1.

Lipid Metabolism Overview:

- Importance: Lipids (fats) are essential for energy storage, cell structure, hormone production, and
various physiological functions.
- Hydrophobic Nature: Lipids are non-polar and hydrophobic, making them suitable for energy
storage and membrane formation.
- Dietary Sources: Triacylglycerols (fats and oils) are the primary dietary source of lipids.
- Metabolic Pathways: Lipid metabolism involves a complex interplay of synthesis (lipogenesis) and
breakdown (lipolysis) pathways.

2. Digestion and Absorption of Dietary Lipids:

- Gastric Digestion: Limited digestion by gastric lipase, primarily in infants.

- Duodenal Digestion: Major site of lipid digestion, involving bile salts for emulsification and
pancreatic lipase for triglyceride hydrolysis.
- Absorption: Fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed into intestinal mucosal cells, where
they are reassembled into triacylglycerols.
- Chylomicron Formation: Triacylglycerols are packaged into chylomicrons, which are transported
through the lymphatic system and eventually enter the bloodstream.

3. Synthesis of Triacylglycerols:

- Glycerol-3-phosphate: A key intermediate in triacylglycerol synthesis, derived from glycerol or

dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
- Fatty Acid Activation: Fatty acids are activated to their CoA derivatives before being incorporated
into triacylglycerols.
- Acyltransferase Enzymes: Catalyze the stepwise addition of fatty acids to glycerol-3-phosphate,
forming triacylglycerols.

4. Mobilization of Fat from Adipose Tissue:

- Hormonal Regulation: Hormones like epinephrine, glucagon, and growth hormone stimulate
lipolysis (triacylglycerol breakdown).
- Lipoprotein Lipase: An enzyme that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in chylomicrons and VLDL,
releasing free fatty acids for uptake by tissues.
- Hormone-Sensitive Lipase: An enzyme that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols stored in adipose tissue,
releasing free fatty acids into the bloodstream.

5. Beta-Oxidation of Fatty Acids (Fatty Acid Degradation):

- Mitochondrial Process: Fatty acid oxidation occurs primarily in the mitochondria.

- Carnitine Shuttle: A transport system that moves activated fatty acids (acyl-CoA) across the
mitochondrial membrane.
- Four Steps: A repetitive cycle of oxidation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage, producing acetyl-
CoA and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2).
- Energy Yield: Each cycle of beta-oxidation generates 5 ATP molecules.

6. Metabolic Fate of Acetyl-CoA:

- Citric Acid Cycle: Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle for complete oxidation to carbon dioxide.
- Lipogenesis: Acetyl-CoA can be used for the synthesis of fatty acids.
- Cholesterol Synthesis: Acetyl-CoA is a precursor for cholesterol synthesis.
- Ketogenesis: Acetyl-CoA can be converted into ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-
hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) during prolonged fasting or diabetes.

7. Extramitochondrial Lipogenesis (Fatty Acid Synthesis):

- Cytoplasmic Process: Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm.

- Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase: Catalyzes the committed step in fatty acid synthesis, converting acetyl-
CoA into malonyl-CoA.
- Fatty Acid Synthase: A multienzyme complex that catalyzes the sequential addition of two-carbon
units from malonyl-CoA to a growing fatty acid chain.
- NADPH: Required as a reducing agent in fatty acid synthesis.

8. Cholesterol Metabolism:

- Dietary Sources: Cholesterol is obtained from dietary sources and synthesized by the body.
- Synthesis: Cholesterol synthesis occurs primarily in the liver, involving multiple steps and
enzymes.
- Regulation: Cholesterol synthesis is regulated by feedback mechanisms, with high cholesterol
levels inhibiting its synthesis.
- Bile Acids: Cholesterol is a precursor for bile acids, which aid in fat digestion.

9. Phospholipid Synthesis:

- Key Intermediate: Phosphatidic acid is a common intermediate in phospholipid synthesis.

- Activated Diacylglycerol: CDP-diacylglycerol is an activated form of diacylglycerol, which is used
in phospholipid synthesis.
- Polar Head Groups: Various polar head groups, such as serine, ethanolamine, and choline, are
attached to diacylglycerol to form different phospholipids.

10. Prostaglandins:

- Fatty Acid Derivatives: Prostaglandins are a family of fatty acid derivatives that have potent
biological activities.
- Synthesis: Prostaglandins are synthesized from unsaturated fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid.
- Functions: Prostaglandins have diverse functions, including regulating inflammation, blood
pressure, and platelet aggregation.

1. Identify the primary form of lipid stored in the body.

- Answer: Triacylglycerols
2. Identify the enzyme responsible for the initial breakdown of triglycerides in the small
intestine.

- Answer: Pancreatic lipase

3. Identify the process by which fatty acids are activated before being incorporated into
triacylglycerols.

- Answer: Fatty acid activation

4. Identify the molecule that serves as a carrier for activated fatty acids during their transport
across the mitochondrial membrane.

- Answer: Carnitine

5. Identify the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria.

- Answer: Beta-oxidation

6. Identify the molecule that is produced as a result of one cycle of beta-oxidation.

- Answer: Acetyl-CoA

7. Identify the enzyme that catalyzes the committed step in fatty acid synthesis.

- Answer: Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

8. Identify the multienzyme complex that is responsible for the synthesis of fatty acids.

- Answer: Fatty acid synthase

9. Identify the molecule that serves as the primary source of carbon atoms for cholesterol
synthesis.

- Answer: Acetyl-CoA

10. Identify the enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in cholesterol synthesis.

- Answer: HMG-CoA reductase

11. Identify the molecule that is a precursor to bile acids.

- Answer: Cholesterol

12. Identify the type of lipid that is a major component of cell membranes.

- Answer: Phospholipids
13. Identify the type of lipid that is involved in the production of hormones like testosterone and
estrogen.

- Answer: Steroids

14. Identify the term for a molecule that can act as a signaling molecule and influence various
cellular processes.

- Answer: Lipid signaling molecule

15. Identify the type of lipid that is derived from arachidonic acid and plays a role in
inflammation and pain.

- Answer: Prostaglandins

16. Identify the type of lipid that is found in the brain and myelin sheath.

- Answer: Sphingolipids

17. Identify the type of lipid that is a precursor to prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and
leukotrienes.

- Answer: Arachidonic acid

18. Identify the process by which cholesterol is transported from the liver to the tissues.

- Answer: LDL (Low-density lipoprotein) transport

19. Identify the process by which cholesterol is transported from the tissues back to the liver.

- Answer: HDL (High-density lipoprotein) transport

20. Identify the term for the condition characterized by high levels of cholesterol in the blood.

- Answer: Hypercholesterolemia

21. Identify the type of lipoprotein that is considered “good cholesterol” because it helps
remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream.

- Answer: HDL (High-density lipoprotein)

22. Identify the type of lipoprotein that is considered “bad cholesterol” because it contributes
to plaque buildup in arteries.

- Answer: LDL (Low-density lipoprotein)

23. Identify the process by which fatty acids are converted into ketone bodies.
 - Answer: Ketogenesis

24. Identify the primary site of ketogenesis.

- Answer: Liver

25. Identify the three main ketone bodies.

- Answer: Acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone