0% found this document useful (0 votes)
88 views52 pages

Principles of Crop Production Compiled Infos

Uploaded by

gari0722
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
88 views52 pages

Principles of Crop Production Compiled Infos

Uploaded by

gari0722
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 52

Lecture 1

Crop Production in General | Crop Production: Art, Science, and Business |Factors
Affecting Crop Production

CROP PRODUCTION IN GENERAL


Crop produc on is one of the fundamental branches of agriculture, which includes the
cul va on of crops in eld cul va on, vegetable growing, fruit growing, etc. This industry gives
necessary food to the human popula on, as well as being the basis for providing the livestock
industry with feed. Also, crop products are used in many industries as raw materials of plant
origin, such as tex le, pharmaceu cal, fuel and others.

CROP PRODUCTION: ART, SCIENCE, AND BUSINESS


Crop produc on creates. It began as an art form when people found it and started
prac cing and mastering it. It was what made people shi from nomad to sedentary as they
found out how to plant and harvest. However, it evolves over me, giving rise to its scien c
aspect. Crop produc on established a science when humans began exploring for important
factors (both plant-related and external) that had an impact on crops. They, too, are constantly
on the search for alterna ve and improved tools and processes. People desired or needed
more, so they began looking for ways to make it more e cient, such as making crops more
resistant to pests and insects, nding the best grain to use and reducing delicate and weak ones,
and bringing the best nal product. It was eventually created as a business as people a empted
to maximize produc on, sales, and earnings.

FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION


Factors in terms of the things that a ect crop produc on is divided into two, i.e., internal
and external factors.
‣ INTERNAL FACTORS
Internal factors are related to gene c make-up of plants and thus less in uenced by
environmental factors. These are called gene c factors which a ributes crop yield and other
desirable characters for crop produc on.
- High yielding ability - Chemical composi on of grains (oil
- Early maturity content, protein content) and Quality of
- Resistance to lodging grains ( neness, coarseness)
- Tolerance to insect pests and diseases - Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
- Drought, ood and salinity tolerance
‣ EXTERNAL FACTORS
External factors consist of clima c, edaphic, bio c, physiographic, and socio economic
factors.
- Clima c Factors
The clima c factors are the atmospheric weather variables which in uences the
crop produc on. In fact, success and failure of crops is in mately related to the weather
during the crop periods. Nearly 50 % of yield is a ributed to the in uence of clima c
factors. However, by adjus ng cropping pa ern and by following suitable agronomic
prac ces, one may mi gate the adverse e ect of weather in order to get high yield.
(a) Precipita on - It includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow,
hail, fog and dew. Total precipita on in amount and distribu on greatly a ects the
choice of cul vated species in a place.

