test ready- (blood
group kit, lancet, glass slide, spirit, cotton)

Components of blood –
Blood is a biological fluid, its main components
are -
1. Red blood cell (erythrocytes)
2. White blood cell (leukocytes)
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
Fig 13 - Type of Blood cells
Blood contains the following substances:
1. Plasma which contains 90% of the water, through which transport of organic
and non-organic materials takes place
2. Soluble substances - proteins, nutrients, hormones, enzymes, waste materials
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 175

3. Blood cells - red blood cells, white blood cells, thrombocytes

4. Protein - Serum Albumin, Serum Globulin, Fibrinogen
5. Nutrients - Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, salt
6. Hormones and enzymes.
7. Waste materials- urea, Co2.

Types of Blood Particles -

A) Red blood corpuscles (RBC)
• Oval, biconcave shape, diameter - 7.2 μm
• Red blood cells are red due to hemoglobin.
• Hemoglobin consist of iron and globin (a type of protein).
• It is the carrier of oxygen to the cells.
• There is no nucleus in the RBC cell, hence there is no division of RBC cell.
• A normal RBC count for adult human being is 5 and 4.5 million RBCs per
cubic millimeter of blood.
• RBCs are produced by bone marrow.

B) White blood corpuscles (WBC)

• Irregular shape – WBC can change its shape..
• WBC size is larger than RBC diameter 10 micron |
• There are nucleus in these cells, so they are capable of dividing.
• Ratio - for 1 cu mm (1 mm3) around 8 thousand in blood.
• Formation - bone marrow, spleen
• Function - destroying pathogenic microorganisms inside the body.
• WBCs are also called "soldiers of the body"

C) Thrombocytes (Platelets)
• Diameter - About 3 microns, flattened and colorless
• Quantity - about 2 to 3 million in one cubic meter blood
• Work - Supporting blood fractures platelets
• Platelets work with proteins of blood fluids to help in the blood cloting at the
place of the wound.

Blood group examination - Students need to observe the practical-

Demonstration should be given by teacher only)
To check the blood group, Place (Anti-A, Anti B and Anti-D) all three elements on
the table and then blood drops on the glass slide.

Antigen -
Anti means anti-reaction and Gen means, to build. Antigen is a protein which
helps the production of antibodies in the body. Each individual have specific
antigen on their blood cell. Body produces antibodies against the antigen which is
not similar to blood antigen.
A body creates a new substance to destroy the unknown antigen in the blood,
called an antibody.

• ‘A’ antigen is found on the RBC of a person with ‘A’ blood group and B
antibody in their plasma.
• ‘B’ antigen is found on the RBC of a person with ‘B’ blood group and ‘A’
antibody in their plasma.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 176

• Person with AB blood group have both A & B antigens on their RBC , thus
Person with AB blood group does not have any antibodies in their blood
plasma.
• The person with blood group O does not have any antigens on the RBC ,
therefore in their plasma both A and B antibodies are found.

Blood group - Blood groups are A, B, AB or O type. And each blood group is
either RH positive or RH negative. The blood group is told by combining these two
types such as A + ve, B + ve, AB -ve, O + ve etc.

What does the Rh factor mean?

Rh factor is a protein/ antigen present on the surface of RBC, which is called as
antigen ‘D’. It was discovered in the blood of Rhesus monkeys. A person having
this antigen ‘D’ (also called Rh factor) are called Rh positive (Rh+). Others who do
not have antigen D are known as Rh negative (Rh-).
Rh negative person form antibodies against Rh factor if he receives the blood with
Rh factor and destroys the donor's blood cells. This process causes the
transfusion reaction. That is why Rh negative person cannot receive the blood of
an Rh positive person.

Blood Donation and Useful Information -

The entire blood or its components are offered to a patient in accordance with
their needs. Thus the blood donated by a donor can be used for different patients
by separating their components. In the human body, all red blood cells, 60-70%
white blood cells and all platelets are formed in the Bone marrow.
White blood cells form antibodies against the harmful external elements for the
body, therefore white blood cells are vital for the body's immunity. The important
function of platelets is to make blood clots and prevent bleeding.
Therefore, RBC, WABC& platelets are offered in the body according to the needs
of the patient.

How the blood flowing through our wounds coagulates? -

The blood platelets release thromboplastin which plays as important role in
clotting of blood results in healing of wounds.

The donor and receptor's blood group compatibilities are given below:

Donor Blood Blood Type of

Group Recipient
O A B AB
O ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
A ✔ ✔
B ✔ ✔
AB ✔

Universal Donor (Blood Group) -

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 177

Person with 'O' blood group can donate his blood be to any other blood group.
The person with 'O' blood group is the universal donor.
Universal Accepter (Blood group) -
Person with AB blood group can take blood from any blood group. Hence this
group is called universal accepter blood group.

The following table shows the potential of the blood group of the child
according to the blood group of the parents:

Parent’s Blood Types Possible Children

A×A A, O
A×B A, B, AB, O
A×AB A, B, AB
A×O A, O
B×B B, O
B×AB A, B, AB
B×O B, O
O×O O
O×AB A, B
AB×AB A, B, AB

Blood Group Testing - Students need to observe the practical-

Demonstration should be given by teacher only)
Purpose - Understanding the various blood groups practically by doing a blood
group test.

Expected Skills - Determining the blood group of the sample blood

Materials and Chemicals - Lancet, cotton, 2-3 glass slides, microscope, spirit.
Method -
1. Apply the spirit on the finger of the person whose blood group is to be found.
Then draw the blood with the help of lancet and put the blood on a clean glass
slide.
2. Put a 3 drops of blood on the glass slide.
Insert one drop of Antiserum A, Antiserum B and Antiserum D each on
different drops.
3. Now you will combine blood drops with these anti drops. To make the mix, use
three different clean glass slides.

Observation and estimation -

The place where blood clots are prepared on the glass slide can be seen well by
the microscope and determine the blood group with the help of the following
table:

If your blood cells stick together when mixed with:

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 178

• If your blood cells coagulate when mixed with Anti-A serum, you have type A
blood
• If your blood cells coagulate when mixed with Anti-B serum, you have type B
blood
• If your blood cells coagulate when mixed with Both anti-A and anti-B serums,
you have type AB blood
• If your blood cells do not coagulate when anti-A and anti-B are added, you
have type O blood.

Human beings have a closed circulatory system. Closed circulatory systems have
the blood closed inside the arteries, capillaries and veins. Blood pressure of the
human body is a scientific process and is linked to the life style of every person.
We can keep the blood pressure in control through balanced diet, exercise and
healthy lifestyle. Our blood pressure increases on every beating of the heart and
decreases between the two beats of the heart.

