SW120 Reviewer – K.F.C. & N.D.C.

happens quickly, but oftentimes it develops over time in

stages.
Social Change: changes in human interactions and
relationships that transform cultural and social Demographic Change (Demographics): When the
institutions. These changes occur over time and often demographic makeup of a society changes, social
have profound and long-term consequences for society. change is inevitable. Society’s demographics often
change when births increase and/or people start living
Three Main Theories of Social Change:
longer. A bigger population affects the dispersal and
Evolutionary Theory: gained prominence in the 19th availability of resources. An increase in immigration or
century. Sociologists latched on to Darwin’s theory of emigration also affects society.
evolution, applying it to society. Auguste Comte, known
Cultural Change (Culture): New inventions, discoveries,
as the “father of sociology,” believed in the evolutionary
and the spread of ideas contribute to cultural changes.
model. According to this theory, society always evolves
Consider the effect of the internet. It’s not only changed
into “higher levels.” Like organisms evolve from simple
the culture of individual countries but the entire world.
to more complex, so do societies. Societies that don’t
It’s transformed how we communicate, as well as the
adapt fast enough will fall behind. This led many
structure of countless industries. Discoveries also
sociologists to conclude that Western societies must be
impact a society’s culture. Consider how much changed
“superior” because of their “advanced” state. At first,
when the Europeans “discovered” America. This
social evolutionists asserted that all societies must go
example shows how social change is not always
through the same sequence of progress. Modern
beneficial to everyone. New ideas about gender, race,
theorists believe that change is multilinear. Societies can
religion, work, education, and so on also change a
evolve in different ways and different directions.
culture.
Functionalist Theory: teaches that society is like a
Main Modes of Production according to Karl Marx:
human body. Each part is like an organ. Individual parts
can’t survive on their own. Emile Durkheim, a major Marx propounded that humanity first began living in
leader in the social sciences, believed that all parts of a primitive communist societies, then came the ancient
society must be harmonious. If they aren’t unified, societies such as Rome and Greece which were based
society is “no more than a pile of sand” that’s vulnerable on a ruling class of citizens and a class of slaves, then
to collapse. When one part suffers, all the other parts feudalism which was based on nobles and serfs, and
must adjust. Why? The functionalist theory believes that then capitalism which is based on the capitalist class
society always works toward stabilization. When (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). In his
problems occur, they’re temporary, but they do need idea of a future communist society, Marx explains that
attention from the other parts. This means social classes would no longer exist, and therefore the
change. Functionalism isn’t without its critics. Many exploitation of one class by another is abolished.
point out that this theory tends to ignore that society’s
Primitive Communism Hunter - Gatherer
elite often creates a mirage of harmony and stability.
Slave Societies Slave Owners vs. Slaves
The theory also fails to factor in race, class, and gender.
Feudalism Landlords vs. Peasants
Functionalism reached its peak in the 1940s and ’50s,
‘mercantilism’
only to decline in the 1960s.
Capitalism Bourgeoisie vs.
Conflict Theory: states that society is by nature unequal Proletariat
and competitive. Karl Marx spearheaded this theory. Socialism
While he did believe in the evolutionary model to a Communism
point, Marx didn’t think each phase resulted in
something better than before. More often than not, the Primitive Communism:
rich and powerful control the rest of society by
exploiting vulnerable groups. This sows conflict,  Economic and political forces are unified.
provoking people to action. Social change occurs as a  Lack of state, property, money, and social
result. The conflict model evolved over the years. It’s classes.
found in other theories such as feminist theory, queer  Limited means of production (hunting and
theory, and critical race theory. gathering).
 No surplus to exploit; individuals produce
Three Main Triggers of Social Change: enough for sustenance.
Conflict: It is clear from a glance at our global history  Communist in social relations but primitive in
that conflict provokes social change. Inequalities based productive forces.
on class, race, gender, religion, and more foster Ancient Mode of Production:
dissatisfaction and anger. To address their situation,
groups come together to fight for change. Governments  Emergence with advanced productive forces
can be overthrown or restructured. Sometimes change (agriculture).
 Use of slavery and minor private property.
  Production primarily for use.  Marx envisions conflicts arising between the
 First class-stratified society with citizens and material productive forces of society and
slaves. existing relations of production, leading to social
 Surplus from agriculture exploited by citizens revolution and the transformation of the entire
who control slaves. social structure.