4

ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ff
ti
tt
tt
ti
ti
ft
ffi
ti
ti
tt
ti
fl
ff
fl
fl
tt
ti
ti
fi
• Rain is usually seen as a bene t to crops and elds, but there is an “ideal”
amount of rainfall in any given growing season for most crops. If the average
rainfall is much lower or higher than the ideal, it can lead to signi cant
problems, from drowned crops to lower yields.
(b) Temperature - Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. Most of the
agricultural plants require temperature between 15 and 400°C for growth. The
minimum, maximum (above which crop growth ceases) and op mum temperature of
individual’s plant is called as cardinal temperature. The temperature of a place is
largely determined by its distance from the equator (la tude) and al tude.
• Germina on, growth and development of crops are highly in uenced by
temperature. It a ects leaf produc on, expansion and owering.
• Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air
temperature.
• Di usion rates of gases and liquids changes with temperature.
• Solubility of di erent substances in plant is dependent on temperature.
(c) Atmospheric Humidity (Rela ve Humidity-RH) - Water present in the atmosphere in
the form of invisible water vapour, known as humidity. RH is the amount of water
vapor present in air expressed as a percentage of the amount needed for satura on at
the same temperature. If rela ve humidity is 100% it means the en re space is lled
with water and there is no soil evapora on and plant transpira on.
• Rela ve humidity in uences the water requirement of crops.
• Rela ve humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants.
• When rela ve humidity is high there is chance for the outbreak of pest and
disease.
(d) Solar radia on - It is the source of energy for all the physical processes taking place in
the atmosphere. It drives the process of photosynthesis, evapora on and hea ng the
soil and air.
• From germina on to harvest and even post-harvest, crops are a ected by solar
radia on.
• All physical process taking place in the soil, plant, and environment are
dependent on light.
• Visible radia on is very important in photosynthe c mechanism of plants.
Photosynthe cally Ac ve Radia on (PAR – 0.4 – 0.7µ) is essen al for
produc on of carbohydrates and ul mately biomass.
• Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length as they are classi ed to
short day, long day and day neutral plants.
• Phototropism is response of plants to light direc on. E.g., Sun ower.
• Photosensi ve – Season bound varie es depends on quan ty of light received.
(e) Wind velocity - The basic func on of wind is to carry moisture (precipita on) and heat.
The moving wind also supplies fresh CO2 for the photosynthesis.
• Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.
• When wind speed is very high, it causes mechanical damage of the crops like it
removes leaves and twigs and damages crops like banana, sugarcane.
• Pollen and seeds are dispersed by wind, what we call wind dispersal and is
necessary for certain crops.
• Helps in cleaning produce to farmers.
• Causes soil erosion, increases evapora on and spread of pest and diseases.
(f) Atmospheric gases on plant growth
• CO2 – 0.03%, O2 – 20.95%, N2 – 78.09%, Argon – 0.93%, Others- 0.02%.
• CO2 is important for Photosynthesis and is taken by the plants by di usion
process from leaves through stomata.

5

ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ff
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fl
ti
ti
fl
ti
ff
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
fi
ti
ti
fi
CO2 is returned to atmosphere during decomposi on of organic materials, all

farm wastes and by respira on.
• O2 is important for respira on of both plants and animals while it is released by
plants during Photosynthesis
• Nitrogen is one of the important major plant nutrients, Atmospheric N is xed
in the soil by lightning, rainfall and N xing microbes in leguminous/pulses
crops and available to plants.
• Certain gases like SO2, CO, CH4, HF released to atmosphere are toxic to plants.
- Edaphic Factors (Soil)
(a) Soil moisture - Water is an essen al cons tuent of growing plant which it extracts
from soil.
• Water is essen al for photosynthesis.
• The moisture range between eld capacity (1/3 atm, pF- 2.54) and permanent
wil ng point (15 atm, pF- 4.2) is available to plants.
• Available moisture will be more in clay soil than sandy soil.
• Soil water helps in chemical and biological ac vi es of soil including
mineraliza on.
• It in uences the soil environment E.g.; it moderates the soil temperature from
extremes.
• Nutrient availability and mobility increase with increase in soil moisture
content.
(b) Soil air - Aera on of soil is absolutely essen al for the absorp on of water by roots.
• Occupa on of nearly 1/3rd of the pore space in the soil by air and 2/3rd by
water cons tutes the most favourable condi on for plant growth.
• Germina on is inhibited in the absence of oxygen. Plant growth su ers when
oxygen di usion rate (ODR) below 40*10-8 gm/cm2/minute. The growth of
root is ceased at 20*10-8 gm/cm2/minute ODR.
• Soil air cons tute >25% or equal in sandy soil, 15-20% in loamy and <10% in
clay of the total soil volume. Clay soil retains more water hence has the lower
air capacity.
• O2 is required for respira on of roots and microorganisms.
• Soil air is essen al for nutrient availability of the soil by breaking down
insoluble mineral to soluble salts
• For proper decomposi on of organic ma er.
• Potato, tobacco, co on linseed, tea and legumes need higher O2 in soil air.
• Rice requires low level of O2 and can tolerate water logged (absence of O2)
condi on.
(c) Soil temperature - It a ects the physical and chemical processes going on in the soil.
• For op mum root development, 10-270C, for op mum crop root
development, 15-450C
• It a ects the germina on of seeds and growth rate of underground por ons of
the crops like tapioca, sweet potato.
• It in uences the rate of absorp on of water and solutes (nutrients).
• Soil temperature controls the microbial ac vity and processes involved in the
nutrient availability.
• Cold soils are not conducive for rapid growth of most of agricultural crops.
Black co on soil absorbs about 86%, alluvial soil 40% and grass covered soil
about 60% of solar radia on. On an average the speci c heat of the soil ranges
from 0.20- 0.23.
(d) Soil mineral ma er - The mineral content of soil is derived from the weathering of
rocks. These are the sources of plant nutrients e.g.; Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Fe, K etc.