The method of measurement of blood pressure -

Blood pressure should be properly measured in our body. Modern instruments
are available for measuring blood pressure, and nowadays blood pressure is also
measured through the digital device.
BP is measuring instrument is called as Sphygmomanometer.
3 types of blood pressure measurement devices are used -
• Traditional blood pressure measurement equipment with mercury (simple
mercury sphygmomanometer)
• Aneroid sphygmomanometer (without mercury and Air)
• Digital Sphygmomanometers- These devices show a direct computation of blood
pressure.

Method of measuring blood pressure using a blood pressure measuring

instrument –
Essential Equipment:
Blood pressure measurement device, Stethoscope, Soap for hand wash
· Wrap the cuff around the upper arm. Wrist watch should be removed.
· The patient should be seated by resting the arm on a pillow. Cuff’s lower edge
2-3 inch above the lower arm.
· A stethoscope is placed below the cuff, with the help of a stethoscope identify
the main artery of the arm. Lightly press the stethoscope’s bell.
· Increased air into the cuff increases the pressure around the arm.
· Observers the pulse sounds till the blood flow stops.
· Release the air pressure by deflating the cuff.
· Record the systolic pressure. (The point at which the blood flow is restored)
The reading shows the maximum output pressure generated by the heart
while it’s pumping.
· Deflate the cuff; the pulse sounds disappears completely around the
maximum deflation. This is recorded as the diastolic pressure. The reading
shows the pressure in the circularly system when the heart is relaxing.

Method of measuring hemoglobin -

Hemoglobin is an important component of blood. Due to hemoglobin, the blood
color is red. Hemoglobin is found in RBC’s. Hb binds with oxygen. It is oxygen
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 179

carrying molecule of RBC. Deficiency of Hb causes anemia. Due to lack of

hemoglobin in the blood, oxygen is not adequately available to the cells, resulting
in the possibility of many types of diseases in the body.

Reasons for lack of hemoglobin -

1. Bleeding caused by accident or surgery, or bleeding due to rectal cancer.
2. Inadequate diet, lack of nutrients, iron deficiency in diet, lack of vitamin B12,
folic acid etc.

The method of hemoglobin testing - Students need to observe the practical-

Demonstration should be given by teacher only)

Expected Skills -
1. Teaching students how to take blood samples.
2. Correct way of taking blood in the pipette.
3. Checking the quantity of hemoglobin in given sample.

Hematic acid is produced due to reaction of HCL with the iron particles present in
hemoglobin. The color of hematic acid is brilliant brown. The intensity of this
color depends on the existing amount of HB in the blood. This fluid (hematic) is
diluted by adding water to it until its color matches with that of the comparator
glass (available in the equipment). There are% HB markings on the comparator
glass tube. We can take% HB reading on the tube. The quantity of HB can be
read directly from this water.

Equipment required-
• Hemocytometer which consists of a comparator box which has brown colored
glass on either side
• Hb pipette, Dropper, Brush, Lancet, Cotton, Spirit

Procedure
1. Add HCL into the tube (mark 20 µL)
2. Take the blood from the finger using lancet and add 0.02ml blood in the
pipette.
3. Fill the blood into the HCL tube & mix it with the acid thoroughly.
4. Allow to stand still for 10min.
5. Place the hemoglobin meter in the comparator and add drop by drop distilled
water to the solution. Stir the solution. Observe the color matches with that of
the comparator glass.
6. Take the final reading by noting the height of the diluted acid hematic. Express
the final reading in g%.

Observation and estimation - Inspect the amount of distilled water that was
required in the test tube and observe the extent to which this quantity is reached
in the test tube.

Precautions to be used during hemoglobin investigation -

1. Make sure that no air bubbles enter into the pipette. After this, immediately
add the blood from the pipette in the test tube containing the HCL.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 180

2. To avoid any misunderstanding, it is important to explain to the person the

amount of blood that is being taken for the test, how much time it will take in the
test, and so on.
3. At the place of blood removal, apply a little band aid to avoid the infection.

Effect of low hemoglobin in the blood-

Hemoglobin carries blood oxygen to the body tissues & transports CO2 from
tissues back to the lungs. Thus Hb is oxygen carrying protein in the blood.
Decreased amount of Hb results in deficiency of oxygen also affects release of
CO2 from the tissues. As a result people suffer from fatigue, weakened immune
power, vision problems, anemia, etc. to avoid these health problems, it is
necessary to maintain the normal levels of Hb.

Normal range of Hemoglobin in Male and Female:

Male 13.8-17.2 gram per deciliter (g/dl)
Female 12.2-15.1 gram per deciliter (g/dl)
Measures to maintain the right amount of hemoglobin in blood:
Eating green vegetables, jiggery, iron supplements, etc.

Symptoms of hemoglobin deficiency in the body -

1. Skin looks pale, fatigue, lightheadedness, dizziness etc.
2. After giving antibiotics or anthelmintic medicines, iron rich foods must be
eaten.
3. The amount of hemoglobin is expressed in the unit of g / dl in the hemoglobin
tests report.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1. Blood is red due to the presence of ………..
2. Coagulation the blood requires …………..cells.
3. ………….discovered blood groups.
4. Blood pressure is measured by …………
5. ………..is universal donor blood group.

Subjective Questions

1. What are the different components of blood?

2. What are the types of human blood group?
3. Which blood group is known as Universal blood group?
4. How is blood pressure measured?
5. Explain the importance of hemoglobin in human blood.
6. What is the normal range for blood pressure?
7. What does our body produce in response to foreign elements?
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 181

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, Students will be able to:
· Understand different components of blood
· Understand different types of blood group
· Determine blood pressure using blood pressure machine
· Analyse the results
· Understand importance of HB
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 182

SESSION 5: COMMUNITY HEALTH &

ENVIRONMENT CARE (AWARENESS
PROGRAMS FOR PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS AND FAMILY HEALTH AND
HEALTH PLANNING)
The increasing population of the country, polluted environment, poverty, social
and cultural asymmetry, all these natural and social problems effects the mental
and the physical health of the people. Some basic services of the government are
employed to meet the health needs of the people.
This chapter deals with various services that are provided by the government to
help the needy and handicapped people.
The basic needs of education, health, hygiene, nutritious diet, water availability,
availability of employment etc. are necessary for the people of all levels to live a
good and qualitative life. The health of the person, the education he receives, his
skill, the strength to do his labor, all these things play an important role in his
economic and social development.
In the absence of the capabilities mentioned above, it is necessary to provide
them the economic and social support. Persons with special needs consists
mainly of physically and mentally challenged people, tribal people, elderly, minor
children of poor families and pregnant women. These are included in the
underprivileged components of a society with special needs. In this chapter, we
are going to study about the problem and need of these deprived components.