 Material development is marked by crises that
Feudal Mode of Production:
intensify social struggles endemic to class
 Emerged from slave society, especially in post- societies, offering the potential for structural
Roman Empire Europe. change led by political and ideological
 Class relations marked by an entrenched contestations.
nobility and serfdom.  Marx conceptualizes history in terms of
 Simple commodity production exists (artisans, temporal sequences of modes of production
merchants). and geography in terms of interactions among
 Merchant class grows, eventually forming the these modes, suggesting the possibility of
bourgeoisie. theorizing "laws of social transformation"
 Production still largely for use. dialectically as tendencies or
probabilities rather than “iron laws of
Capitalism: history” or utter structural necessities.
 the key forces of production include the overall  Marx outlines various modes of production that
system of modern production with its have characterized human history, including:
supporting structures of bureaucracy, bourgeois  Primitive communist, hunter-gatherer
democracy, and above all finance capital. societies:
- Emerged in eastern Africa around
Socialism: 1.6 million years ago.
 encompasses a broader spectrum of political - Homo sapiens originated in the
beliefs but shares communism's emphasis on a same region about 130,000 years
fair (if not necessarily equal) distribution of ago.
wealth among citizens, as well as public - Egalitarian, non-hierarchical "band"
ownership of the means of production (though social structures among mobile
not necessarily all of them). In that sense, foraging and hunting groups.
socialist programs and policies can exist - Some sedentary groups showed
alongside capitalism in a society, which is less limited hierarchy.
likely in a true communist system. Socialists may - Hunter-gatherers primarily relied
or may not see a communist system as their end on gathering plants for protein,
goal. mainly gathered by women.
 Kin-ordered tribal agricultural
Communism: societies:
- Agriculture began about 10,000
 a philosophy based on the equitable distribution
years ago in regions like
of wealth among a nation's citizens and
Mesopotamia, the Nile valley,
common ownership of all property. In particular,
southeast Asia, and the Andes.
it called for the control of the means of
- Agriculture led to increased
production, such as manufacturing and
hierarchy within tribal societies.
agriculture, by the working class, or proletariat.
- Subjugation of women played a
Its ultimate goal was achieving a classless
significant role in forming incipient
society, at which point the state (or
class society.
government) would "wither away."
 Tributary or state societies:
- Emerged about 6,000 years ago in
fertile agricultural regions
 Economic development, according to Marx,
conducive to irrigation.
involves enhancing the forces of production by
- Social hierarchies concentrated
introducing tools, machines, and infrastructure
power on Emperors and God-Kings
to increase productivity.
in civilizations like those in the
 Higher productivity can lead to a better material
Middle East, India, and China.
life if labor can secure a share of the increased
- Peasants and artisans supported
output through struggles like union strikes.
the monarchical state through
 Social transformations occur when societies
surplus extracted via taxes, tribute,
shift from modes of production with low levels
and committed labor.
of productive force to those with higher levels,
often through violent revolutions.
 - Feudal social systems emerged in symbols. He believed that individuals may make
areas where the central state was up society, but in order to study society,
less organized, with local landed sociologists have to look beyond individuals to
nobility contending for control. social facts. Social facts are the laws, morals,
 Capitalism: values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions,
- Emerged about 500 years ago in rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern
disintegrating feudal societies, social life. Each of these social facts serves one
primarily in western Europe. or more functions within a society.
- Characterized by the extension of  He focused on society's morality, collective
saved money as capital by an conscience, and culture. He questioned how
entrepreneurial class, employing modern societies could stay unified without
waged labor to produce shared religious and ethnic ties. Instead of
commodities for sale in markets. studying individual motivations or actions, he
- Science and technological advances examined "social facts," which are more
played a crucial role. objectively significant.
- Gradual democratization of the  In his book "The Division of Labor in Society,"
state occurred through struggles by Durkheim explored how different societies
the bourgeoisie, workers, and maintain social order. He described traditional
women. societies as "mechanical," held together by
 Marx's theory evolves from a unilinear view of shared traits and communal property. Modern
societal evolution to a multilinear societies, however, rely on a complex division of
understanding, recognizing varied paths of labor leading to "organic" solidarity (social
development and the complex interplay of cohesion based upon the dependence
modes of production in different societies. individuals have on each other in more
 The articulation of modes of production advanced societies). This specialization creates
approach highlights uneven development across interdependencies among people. As the
global space, where surplus extraction plays a division of labor increases, individual
central role in economic, cultural, and political consciousness emerges, often conflicting with
relations among societies. the collective. In societies with mechanical
solidarity, laws are repressive, while in organic
5 Theories in the Reporting:
solidarity, laws aim to maintain normal societal
Structural Functionalism functioning.