6

ti
ff
fl
fl
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
fi
(e) Soil organic ma er - It is composed of humic and non-humic substances and supplies
all the major and micro nutrients to crops.
• OM is source of plant nutrients which are liberated in available forms during
mineraliza on.
• It improves soil structure, its drainage and aera on, water holding capacity
bu er and exchange capaci es which in uences the solubility of minerals.
• It is a source of food for most microorganisms.
• Nearly 95% of Nitrogen and 33% of Phosphorus of soil are obtained from OM.
• It has the capacity to control soil temperature.
(f) Soil organisms - The raw organic ma er in the soil is decomposed by di erent micro-
organisms which in turn releases the plant nutrients. Atmospheric nitrogen is also
xed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop plants through symbio c
(Rhizobium) or non-symbio c (Azospirillum) associa on.
(g) Soil reac on - Soil reac on is the pH (hydrogen ion concentra on) of the soil.
• Soil pH a ects crop growth. Neutral soils with pH 7.0 are best for growth of
most of the crops.
• Soils with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
• Low pH also interferes with availability of other plant nutrients.
- Bio c Factors
Bene cial and harmful e ects caused by other biological organism (plants and
animals) on the crop plants.
(a) Plants
• Compe ve (allelopathy) and complimentary nature among eld crops when
grown together.
• Compe on between plants occurs when there is demand for nutrients,
moisture and sunlight par cularly when they are in short supply or when
plants are closely spaced. Compe ve interac on may be also due to release
of chemical substances or toxins called allelopathy.
• When di erent crops of cereals and legumes are grown together, mutual
bene t results in higher yield (synergis c e ect).
• Compe on between weed and crop plants as parasites eg: Striga parasite
weed on sugarcane crop.
(b) Animals
• Soil fauna like protozoa, nematode, snails, and insects help in organic ma er
decomposi on, while using organic ma er for their living.
• Insects and nematodes cause damage to crop yield and considered as harmful
organisms.
• Honey bees and wasps help in cross pollina on and increases yield and
considered as bene cial organisms
• Burrowing earthworm facilitates aera on and drainage of the soil as inges on
of organic and mineral ma er by earthworm results in constant mixing of
these materials in the soils.
• Large animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing (ca le, goats etc).
- Physiographic Factors
(a) Topography - The nature of surface earth (leveled or sloppy). Topographic factors
a ect the crop growth indirectly.
(b) Al tude - Increase in al tude cause a decrease in temperature and increase in
precipita on and wind velocity (hills and plains).
(c) Steepness of slope - Steepness of slope results in run o of rain water and loss of
nutrient rich top soil.
(d) Exposure to light and wind - A mountain slope exposed to low intensity of light and
strong dry winds may result in poor crop yields (coastal areas and interior pockets).

7
fi

ff
ti
ff
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ff
ti
ti
fi
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
tt
ti
ti
tt
fl
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ff
ti
fi
ff
ti
tt
ti
- Socio-economic factors
(a) Society inclina on to farming, land tenancy, size of land holdings, fragmenta on of
eld.
(b) Availability of labour, capital. (The economic condi on of the farmers greatly decides
the input/ resource mobilizing ability.)
(c) Government policies.
(d) Appropriate choice of crops by human beings to sa sfy the food and fodder
requirement of farm household.
(e) Breeding varie es by human inven on for increased yield or pest & disease resistance.