Objective –
1. Students will study the basic needs of physically & mentally disabled, people
suffering from natural adversities, the elderly.
2. Students will be able to calculate the health expenses of family.

The nature of the disability -

The well-being of the disabled can be achieved by providing protection to them
and providing them with equal participation. Medical meaning of disability is
physical weakness i.e. physical limb weakening, not functioning. Disability
means to be deprived of participating in social life like all ordinary people. Social
situations are often unfavorable to the person with disabilities, but their
participation needs to be received in all areas for their development.

The problems of people with disabilities -

We are going to discuss the two main questions related to people with disabilities.
Equal educational rights and facilities are the basic rights of a handicapped
person. The second question is about availability of jobs. Universalization of
education, skill, knowledgeable education, vocational education, specialization-
based teaching etc. Education concept are essential to be executed for the
disabled. Here the question arises that is it possible to provide education to the
crippled persons with the same general method?

Classification of Persons with Disabilities -

1. Blind person
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 183

2. Dumb person
3. Deaf person
4. Unstable person
5. Mentally ill person
6. Multi-disabled person (person with multiple disabilities)
What are the ways in which different kind of disabled persons can be educated
according to their subclass? After considering at the government level, the issues
of educational problems in the context of the people with disabilities, the
international standards have been prepared to get them the right to education.

Facilities needed for disabled people -

1. In order to achieve the educational development of disabled children special
training, rehabilitation facilities, etc. should be provided.
2. It is important to include children with disabilities in integrated and inclusive
education along with others.
3. Disabilities need to be included in the education system being available to the
general.
4. Students with disabilities should get supportive materials.
5. Special school should be provided for the disabled children who cannot get
education in general school because of extreme acute disability.
6. Whether the disability is physical or mental, it is extremely difficult to get
employment for them, therefore it is necessary to provide employment education
for disabled people.
7. Special employment should be created for disabled people in the public service
plan, various public sector undertakings, government jobs etc.
8. Through the skill development program, it is important to provide financial
assistance to the disabled for launching small scale industries.

About the education, employment and training of persons with disabilities-

Governments have provided following basic facilities for the overall development
of persons with disabilities. Eg. National Awards for People with Disabilities,
Vocational training & Rehabilitation Centre for person with disabilities, giving
incentives to employers for providing employment opportunities for disabled
persons.

Blindness: - These are visually impaired individuals either born with vision loss
or develop visual difficulties later in life.
There are special schools for blind students. Blind people can learn with help of
touch knowledge using braille script. You can plan common reading activities
with blind students so that you can discuss the study points with them; this
discussion can help you to understand the needs of blind student.
We need to visit the exhibitions of products created by blind students in our
surroundings. These exhibitions are providing good employment opportunities to
them. We can donate our eyes after death. It is a voluntary act.

National Program for Control of Blindness:

This Program was launched with the goal to reduce the occurrence and
extent of blindness.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 184

Some of the objectives of this program is:

· Prevention of visual impairment by providing quality eye care services.
· To increase community awareness on eye care and applying preventive
measures.
· Increase research opportunities for visual impairment.
· Cataract surgery
· Provide access to eye treatment and eye glasses to the patients who are below
the poverty line in the government district hospitals.
· Promoting eye donation
· Collection of donated eyes in eye bank for transplant
· Eye testing and provision of eye glasses for school students

Welfare of Aged people -

Person who has attained the age of sixty years or above can be called as senior
citizen.
There is increasing concern towards nuclear family set-up and due to this the
helplessness of old age people is rapidly increasing. Elderly people are suffering
abuse & neglect both within the family & outside. The traditional values are
depleting.

Government has launched several schemes and programs for the care and
welfare of elderly, but these are not properly implemented. Some of the
major problems with elderly people are:

1. Failing Health: The aging is identical with poor and failing health. In our
country the health problems of elderly becomes more complicated due to lack of
good quality age specific health care programs.

2. Economic Insecurity: Most of the time the elderly people are financially
dependent.

3. Isolation, neglect, mental abuse, fear these are the problems of old age
people.

Government schemes for elderly:

For the protection of elderly and to provide them with quality life,
government has started several schemes. Some of these schemes are:
1. Indira Gandhi national old age pension scheme
2. Indira Gandhi Widow pension scheme
3. Indira Gandhi national disability pension scheme.
4. These schemes are government funded and are rum by local panchayat and
municipalities.
Some of the measures we can adopt for the welfare of elderly people:
· Many elderly can be trained to carry out productive activities that would be
useful to them or benefit their families. This will meaningfully occupy them and
they can keep their boredom away.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 185

· Counsel families, sensitize communities these are some actions needs to be

taken to provide mental support to the old age people.
· Planning some activities of their interest which involves their time & skills
helps to inculcate a feeling of inclusion.
· Rehabilitation, community or home based disability support should also be
provided through government.

Needs of Mentally disabled people:

As our body get sick and we have ailments, our brain &mind is also prone to
sickness and illness. Changes in normal behavior & emotions indicates the
symptoms of mental illness. Mental illness is treatable.
Government has implement several programs/actions for the welfare of mentally
disabled people.
Based on severity of the mental problem there are different categories of mentally
disabled people.

· It is needed to create awareness of mental problems. This will also ensure

reducing the superstitions prevailing in the society about mental problems.
· Other than medicines sometimes yoga, meditation, counseling, therapy etc.
also helps up to a larger extent in reducing the mental ailments.

Natural disasters and people in need:

Natural disasters are unforeseen and immediate. Cyclones, earthquakes, floods,
drought, heat and cold waves, landslides, avalanches, thunder-storms, etc. These
are some examples of natural disasters which causes a great loss of life and
property. Uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources have brought our eco
system to imbalance and that is the major reason of disasters.

Help needed during natural disasters:

· Early warning system is an effective technique to forecast the disaster which
will help to prepare for the disaster and reduce the magnitude of problem.
· Government funding and relief efforts can only go so far without the help of
the public. Volunteers are necessary for post disaster work like, provide help
to remove debris from affected sites, talk to and answer questions with
disaster survivors, arranging food & basic needs for survivors etc.

Earthquake:
The science of earthquake prediction is not developed and it is still not possible to
predict an earthquake. A quake’s magnitude is usually measured in terms of the
Richter scale.

Precautions and readiness:

· Earthquake resistant buildings in susceptible areas
· Use of Richter scale to understand the magnitude
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 186

· Training of people in earthquake susceptible areas about how to protect

themselves during earthquakes.