 Durkheim believed that rapid societal change,
 sees society as a structure with interrelated caused by increased division of labor, leads to
parts designed to meet the biological and social confusion about social norms and a rise in
needs of the individuals in that society impersonal interactions. This can result in a
 a framework for building theory that sees state of normlessness, or "anomie," leading to
society as a complex system whose parts work deviant behaviors like suicide. Durkheim
together to promote solidarity and stability proposed using education to prevent anomie by
 posits that society is a system of institutions strengthening social solidarity, for example,
that fulfills naturalistic functions, each through rituals like pledging allegiance to the
component of a social system contributes flag. Reinforcing solidarity helps individuals feel
positively to the continued operation of the connected to a group, reducing rule-breaking.
whole This highlights the connection between
 Herbert Spencer: saw similarities between economic change, anomie, and the need for
society and the human body. He argued that social control, a significant theme in sociology.
just as the various organs of the body work  Ferdinand Tonnies distinguished between two
together to keep the body functioning, the (2) types of social groupings:
various parts of society work together to keep  Gemeinschaft - German word for ‘community’
society functioning. The parts of society that  referring to groups based on family and
Spencer referred to were the social institutions, neighborhood bonds that engender (give rise
or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on to) feelings of togetherness
meeting social needs, such as government,  Gesselschaft - German word for ‘society’
education, family, healthcare, religion, and the  referring to groups sustained by instrumental
economy goals, as with companies or modern states
 Emile Durkheim: believed that society is a  The distinction is based on two (2) basic forms
complex system of interrelated and of the actor’s will:
interdependent parts that work together to  Essential Will - an actor sees him or herself as a
maintain stability, and that society is held means of serving the group in gemeinshacft
together by shared values, languages, and
  Arbitrary Will - an actor sees the social group as and growth in the class of entrepreneurs. These
a means to further his or her own individual changes, along with the spread of new
goals – the actor is purposive and future- techniques from industry to agriculture,
oriented in gesselschaft transformed social and political structures,
 Membership in a gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling , enabling sustained economic growth. Initially, it
whereas participation in a gesellschaft is was questioned how Britain's initial economic
instrumental for its individual members take-off occurred when traditional societies
were influenced by external demonstrations.
Rostow’s Modernization Theory
Rostow initially attributed Britain's take-off to a
 states that developing countries can be statistical accident of history but later explained
developed if they follow the development it as a synthesis of two factors: external
process of the already developed countries. discoveries like the Americas and the internal
 Walt Rostow: wrote The Stages of Economic development of modern science. He also noted
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto Britain's tolerance of religious nonconformists,
 He argued that, in their economic dimensions, open social structure, and early national
all societies lay within one of five historical consciousness in responding to foreign threats
categories: as crucial factors contributing to its take-off,
1. Traditional societies - had limited production aligning it with the broader pattern of societies
capabilities based on outdated science, modernizing in response to external influences.
primitive technologies, and spiritual beliefs 4. The Drive toward Maturity - over time, as
about the world. This restricted productivity to modern technology spread across all sectors of
agricultural levels. A rigid social hierarchy, with a country's economy, roughly 10-20% of the
landowners holding political power, gave little national income was reinvested, leading to
scope for social mobility. The value system was economic growth surpassing population growth
based on long-term fatalism. Rostow (meaning productivity per person increased).
acknowledged that grouping vastly different Around 60 years after this growth began, a
societies together didn't provide much insight society reached "maturity," meaning it had
into them individually. However, he argued that enough entrepreneurial and technical skills to
this simplification was necessary to focus on his produce whatever it required, such as machine
main topic: post traditional societies, where the tools, chemicals, or electrical equipment.
characteristics of traditional societies were 5. Age of High Mass Consumption - occurred
altered to allow consistent growth. when the main industrial sectors focused on
2. Preconditions to Take-Off - emerged in Western producing durable consumer goods and services
Europe during the late 17th and early 18th like automobiles. Real income increased to a
centuries. This period saw the application of level where a large number of people could
modern scientific discoveries to improve afford to consume well beyond their basic
agricultural and industrial production, such as needs. The workforce shifted towards urban-
using machinery instead of manual labor. skilled and office-based jobs. In Western
Britain, with its advantageous geography, trade societies, this stage often led to increased
opportunities, and political structure, was the spending on social welfare and security. The
first to undergo this transformation. In other United States reached this stage in the 1920s
regions, these changes were not internally and more fully after World War II, while Western
driven but influenced by more advanced Europe and Japan reached it in the 1950s. Even
societies. These external forces disrupted by 1960, the Soviet Union had the technical
traditional societies and accelerated their ability to enter this stage, pending approval
transformation. This involved the widespread from its Communist leaders.