References:
Grignon, C. (2018). HOW RAINFALL AFFECTS CROP HEALTH. Sigfox 0G Technology. h ps://
www.sigfox.com/how-rainfall-a ects-crop-health/
#:~:text=Besides%20disease%2C%20rainfall%20can%20also,length%20between%20seeding%
20and%20harvest.
Mamai, O., Parsova, V., Lipatova, N., Gazizyanova, Y. Y., & Mamai, I. (2020). The system of
e ec ve management of crop produc on in modern condi ons. BIO Web of
Conferences, 17, 00027. h ps://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20201700027
Tiwari, S. (2021). FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION. Agriculture Wale. h ps://
www.agriculturewale.com/factors-a ec ng-crop-produc on/
Vilchis, R. (2021). How is crop produc on as a science, art, and business? Quora. h ps://
www.quora.com/How-is-crop-produc on-as-a-science-art-and-business

8
fi

ff
ti
ti
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
tt
tt
Lecture 2
Classi cation of Crops Based on their Utility and Seasons of Growing | Major and
Principal Crops of the Country | Major Fruits, Vegetables, and Flower Crops of the
Country

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS BASED ON THEIR UTILITY AND SEASONS OF GROWING


Based on the intended use, there are 6 types of crops: food, forage, ber, oil,
ornamental, and industrial.
‣ FOOD CROPS
• historically the rst to be harvested and cul vated
• grown for human consump on
- Cereals: wheat, rice, barley, millet, oats, rye, sorghum, and others
✓ Grains are a rich source of starch, protein, dietary ber, and nutrients and are an
integral part of the daily diet.
✓ In par cular, maize, rice, and wheat provide the most calories and protein consumed
in developing countries.
- Seeds: include several types of eld crops, such as cereals, nuts, legumes, and some spices
✓ Seeds are high in ber, fats, vitamins, minerals, and an oxidants.
- Fruits: apples and pears, citrus, stone fruits, tropical and exo c fruits, berries, and other
types
✓ Fruits contain a lot of dietary ber, vitamins, minerals, and an oxidants, such as
avonoids, which promote good health.
- Vegetables: root vegetables (beets, carrots, sweet potatoes, turnips), tubers (potatoes,
yams), stem vegetables (asparagus, kohlrabi, celery), leafy green (le uce, spinach,
silverbeet), allium or bulb vegetables (garlic, leeks, onions, shallots), head or ower
vegetables (ar chokes, cabbage, cauli ower), and cucurbits (pumpkin, cucumber, zucchini)
✓ Vegetables are high in water content and low in calories. They are also rich in dietary
ber, an oxidants, minerals, and vitamins (especially A and C).
- Spices: spices themselves (pepper, ginger), spice seeds, and herbs
✓ Spices are used sparingly to enhance food avor and aroma. They contain essen al
oils and alkaloids that aid appe te and diges on.

‣ FORAGE CROPS
• aka feed, plants which contain nutrients that animals require for development
• grown for livestock consump on and are essen al in pasture management.
• some of the most crucial types of forage crops are:
- sorghum - barley - millet - wheat
- alfalfa - oats - soybeans - maize
• classi ed into two types based on how it is processed:
- Hay – forage that has been cut, dried in the eld, and stored

9
fl
fi

fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
fl
ti
fl
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
fl
fi
- Silage – produced by harves ng the plants and storing them in condi ons that allow
them to be split (fermented) into acids. Types of silage crops include perennial and
annual grasses and legumes.