Emergency relief after Earthquake:

· Listen to the radio or television for information from authorities. Follow their
instructions
· If home is unsafe, do not enter.
· Keep Law and order
· Transferring people to safe place
· Removal of dead bodies
· Providing medical assistance to the injured
· Console and counsel people
· Rehabilitation
· Providing immediate access to food and water
· Preparing proposal to rebuild the houses
· Detailed study of the loss

Family Budget maintenance for being healthy -

The Family budget items generally include housing, food, child care,
transportation, and other necessities. It is important that every member of the
family should be healthy. To achieve a good health for every member it is
necessary that the family should spend a proper amount of its budget in healthy
and nutritious food products and on healthy choices.

Nutritious diet:
Many families/people eat food which is low in nutritious products such as
proteins, minerals and vitamins. There are several reasons for it. One of the
reason is non-affordability of such food as such nutritious diet is generally
expensive. Sometimes people have money but they are ignorant about the health
benefits of such nutritious and balanced diet. Some people don’t like to eat such
food instead they like to have spicy and oily food.
But it is not at all necessary that nutritious products are only and always
available in expensive food products. Rather they are available in easily affordable
food products. We can be healthy by eating green vegetables, pulses, wheat,
bajra-jowari roti, yogurt, curd, ghee and milk. By eating low-quality of foods such
as peanuts, jiggery the body gets plenty of nutritious elements.
We can be healthy by eating above mentioned homemade food items which are
rich in all types of nutrients and it is really not necessary to spend heavy amount
of expensive food products.

Other than this if we compare the expenditure on medical needs with expenditure
on nutritious food products we will find that if we eat nutritious food products
our medical bill will reduce upto a greater extent.
Family good health = Green card; Less illness, less medical expenditure
Ill family health = red card; More illness, the more medical expenses
Ø For better family heath theses food products should be frequently used: Rice,
wheat, jowar, bajri, corn
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 187

Ø It is needed to provide more protein rich diet to the children of growing age:
· Vegetarians: pulses, peas, peanuts
· Non-vegetarian: Egg, chicken, mutton
We should properly any food before consuming. Soyabean is full of protein
therefore it should be used largely. Peanut oil should be mixed in grains to enrich
it with nutrients.
· Grains: Instead of eating only single grain we should eat different types of
gains. By doing this body gets several nutrients.
· Green vegetables: they are full of irons and vitamins.
· Use of iron utensil: By using iron utensil we can increase the iron content in
our food.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. What is the major problems of people with disabilities?
2. Discuss about the social services programs available for elderly.
3. What types of special programs are needed for blind people?
4. What kind of facilities are needed for the rehabilitation of people affected from
natural disasters?
5. What all things should be considered to keep the family healthy?
6. How can the family maintains its budget to keep the members healthy.

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Describe the needs of disadvantaged people
· Identify various community services and programmes
· Calculate medical / health expenses of a family in previous year.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 188

SESSION 6: POLLUTION – SOURCES, EFFECTS AND

SOLUTIONS AND WATER QUALITY
TESTING
Pollution is a matter of serious concern at local & global level.
Pollutant is the fatal, malicious substance in the ecosystem. The elements which
are harmful to the environment and which do not decompose in the ecosystem
are called as 'pollutants'.

Types and causes of pollution:

Air pollution:
If the amount of hazardous substances in the atmosphere of the Earth's
increases, then these ill-fated airways create many health problems and
environmental problems, which results in air pollution. The thickness of ozone
layer in the outer atmosphere of the Earth is depleting due to excessive release of
ozone depleting substances. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide emitted in the
atmosphere and cause problems like global temperature rise. Climate change is
the global environmental problem occurring in the world and due to this there is
unexpected rainfall, drought, hailstorm, and change in monsoon cycle. Growing
population, industrialization, urbanization these are the important factors which
increase air pollution. Many of the air pollutants are human-centric.

Major elements of Air Pollution

a. Sulfur dioxide:
This gas is produced primarily by the thermal power stations after the burning of
coal. Some industrial processes produce sulfur dioxide.eg Paper making and
melting of metals etc. Sulfur Dioxideis responsible for formation black fog and
acid rain. This gas can cause lung diseases.

b. Nitrogen oxides: Car exhaust, emissions from electric power plants, burning
of various fuels, cigarette smoking, welding etc. are important sources of
nitrogen oxide. Nitrogen oxide combines with organic compounds forms black
fog and acid rain.
c. Carbon monoxide (CO): Carbon monoxide is also a pollutant. Burning of
vehicle fuel releases Carbon monoxide. It is a colorless &odorless gas
produced by partial burning of petrol, diesel, wood and carbon-based fuels.
Exposure to CO results in vision problems, Loss of consciousness, Nausea and
vomiting, breathing problems etc.

d. Carbon dioxide (CO2): CO2 is a natural compound present everywhere in the

atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions, spring water, burning of fuels, emissions
from industries are the sources of CO2production. Exposure to CO2can lead
to serious health problems such as Loss of vision, breathing problems,
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 189

Headaches, Dizziness, Unconsciousness, nervous system damage, vomiting,

Skin burns etc.

e. Lead: Lead is a naturally occurring heavy metal. Petrol, Diesel, Batteries,

Paints are important sources of lead. Leadis cancerous can cause damage to
the entire larynx.

f. Ozone:
Ozone present in the stratosphere protects the Earth from the harmful ultraviolet
rays of the sun. Ozone in the lower layer of atmosphere gives greenhouse effect.
Vehicles and factories are the main source ofozone emissions in lower
atmosphere.Ozone causes eye diseases, burns etc. Ozone reduces your immune
response against colds and pneumonia.

Impact of air pollution:

· Air Pollution can cause major respiratory disorder, such as asthma, cancer.
· Ultraviolet rays can cause skin disorders, eye diseases, and reduce the
immune system.
· Excess nitrogen in the air can develop respiratory disorders.
· Extra sulfur dioxide can also lead to acid rain and damage the historical
objects.
· Air pollution can cause damage to the immune, reproductive, and respiratory
systems.
· Toxic pollutants can cause damage to the different layers of ecosystem.

b. Water Pollution:

• Chemicals effluents from industries, agricultural and household waste, are the
main sources of water pollution.

• In many rivers or other water bodies, disposal of industrial & household waste,
dumping of garbage, results in water pollution.

• Oil spills also results in accumulation of oily layers on the water surface which
destroys the aquatic ecosystem.

• Effluents from pesticide & fertilizer industrycan cause damage to aquatic

ecosystem.

Prevention of water pollution:

• Harmful effluents from industries need to be treated before discharge in the

water body.
•Avoid river side disposal of household waste & garbage.
· Avoid cleaning & washing of vehicles, animals in to the fresh river water.