acceptance of progress as a necessary condition
Dialectics & Historical Materialism
for achieving other goals, such as national pride
or economic profit. During this phase, education These concepts originated from Karl Marx and Friedrich
expanded, new economic players emerged, Engels and based it on G.W.F. Hegel’s works. The ideas
banking and investment increased, trade were changed or modified by both Marx and Engels.
expanded, and manufacturing grew. However,
 Hegelian Idealism - “idealism” is basically the
these changes occurred within societies that still
explanation of events with ideas as the main
largely adhered to traditional methods,
cause. Hegelian idealism is in touch with
structures, and values.
transcendence that is a similar idea with religion
3. Take-Off - the rise in effective investment from
but not exactly so. He termed these as “World
5% to 10% or more of national income led to the
Spirit” or “Absolute Idea”. He believed that
expansion of new industries, reinvestment of
there is a “rationality” inherent in this world.
profits, increased urban industrial employment,
For Hegel, the world spirit preceded human
 thought and affected both the human and ones are reaching or basing their status to the
material beings on earth. He believed in the developed countries
idea that “spirit thought” came first then  started in different aspects, one of which is the
followed by human rationality. The world spirit colonization of the European countries before.
according to him is all-knowing and is in Europe’s development was based on external
constant search for the absolute idea and uses destruction rather than internal innovation—
human rationality to work out contradictions brutal conquest, colonial control, stripping non-
and eventually achieve the absolute idea. Western societies of their people, resources,
 Marx & Engels Idealism - these two and surpluses rather than single-mindedly
contradicted Hegel’s perspectives on idealism. undertaking the rational modernization of
For them, it was the other way around. Their Europe
version was that instead of transcendence to  From just such historical processes as these
descendance, it was descendance to came a new global geography: a European First
transcendence. They did not agree with Hegel’s World “center” and non-European Third World
way of attributing rationality of human beings to “peripheries.”
some spiritual origin. They believed that  Theotonio dos Santos: the spatial form (gap) of
consciousness is developed by the activity of dependence, in which some countries (the
human beings and then with this consciousness dominant) achieved self-sustaining economic
comes rationality. For them, in order to reach growth while others (the dominated and
the absolute idea that Hegel proposed, man and dependent) grew only as a reflection of changes
woman must work and engage in activity in in the dominant countries:
order to find it.  Dependency: a historical condition which
 Historical Materialism - the definition of is not shapes a certain structure of the world economy
taken literally. It is defined as the origins of such that it favors some countries to the
ideas. It is also understood as the source of detriment of others and limits the development
consciousness and product of human activity. It possibilities of the subordinate economies . . . a
shows how a society is shaped by the economic situation in which the economy of a certain
activity of man and mode of production. In line group of countries is conditioned by the
with Marx and Engel’s view on idealism, human development and expansion of another
consciousness is achieved through human economy, to which their own is subjected
activity which eventually leads to
World Systems Theory
transcendence.
 Dialectics - is the exchange of ideas or is an  devised by Immanuel Wallerstein as an analysis
argument between two opposing sides or of the economic status of countries based from
clashing ideas that eventually leads to a the economic standing of the world. This
conclusion or a new idea. It is a theory of analysis classified countries into three
development that happens when two or more classifications:
contradicting ideas clash together and move  Core: these countries are the most developed
towards development. Yes, it is also in line with ones. They are not subjected to periphery and
Marx’s Conflict Theory about social change. semi-periphery countries but if not maintained
When two or more ideas clash together, there can become a periphery or semi-periphery
will of course be a conflict and to resolve these country
conflicts, development must happen and usually  Semi-Periphery: these countries are the
it is the creation of another idea. It also agrees developing ones. They are not subjected to
with the Marx and Engel’s idealism that in order periphery but are subjected to core countries
to move forward, it must start from the  Periphery: these countries are the least
grassroots. A lot can happen during a social developed ones. They are subjected to both
development because there are many factors to core and semi-periphery countries.
be considered and as complex as it sounds, it
makes up a whole which is like we have just Neoliberalism
defined, a dialectic.  defined as a market-oriented reform policies
Dependency Theory that promotes free market through eliminating
price controls, deregulating capital markets,
 says that countries who are less developed as lowering trade barriers, and the privatization of
those who are developed tend to depend on the business through reducing state influence in the
developed countries. This results into a gain for economy.
the developed countries and a loss for the less  this means, that in the market, there would be
developed ones because the less developed no pricing suggested by the government, rather
it is dictated by those in the market. The
 privatization of business means that businesses
should be owned and managed by a private
party or the owner

Globalization

 a term used to describe how trade and

technology have made the world into a more
connected and interdependent place