‣ FIBER CROPS
• Plants grown to produce ber for tex les, cordage, lling, and paper
• The well-known ber plants are:
- co on - hemp - jute - kenaf - ax
• Some of them have a good prospect as agricultural biomass with the poten al of being
converted to ethanol

‣ OIL CROPS
• second most important determinant of the agricultural economy (a er cereals) and is
the third largest user of farmland (Ritchie & Roser, 2013)
• The essen al plants of this type are:
- soybeans - rapeseed - peanuts
- sun ower seeds - canola
• Apart from producing oil for human consump on, this type of plants is used in various
industries, including soaps, paints, machinery lubricants, fuel, and many more
• also supply the raw materials for biodiesel produc on (soybean, rapeseed, sun ower,
camelina, and palm are typical biodiesel sources)

‣ ORNAMENTAL CROPS
• Plants grown for decora ve purposes in parks, gardens, and landscaping design projects
- ivy - holly - azaleas
- oleander - tulips

10
fl

tt
fl
ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ft
ti
ti
fl
‣ INDUSTRIAL CROPS
• grown for pro t and industrial use
• also referred to as cash or commercial type of crops
- co on - sugarbeet - tobacco
- jute - co ee - coconut
- sugarcane - tea - soybeans

Each crop goes through a series of stages of plant growth, from germina on to seed
produc on. The total dura on of all these stages, namely the life cycle, varies between plants.
So, according to their life cycles, crops are classi ed into 3 such as annual, biennial, and
perennial.
‣ ANNUAL CROPS
• also called as seasonal crops and have a one-year life cycle
• Because only dormant seeds can pass from one genera on to another, crops of the
annual type must be replanted each season.
- tomatoes - peas - le uce - grains
- radishes - beans - mustard
- eggplant - squash - sun owers
‣ BIENNIAL CROPS
• owering plants with a biological life cycle of two years (two growing seasons)
• During the rst year, the plant grows vegeta ve organs such as leaves, stems, and roots.
Then, the plant enters a res ng phase and overwinters underground during the cold
season. Stem elonga on, ower and seed development, and ripening occur during the
second growing season, a er which the plant dies
- carrots - turnips - cabbage - coriander
- beets - onions - parsley
‣ PERENNIAL CROPS
• plants that can live for more than two growing seasons
• usually grows new herbaceous part from the previously exis ng root system from season
to season
- some trees and shrubs (pears, apples, almonds, peaches, walnuts, hazelnuts)
- some herbaceous owering plants and ground covers

11
fl

tt
ff
tt
fl
ti
fi
fi
fl
ti
ft
fl
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
MAJOR AND PRINCIPAL CROPS OF THE COUNTRY
Philippines is known for its staple food rice, and obviously made possible to be supplied
and produced constantly. With such, it became one of the major crops of the country. But aside
from rice, there are other few. Following are the top 10 major crops and agricultural products
of the country:
1. Sugarcane
With an average of 23 million metric tons of sugarcane produc on every year, the
Philippines is the ninth biggest sugar producer in the world, with Negros Island in the Western
Visayas region being the country’s top producer. Despite this, the country is s ll impor ng sugar
due to several interna onal economic agreements, promp ng local sugar prices to increase.
2. Rice
Rice is the second top agricultural product of the Philippines in terms of volume. The
latest data provided by the Philippine Sta s cs O ce says the country produced 17.6 metric
tons of rice in 2016. Central Luzon, Bicol Region, Central Visayas, and Panay and Mindoro Islands
are the country’s top rice-producing regions and provinces.