Eutrophication is the state of excessive nutrients in water body.

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 190

Runoff from agricultural land, excessive use of fertilizers, releases the excess
nutrients in the water body. Increased amount of nutrients in the water increases
the growth of algae; which consumes the amount of oxygen in the water. Covered
water surface prevents the penetration of sun rays in the water body. This
prevents the photosynthesis process of aquatic plants. Oxygen deficiency causes
wide-spread death in the water.

Fig 14 - Eutrophication

Water testing through H2O strip: - We need to ensure the water we drink is
safe and clean. We can use H2O strip for testing quality of water as follows-

Important aspects:
· Water from only one source should be tested in one time
· We should not mix water from 2-3 sources for testing
· Water sample should be stored in clean bottles.
· It takes 48 hours to test the water. After 48 hours we can observe the change
in water color.

· Procedure:
1. Take 100 ml of water sampling sterilized bottle.
2. Fill the sample water in the H2O Strip Bottle till the given mark.
3. Close the cap of water bottle well.
4. Slowly shake the bottle, so that the H20 strip can react to the water sample.
5. Keep this bottle at around 30-37 degree temperature for 48 hours in one
place.

Checking the test results:

· If the color of water turns blacks it means the water is not clean and it is not
safe for drinking.
· If the color of water does not change or it is yellowish it means the water is
clean and it is safe for drinking.

Sterilization through pressure cooker: The temperature inside pressure cooker

rises up to 120 degree c. Most of the bacteria and other harmful organisms can
survive only until 60-90 degree of temperature, therefore in the high temperature
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 191

of pressure cooker anything which is cooked until 20 minutes, is sterilized

completely.

3. Noise Pollution:-

Sound more than 90 decibels can cause damage to the hearing capacity results
in deafness, increased heart rate, head each, sleep disturbances, hypertension
etc. Thus the high intensity sound can be called as noise pollution. High decibel
sound of vehicles, horns, Fire crackers, loudspeaker, airplane, train, industries,
and machines can cause noise pollution.

Effects of Sound pollution:

· Prolonged exposure to loud noise causes disturbance in sleep, irritability,
stress, tension, and heart disease etc.
· Noisy environment can increase the blood pressure.
· Due to heavy noise pollution most of construction workers suffer from hearing
deficiencies. It can be called as occupational diseases.
· High level of sound affects the health of pregnant women, newly born baby &
elderly people.

Prevention and remedy of noise pollution:

· Road side plantation of trees reduces the intensity of noise pollution by
absorbing sound.
· Avoid un-necessary use of horns & loudspeakers.
· The places like airports, Industries, railway stations should be placed far from
residential places.
· There should be proper check on the misuse of loudspeakers.
5. Public awareness should be spread regarding the impacts of noise pollution.

4. Radioactive pollution:

Radioactive Pollution is caused by the increased amount of radiations in the

environment. Mining, emissions from nuclear power plant, radiations from
gamma-x rays are some sources of radioactive pollution. Radioactive pollutants
give rise to chronic diseases like cancer. Small amounts of radiation can also
cause diseases.

5. Soil Pollution

Some amount of organic & inorganic ions, salts and minerals are naturally
present in the soil and they are formed majorly through decomposition of plants
and animals.
Human activities like excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, industrial
effluents, radioactive emissions results in soil pollution. Polluted soli affects the
growth of plants. Some pollutants can enter in to the food chain through soil
pollution affects the human beings. Promoting use of organic pesticides &
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 192

fertilizers, avoid using chemical fertilizers & pesticide can prevent the soil
pollution.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the Blanks

1. .............................protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays from sun.
2. --------is responsible for global warming.

Subjective Questions
1. What is the meaning of pollution?
2. What are the major sources of water pollution?
3. What are the methods of controlling water pollution?
4. What are the effects of air pollution on human health?
5. What are the impacts of carbon monoxide pollution?
6. How should the water be tested by using H2O strip?
7. What is eutrophication?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, students will be able to:
· Identify the sources of pollution
· Identify the effects of pollution on environment and on living beings
· Perform water quality test using H2O strip testing kit &analyse the results.
· Describe harmful ingredients in a contaminated water
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 193

SESSION 7: FOOD PRODUCTS (HANDLING OF

FOOD PRODUCTS, PERISHABLE & NON-
PERISHABLE FOOD, PACKED & LOOSE
FOOD AND FRESH & STALE FOOD
PRODUCT

According to the statistics, there are cases of food diseases in every ten thousand
people per year. Of which 20% of people suffer due to poor cleanliness. And 55%
of food-borne problems arises due to due to improper cooking and storage.

Purpose -
1. Safe transfer of food / study of various methods adopted for safe transfer of
food
2. Understanding the difference between early deteriorating and sustainable food
items
3. Packed foods and loose foods
4. Study of advantages and disadvantages of fresh and stale food

Types of Food Contaminants –

There are two types of components that contaminate foodstuffs.
1. Environmental contaminants
2. Artificial contaminants
 Environmental contaminants - air, water, soil etc.
 Non-environmental/Artificial contaminants - components related to the
maintenance of food items, utensils used for placing materials, equipment
etc.
If the microbes enter the food through these two types of components, they
become contaminated. Special care should be taken, while storing food and
moving from one place to another. In order to avoid food contamination,
cleanliness and hygiene should be maintained in each chain of food production to
transfer.
To avoid food contamination, practice the following written rules of hygiene
and health:
1. Keep the atmosphere clean - High-quality hygiene should be maintained at
the place of harvesting crops, food storage and performing any action related to
food. Ultrasonic violet ray lamps are used to keep the air clean in many food
industries and factories. Food laboratories and kitchens at home should have
good ventilation. In order to kill chips, cockroaches and food insects, pesticides
should be sprayed periodically. Walls, roofs should be painted and white washed
periodically and floor should also be washed and cleaned.

2. Maintenance of food items - There are innumerable microbes on vegetables

and fruits. Numerous bacteria are also found on eggs, meat and fish. Therefore,
washing these foods well with water before cooking and eating can save you from
many types of infections.
For those who handle food items, it is very important to practice the following
points:
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 194

a) Every person who handles food items should do regular medical check-up, to
know that they do not have any infectious diseases.
b) Such persons should cut their nails and keep them clean. Before handling
food, wash your hands with clean water and soap. Clean clothes should be used
to wipe hands. If the cloth is unclean then there may be several infections. There
is a possibility of food contamination from human hair as well. Hair should be
well tied with the help ofhandkerchiefs or scarf. The person should wear clean
clothes while handling food.