3. Coconut
Coconut, considered “the tree of life,” is the third top agricultural product in the
Philippines. With a yearly average of 14 metric tons, coconut is one of the most produc ve
crops in the country. CALABARZON, the Bicol Region, and some parts of Mindanao are the
country’s top coconut producers. Coconut-related products are among the Philippines’ most
important exports.
4. Banana
The Philippines produce an average of 9 million metric tons a year from Mindanao and
Mindoro Islands. Banana products from Mindanao, especially from Davao, are among the
country’s biggest imports. Philippines’ banana products are known worldwide.
5. Corn
The Philippines produce an average of 7.5 million metric tons of corn every year and
much of this is used in animal feed produc on. In Cebuano-speaking regions like Cebu, Negros
Oriental, and other parts of Mindanao, corn is preferred as staple food instead of rice.
6. Cassava
Cassava is another important crop in the Philippines and its uses are not only limited to
food. Cassava is also used in some industrial applica ons like glue and other related products.
Mindanao region is the biggest cassava producer, accoun ng for more than 75% of the country’s
2.7 million metric tons of yearly cassava produc on.
Pineapple
Pineapple in the Philippines is an important product and is consumed both locally and
abroad. Del Monte and Dole food companies have pineapple farms in Mindanao, especially in
Davao, Surigao, and Bukidnon. The country is producing an average of 2.6 metric tons of
pineapple during the early season.
7. Mango
Mango from Guimaras Island is considered the best in the world. Davao is also a big
producer and exporter of this Philippine-na ve product. The country is producing an average of
814,000 metric tons of mango every year.
8. Camote
Camote or sweet potato is also a very important crop in the Philippines. Sweet potato is
considered a primary “merienda” by urban people in the country, especially in the Western
Visayas region, as a subs tute for saba banana and sweet corn. The country is producing an
average of 530,000 metric tons of sweet potato every year mostly from Central Luzon.

12

ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ffi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
9. Rubber
Rubber is one of the most important exports and the only non-food agricultural product
on this list. Rubber trees are mostly grown in Socsargen and Zamboanga Peninsula.
10. Lanzones
Lanzones are abundant in the Philippines especially in Batangas, Negros Occidental, and
Mindanao Island. Camiguin Island is very popular when speaking about this fruit as the province
is celebra ng Lanzones Fes val each year.
Other crops that failed to enter the top but are also important are cacao, abaca, co ee,
peanut, mongo (mung beans), garlic, onions, pili nut, and tobacco.

MAJOR FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND FLOWER CROPS OF THE COUNTRY


The Philippines has more than 300 edible fruit and nut species but only a few are
commercially cul vated. In terms of volume of produc on, banana, pineapple, and mango are
the major fruits grown, followed by citrus, papaya, jackfruit, and durian. Vegetable crops, on
one hand, those that tops the list are mongo, peanut, cabbage, eggplant, tomato, sweet potato,
and cassava.
In the Philippines, ower crops that are commonly seen produced commercially are cut
owers. Cut owers are fresh owers and ower buds that have been cut from the plant
suitable for bouquets, wreaths, corsage and special ower arrangements. Common in the
country are orchid, lily, laceleaf or anthurium, rose, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, and heliconia.

References:
7. CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES - Teresita L. Rosario[7]. (n.d.). h ps://
www.fao.org/3/AC452E/ac452e07.htm
Brosas, A. (2022, August 11). Top 10 agricultural crops in the Philippines. Agraryo. h ps://
agraryo.com/agriculture/top-10-food-crops-in-the-philippines/#gsc.tab=0
Brosas, A. (2022, August 18). (What are the most produced vegetables in the Philippines?).
Agraryo. h ps://agraryo.com/agriculture/14-of-the-most-pro table-vegetables-to-grow-
in-the-philippines/#gsc.tab=0
Brosas, A. (2023, January 29). (How many species of fruits are found in the Philippines?).
Agraryo. h ps://agraryo.com/agriculture/most-pro table-fruits-to-plant-and-grow-in-
the-philippines/#gsc.tab=0
Cherlinka, V. (2023, August 3). Types Of Crops In Agriculture: Why And How To Classify. EOS Data
Analy cs. h ps://eos.com/blog/types-of-crops/
Cut Flowers Grown in the Philippines: Everything You Need To Know. (n.d.). Flower Patch.
h ps:// owerpatchdelivery.com/blog/cut- owers-grown-philippines/

13
fl

tt
ti
ti
fl
fl
ti
tt
tt
tt
fl
ti
fl
fl
fl
ti
fl
fi
fi
tt
tt
ff
Lecture 3
Crop Rotation and its Principles | Advantages of Crop Rotation

CROP ROTATION AND ITS PRINCIPLE


Crop rota on is the prac ce of plan ng di erent crops sequen ally on the same plot of
land to improve soil health, op mize nutrients in the soil, and combat pest and weed pressure.
It contrasts mono-cropping or random succession. Suppose a farmer has planted a eld of corn.
When the corn harvest is nished, he might plant beans, since corn consumes a lot of nitrogen
and beans return nitrogen to the soil.
The number of plants might range from two or three in simple rota ons to twelve or
more in complex ones. The average crop rota on cycle takes up to eight years.