3. Cleanliness of the place to prepare food - The place where food is prepared
should be clean and hygienic. It would be best if the surface is covered with
smooth stones like granite, marble, etc. The reason for this is that, cleaning the
surface like this is very easy and comfortable. Workplace, cooking utensils, pots,
stove, appliances etc. should be cleaned with soap and water every day.

4. Cleaning of equipment and utensils - Kitchen utensils and equipment such

as knives, tongs, spoons etc. should be sterilized by hot water or steam.
Similarly, a mixer, juicer (fruit juice preparation machine), and cooking
utensils should also be disinfected.

5. Use of clean water - On washing food items / cereals with impure water,
microbes enter into the food and food becomes contaminated. Clean water
should be used for cooking food. In particular, there should be use of filter
water to make beverages in factories making drinks.

6. Remaining food and waste disposal - Cover the remaining food or keep it at a
cold place or in the refrigerator. The remaining portion of fruit peel, vegetables
and other food items should not be thrown directly into the trash. We can
prepare a good type of compost with organic waste. A clean lid should be
placed on the trash. If the garbage box remains open, then the air gets spoiled
by the existing microbes in garbage box. With such measures, we will get clean
and edible food.

Advantages of Packaged food:

1. Packaged food is convenient for Transportation and storage.
2. Packaging helps to reduces exposure to air contaminants. Allows safe handling
of food without contamination.
3. Convenient to distribute large amount of food items.
4. Packaged foods have weight of the substance written on the box, according to
which food stuffs can be purchased as per the requirement.

Disadvantages of Packaged food:

1. Many times, many food items are being bought by attractive packing and are
not needed.
2. Eating packaged food ends the desire to eat fresh food.
3. The quality of packaged foods is not always the best and many times these
substances are infected. It is difficult to guarantee their nutrition and quality.
In many places, prepared foods are sold, which are not packed. Examples -
sandwich, bhel, panipuri etc.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 195

Advantages of unpacked/loose food:

1. If the foods are fresh and clean, they will definitely be nutritious and taste
good.
2. We can eat according to our taste and choice like chutney etc.

Disadvantages of unpacked/loose food:

1. It is difficult to transport the unpacked food from one place to another.
2. Extensive scale distribution of these substances is not possible.
3. Fly, dust, etc. can easily contaminate these foods. It is very necessary to follow
the rules of hygiene.
4. Preparing these foods consumes a lot of time.

Classification of food according to the length of time of storage -

The food items have been divided into the following three groups, according to
their storage life:
1) Non-perishable food
2) Semi-perishable food
3) Perishable food

1. Non-perishable food

Proper handling of these foods i.e. storing these food in a dry and cool place, will
keep them in good condition for a long time. These food items last for 6 months to
two years.
The following foods come under this category:
1. Whole grains- wheat, jowar, millet, ragi, oats
2. Pulses and their beans - mung, lentils, chickpeas, rajma, lobiya, moth bean,
soya bean, peas, urad (Black gram), tur (Pigeon pea) etc. Fruits with oilseed and
tough coverings - Seeds, peanuts, sesame, dry coconut, mustard, linseed
3. Hard shelled nuts / fruits - walnuts, almonds, cashews
4. Sugar - Sugar is mainly prepared from sugarcane. This includes candy/rock
sugar, sugar powder, etc.
5. Jaggery - it is also made from sugarcane.
All these foods are non-perishable. Less amount of water increases the
sustainability of food product. The quantity of water in whole grains and sugar is
9 to 15 percent. Amount of water is 4% in jaggery and sugar. In foods that have
less water content, the likelihood of microorganisms is less and these foods have
long shelf life, so these foods are called non-perishable foods.

2. Semi-perishable food -
These foods may remain unspoiled for 2 weeks to a few months. These foods
include semolina (suji), white flour (maida), poha, butter, potato, onion, ginger,
garlic etc.
A) Processed-cereals and pulses etc.
Wheat and rice flour, semolina (suji), white flour (maida), poha, puffed rice, gram,
pulses etc. are Semi-perishable foods.
B) Roots- Potato, apple, onion, suran (elephant foot yam) etc.
C) Oil and ghee - Homemade ghee and oil, butter. The water is found in
abundance (60 - 70%) in mustard, coconut, groundnut, etc. So these are semi-
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 196

perishable foods. If the oil and ghee comes in contact with the air for longer
periods of time, then the contact with oxygen makes them to smell bad.

3. Perishable food -
These foods can stay unspoiled only for 1 day in the atmosphere. These foods
contain water from 80 to 90%. So they get spoiled immediately. Examples of these
foods - fresh fruits and vegetables, animal foods, milk, eggs, poultry, meat, etc.

Methods of Storing Perishable Foods -

Perishable foods are those likely to spoil or decay. Without processing, it difficult
to stay good for a longer period. It is necessary to process the food while
maintaining its quality, in order to store the food for longer duration and to reach
customers. The period between food production and consumption can be a few
hours or several years. That is why it is important to know the reason for food
spoilage or decay and accordingly, it is necessary to have a protective action for
it. The food conservation process has to be decided to remove the micro-organism
from food. A suitable environment is to be created to destroy the already existing
micro-organisms.

The following points should be kept in mind to increase the duration of

perishable food items:
1. Keep microorganisms away from food
2. Preventing the growth of micro-organisms already present in the food
3. To destroy or deactivate microorganisms in food
4. Increasing the duration of ripening caused by enzymes and natural chemical
reactions due to air contact etc.
5. Avoidance of loss due to traffic etc.

The goals of food conservation procedures performed on perishable foods -

1. Increasing the length of time of food storage
2. Safe food
3. Less wastage of leftover food
4. Providing food items for the whole year
5. Value addition and more profits
6. Making different types of food products available to customers
7. Fruits and vegetables are available at cheap price in every season. Preserving
the fruits during the same season can prove to be a good business approach.
8. Increasing digestibility, taste and color.

Process to increase the period of destruction of some perishable foods has

been given:
Value added food Process method Process element
production
Milk Pasteurization Low temperature
Chicken To be kept in the fridge Low temperature
Peas Solidification Low temperature
Milk powder Drying Removing moisture
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 197

Pomegranate Drying in the sun Removing moisture

Fenugreek Solar dryers Removing moisture
Packaging of vegetables Vacuum Packing Oxygen removal
Guava, Guava jelly Natural preservatives, wet osmotic pressure
heat Increasing
Tomato sauce and pickle Natural acid protection, Reducing pH
wet heat
Curd, yoghurt Fermentation Reducing pH
Fish, Potato Ionizing sterilization Reduction in the
radiation/ cold number of microbes
Milk, Fruit juice Sterilized packing Keeping
microorganisms away
Fruits, vegetables, raw Controlling the amount of Reducing pH
and cooked meat O2 and CO2

Method of safe transfer of farming products -

India is an agricultural country. There has been a tradition of preserving the
agricultural products. Due to globalization, transferring of agricultural products
has become more convenient. New methods of packing has evolved to carry food
products. Secure packing and careful operation are basic requirements, which
helps in the safe transfer of food from the fields to customers.