Image retrieved from h ps://psci.princeton.edu/ ps/2020/3/21/agriculture-101

For any program to be successful, it must undergo careful planning and execu on. Crop
rota on is not an excep on to this. Following are some principles must taken into considera on:
✓ Crops of the same family should not be grown in succession.
An example is to avoid crops such as Tomatoes, Pepper, Eggplant or Tobacco following
each other in a sequence because they all belong to the same family, Solanaceae and as such,
share similar pests. It is therefore advisable to follow such with crops belonging to a di erent
order and family to help achieve the purpose.
✓ The tap-rooted crops should be grown alternately with brous-rooted crops.
The crops with tap roots should be followed by those which have brous root system.
This helps in proper & uniform use of nutrients from the soil. The roots do not compete with
each other for uptake of nutrients. Example is previously plan ng rice with brous roots,
then be followed by pigeon pea with tap root system.
✓ The deep-rooted crop should be followed by a shallow-rooted crop and vice versa.
Deep-rooted crops such as cassava should be followed by shallow-rooted crops such as
Okra. This ensures that while the cassava feeds from a deep part of the soil, the nutrients in
the shallow part of the soil will s ll be available for the Okra to u lize when it is planted.
✓ More exhaus ve crops should be followed by less exhaus ve crops or restora ve crops.
Example of exhaus ve crops are cereals which take more nutrients from the soil and do
not add anything to it. Restora ve crops, on the other hand, include legume crops which not
only take nutrients from the soil but at the same me also add nutrients to the soil. It is

14

ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
ff
ti
important to include legumes in the rota on program because of the roles they play in soil
fer lity. Most legumes x nitrogen into the soil and this enriches the soil and reduces the
dependence on fer lizers. That way also reduces the cost of produc on for the farmer.
✓ Long-dura on crops should be followed by short-dura on crops.
✓ Crops with minimum water requirements should be grown in periods of water de ciency.
✓ Selec on of the crop should be demand based.
✓ The selec on of crops should be problem based.
It is very important to select crops that can address the issues of the land. Example on
sloppy lands, erosion-resistant crops (spreading types like legumes) should be incorporated
into the plan.
✓ The selec on of crops should suit to the farmer’s nancial condi ons.
✓ The crops selected should also suit to the soil and climate condi ons.
ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION AND ROTATIONAL INTENSITY
There are numerous ecological and economic bene ts of using crop rota on. In a more
speci c sense, it aids in long-term soil and farm management. Following are advantages of crop
rota on:
‣ INCREASED SOIL FERTILITY
Di erent plant species interact with soil nutrients in par cular ways, releasing and
absorbing speci c nutrient elements in unique propor ons. Therefore, a well-planned
rota on strategy helps improve soil fer lity by either restoring depleted nutrients or using
excess nutrients, balancing the soil’s nutrient levels.
In addi on, the residue of bene cial microorganisms le by various plants helps boost
organic ma er levels in the soil. Land le fallow is naturally fer lized by the dung of animals
grazing there. Le over biomass from harves ng is pure green manure that also adds to soil
fer lity, reducing the need for synthe c fer lizers.
‣ ENHANCED SOIL STRUCTURE
Crop rota on a ects not only the nutrient cycling in soil but also the recycling of plant
residues, the forma on and distribu on of biopores, and the development of bene cial
microbes in various types of soil. These processes reduce soil compac on, making way for
op mal condi ons in which seeds germinate e ortlessly, roots spread and water permeates
deeply, and air circulates freely. That’s why rota ng plants is essen al to help the soil stay
healthy.
‣ PREVENTING SOIL EROSION
Depending on the type of crop, root systems can be shallow or deep, penetra ng the
soil at di erent depths and, thus, improving the soil’s porosity. High-residue plants, such as
maize, hay, and small grains, can be rotated to lessen soil erosion since the residue they leave
behind acts as a barrier, preven ng topsoil erosion. Long-living perennial grasses also
e ec vely halt water erosion and soil nutrient losses. Even in upland areas, it is possible to
mi gate erosion by employing a mix of perennial grass species and planned crop rota on.
‣ YIELD BOOST AND STREAMLINED RISK MANAGEMENT
When land grows stagnant and doesn’t yield as much as it should, farmers are
encouraged to prac ce crop rota on. Throughout its cycles, rota on promotes plants’
resistance to abio c stressors while boos ng their produc vity. Plants receive plen ful
nourishment from the soil’s available nutrients, guaranteeing crop yield increase. Therefore,
rota on diversity can assure higher output and lower produc on risks over the long term.
‣ IMPROVED SOIL NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE REGULATION
Crop rota on, as men oned before, helps the soil renew its nutrients so that less
fer lizer is needed. Plan ng legumes, for instance, boosts soil nitrogen xa on because these
plants harbor nitrogen- xing bacteria. Also, farmers can reduce their use of fer lizer and
improve carbon sequestra on by adding grasses, cereals, and oil plants to their rota ons.