The need for conservation of perishable farm products -

1. Farm products does not get damaged due to overload or crushing during
transportation
2. Safety from wild animals, example rat etc.
3. Protection from insects etc.
4. Keeping safe from rain water
5. Biological protection

Conservation practices of perishable farm products -

1. Packing- By using different protection methods, the farming material can be
protected during transportation and circulation. Wood, cans, plastic carats etc.
can be used. By using plastic mesh and laminated plastic packing, vegetables,
fruits can be transferred securely.

2. Storeroom to collect grain - In ancient times, there was a method of

conserving grain by building a kothi (store room). To secure the grains, they used
to build a kothi at some height above the ground. Kothi built by using iron or
sticks are used to preserve the grains. The kothi is wrapped from the dung from
the outside. The cottage made from cow dung is completely sterilized, due to
which the grain does not have any kind of insect. But after wrapping the kothi in
cow dung, it is necessary to dry it in the sun.
To keep the onion safe, wood roof is made at height. The onions are dried and
kept on the roof. Keeping in it does not spoil the onion. Rats are not able to reach
there because of the wooden timber being at some height.

Fresh and stale food -

 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 198

A) Fresh Foods -
1. Acceptability of these foods is good. The taste, color, temperature, appearance
etc. of fresh foods are much better, therefore, it is more tasty, such as boiled hot
coffee, cold milk shake, hot biryani etc.
2. Fresh foods are hot - they do not have to be heated again, so they are
delicious.
3. Fresh foods are easier to digest than stale foods. It also takes less time to cook
fresh food.

B) Stale foods -
There is no use of eating stale food, that is, this type of food is harmful to the
body.
1. Acceptance of stale food is less than fresh food.
2. We eat stale food items by heating them again and again due to which the
nutrients of food are destroyed and food flavor decreases.
3. If we eat cold stale food, then the digestive system has to work hard to digest
it.

Benefits of Fresh Hot Diet -

When we take fresh, high diet, the gastric intestines of the body are strong for
proper digestion of food. The blood, muscles, medulla, etc. of the body are
nourished as the result of digestion of the right kind of food by the body's gastric
intestines. If the diet is fresh and hot, then it increases hunger and desire to eat.
Unlike them, the desire to eat stale cold food is lost.
1. The consumed food is digested properly.
2. The body gets nourishment. Body functions are smooth.
3. The food looks interesting
4. Food is easily digested.
5. Proper excretion of faces and urine due to which the body appears to be lighter
6. Help in maintaining physical balance
Because of this, it is necessary that we eat regular fresh hot foods. Consumption
of fresh hot food is necessary in all seasons, especially during the rainy and
winter seasons.
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 199

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Subjective Questions
1. Tell us about the benefits of eating fresh food?
2. Tell the effects of eating open food on the body.
3. Explain the method of conservation of food items.
4. What things should be taken care of while cooking?
5. What are the main reasons for food spoilage?
6. What is used to preserve food items for long periods of time?
7. What are the advantages of packing foodstuffs?
8. What are the things that should be written on the label of food packing?

What Have You Learnt?

On completion of this session, are you able to:

· Identify the hygienic practices/methods adopted for handling of food
· Demonstrate the knowledge of safe transportation of food
· Differentiate between fresh and stale food
· Describe the advantages and disadvantages of loose and packed food
· Describe how to handle and serve food for maintaining personal hygiene and
health
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 200

FURTHER READING

REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR UNIT 1

Printed Reference Material
· ‘Vigyan Ashram’ (Pabal Village) – Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic
Technology (IBT)’
· Educational Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic Technology (IBT)’by
Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education
· Textbooks published by ‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher
Secondary Education’
· Booklet published by ‘National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)’
· Books published by ‘National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)’
· Books published by ‘Swiss Federal Institute of Vocational Education and
Training’
· Reference books used for competitive exams

Reference Material Available on Internet

· Google Search Engine

REFERENCE MATERIAL UNIT 2

Printed Reference Material –

· ‘Vigyan Ashram’ (Pabal Village) – Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic
Technology (IBT)’
· Educational Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic Technology (IBT)’ by
‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education’
· Textbooks published by ‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher
Secondary Education’
· Booklet published by ‘National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)’
· Books published by ‘National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)’
· Reference books used for competitive exams.

Reference Material Available on Internet –

· Google Search Engine
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 201

REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR UNIT 3

Printed Reference Material –

· ‘Vigyan Ashram’ (Pabal Village) – Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic
Technology (IBT)’
· Educational Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic Technology (IBT)’ by
‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education’
· Textbooks published by ‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher
Secondary Education’
· Booklet published by ‘National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)’
· Books published by ‘National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)’
· Reference books used for competitive exams.

Reference Material Available on Internet –

· Google Search Engine

REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR UNIT 4

Printed Reference Material –
· ‘Vigyan Ashram’ (Pabal Village) – Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic
Technology (IBT)’
· Educational Handbook of ‘Introduction to Basic Technology (IBT)’ by
‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education’
· Textbooks published by ‘Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher
Secondary Education’
· Booklet published by ‘National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)’
· Books published by ‘National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)’
· Reference books used for competitive exams.

Reference Material Available on Internet –

· Google Search Engine
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 202

Reference for Photo

Unit 1 - Workshop Engineering
Figure No. Diagram Details Image Reference
Figure 1 T-Sqaure Original Photos
Figure 2 Mini Drafter Original Photos
Figure 3 Types of geometric tolerance symbol Original Photos
Figure 4 Geometric symbols commonly used Original Photos
Figure 5 First Angle Method Original Photos
Figure 6 Third Angle Method Original Photos
Figure 7 First Angle & Third Angle Original Photos
Some solved examples of orthographic
Figure 8 projections Original Photos
Figure 9 Draw orthographic projection Original Photos
Figure 10 Isometric projection & orthographoic projection Original Photos
Figure 11 Orthographic projection & isometric projection Original Photos
Figure 12 Orthographic projection & steps of drawing
isometric projection Original Photos
Figure 13 Steps of drawing isometric circle Original Photos
Figure 14 Vernier Caliper https://goo.gl/images/MemjGB
Figure 15 Vernier Caliper Scale https://goo.gl/images/JP9C3j
Figure 16 Vernier Height Gauge https://goo.gl/images/twcPV
Figure 17 Micro Meter screw gauge Original Photos
Figure 18 Tap https://goo.gl/images/Bsrpkz
Figure 19 Adjustable Die https://goo.gl/images/xzHa4J
Figure 20 Solid Die https://goo.gl/images/fsfTGV
Figure 21 Arc Welding https://goo.gl/images/BDDFKg
Figure 22 Gas Welding https://goo.gl/images/BhXAUX
Figure 23 Ferro Cement https://goo.gl/images/CyeBMH
Figure 24 Construction in ferro cement https://goo.gl/images/RTYHwB
Figure 25 Structure of home using ferro cement https://goo.gl/images/KqfxhZ
Figure 26 RCC Column https://goo.gl/images/L6AgT7
Figure 27 Mortar https://goo.gl/images/YBxxN8
Figure 28 Concrete https://goo.gl/images/KE2Xd
Figure 29 Construction of Cement Tank Original Photos
Figure 30 Stool Original Photos
Figure 31 Table Original Photos
Figure 32 Plastering https://goo.gl/images/W3ZdJB
Figure 33 Earthen Plaster https://goo.gl/images/BM4xDm
Figure 34 Lime Plaster https://goo.gl/images/JrzxA2
Figure 35 Plaster Of Paris https://goo.gl/images/1Lpqw
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 203

Unit 2 - Energy & Environment

Figure
No. Tools Name Image Reference
Fig. 1 Structure of atom Original photo
Fig. 2 Radio with vacuume tube https://goo.gl/images/cG4gvD
Fig. 3 Transister https://goo.gl/images/ d8oz9f
Fig. 4 Capacitor https://goo.gl/images/ 2E4K3W
Fig. 5 Ohm's law https://goo.gl/images/koH3Uz
Fig. 6 Direct & Alternating Current https://goo.gl/images/HTjL2D
Fig. 7 Series Curcuit https://goo.gl/images/mE4HZu
Fig. 8 Parallel Curcuit https://goo.gl/images/bT3mU4
Fig. 9 Compare series & parallel Curcuit https://goo.gl/images/4LaFcD
Fig. 10 Inverter Battery https://goo.gl/images/thswtV
Fig. 11 Inverter + Battery Original photo
Fig. 12 Working of inverter https://goo.gl/images/f3cyqD
Inverter converting Direct Current to Alternative
Fig. 14 Current Original photo
Fig. 15 Simple Electric Curcuit https://goo.gl/images/TCGYfB
Fig. 16 Parts of piston Pump https://goo.gl/images/w8Lta7
Fig. 17 Centrifugal pump https://goo.gl/images/YGr5hm
Fig. 18 Hand Pump/Borewell https://goo.gl/images/r6mu4h
Fig. 19 DOL Starter circuit https://goo.gl/images/wYNwDW
Fig. 20 Induction Motor https://goo.gl/images/Pg74qj
Fig. 21 working of Solar Water Heater https://goo.gl/images/iBMPTR
Fig. 22 Solar panel https://goo.gl/images/sAhydx
Fig. 23 Working of solar lanterns https://goo.gl/images/kQnvdg
Fig. 24 Stream Engine Work https://goo.gl/images/cfbjNr
Fig.25 Disel Engine https://goo.gl/images/p7qJ3g
Fig. 26 Two Stroke Engine Cycle https://goo.gl/images/b8DBt1
Fig. 27 petrol Engine https://goo.gl/images/eHcus6
Fig. 28 Fixed Dome Type https://goo.gl/images/KSfRmd
Fig. 29 Floating Dome Type https://goo.gl/images/VOUsV8
Fig. 30 Rain Water Harvesting https://goo.gl/images/pVuK2g
Fig.31 Rain Gauge Original photo
Fig. 32 Mterial required for making rain gauge Original photo
 MULTI SECTOR – MULTI SKILL ASSISTANT TECHNICIAN Page | 204

Unit 3 - Gardening ,Nursery & Agriculture Technique

Figure Tools Name Image Reference
Fig. 1 Sowing seeds in a straight line https://goo.gl/images/yjjYwx
Fig. 2 Preparation of saplings in bags original Image
Fig. 3 Seedling Tray https://goo.gl/images/GNAJ2
Fig. 4 Grafting original Image
Fig. 5 Simple Tongue Layering https://goo.gl/images/qR158Q
Fig. 6 Cleft Grafting https://goo.gl/images/Jdb9cA
Fig. 7 Budding https://goo.gl/images/Mf7nS4
Fig. 8 T-Budding https://goo.gl/images/6h23Z1
Fig. 9 Patch Budding https://goo.gl/images/8eBUk7
Fig. 10 Recharge Pits original Image
Fig.11 Basin irrigation https://goo.gl/images/PdN7Cf
Fig. 12 Furrow Irrigation https://goo.gl/images/41N6Ro
Fig. 13 Pot Irrigation https://goo.gl/images/o8qVDy
Fig. 14 Drip Irrigation https://goo.gl/images/JCZxrC
Fig. 15 Sprinkler Irrigation https://goo.gl/images/E64eVH
Fig. 16 Soil sample collection https://goo.gl/images/yCex5P
Fig. 17 Soil Testing kit https://goo.gl/images/x9cjvN
Fig. 18 artificial insemination https://goo.gl/images/wjXySZ
Fig. 19 Azolla Bed Preparation https://goo.gl/images/gtmiDY
Fig. 20 Hydroponic fodder https://goo.gl/images/jmKsgd

Unit 4- Personal Health & Hygiene

Figure
No. Tools Name Image Reference
Vitamin - Sources, functions and deficiency
Fig. 1 diseases https://goo.gl/images/u9Vjp4
Fig. 2 Vitamin B Group https://goo.gl/images/yJ8N4Y
Fig 3 Beriberi https://goo.gl/images/D63uqM
Fig. 4 Scurvy https://goo.gl/images/UPj4nu
Fig. 5 Rickets https://goo.gl/images/xVLcXa
Fig. 6 Anemia https://goo.gl/images/hvts4N
Fig. 7 Common Mineral, Their Sources, diseases https://goo.gl/images/5u5oaZ
Fig. 8 Hand washing steps https://goo.gl/images/JWF5S2
Fig. 9 HIV Infection https://goo.gl/images/VpEzGP
Fig. 10 Cell division uncontrolled growth https://goo.gl/images/wtTyfA
Fig. 11 ORS formula https://goo.gl/images/F3j6t5
Fig. 12 First Aid Kit https://goo.gl/images/Rpe6cn
Fig.13 Types of blood cells https://goo.gl/images/5JWJzo
Fig. 14 Eutrophication https://goo.gl/images/s8SkWM