15

ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ff
ff
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ft
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
‣ CONTAINING THE SPREAD OF PESTS AND DISEASES
The prevalence of pests and diseases is easily reduced by disrup ng the life cycles of
pests that feed on similar plant species. Farmers who are familiar with the seasonal pa erns
of pests and diseases and the plants they a ect can schedule the plan ng of the host plant
during a me of year when the risk of infec on is low. By carefully planning seasonal crop
rota on, farmers may reduce their reliance on pes cides while improving environmental
sustainability.
‣ IMPROVED WEED MANAGEMENT
Crop rota on is a vital aspect of integrated weed management. There are too many
weed species with unique characteris cs and life cycles to e ec vely target with a single
method. Rota on and annual cover plants used within an integrated system reduce weed
biomass and alter the species mix of weeds while decreasing pes cide use. With this
approach in place, growers can also switch to no- ll farming, which is bene cial to the soil
structure and its overall health.
‣ MORE EFFICIENT WATER USE
Crop rota on improves water use e ciency by increasing the amount of organic ma er
in the soil, which can improve soil structure and water-holding capacity. Also, this method
helps preserve moisture in deep soil layers, which plants can use during droughts. This way,
farmers can reduce irriga on water usage.

References:
Adebayo, A. (2022, July 5). Principles And Bene ts Of Crop Rota on In Agriculture. Afrimash.
h ps://afrimash.com/principles-and-bene ts-of-crop-rota on-in-agriculture/
Cherlinka, V. (2023, June 8). Crop Rota on: A Way To Boost Your Yields. EOS Data Analy cs.
h ps://eos.com/blog/crop-rota on/
Crop Rota ons. (2020, December 15). Rodale Ins tute. h ps://rodaleins tute.org/why-organic/
organic-farming-prac ces/crop-rota ons/
Principles of Crop Rota on. (n.d.). h p://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?
id=15782
Sethi, K. (2018, October 31). Crop rota on and its principle. SlideShare. h ps://
www.slideshare.net/krishnaSethi1/crop-rota on-and-its-principle

16

ti
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ffi
ti
ff
ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
fi
ti
tt
tt
Lecture 4
Cropping Scheme and its Principles | Cropping Intensity | Systems of Cropping viz.
Mixed and Intensive | Principles and Advantages of Mixed Cropping

CROPPING SCHEME AND ITS PRINCIPLES


Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a
farm during a giving period of me with the objec ve of obtaining maximum return from each
crop without impairing the soil fer lity. Thus this is related to the most pro table use of
resources, land, labour, capital and management. In some sources, it is described as a farm
budget prepared in advance of a cropping season of the year showing the details of farm
ac vi es during the proposed year. In prepara on to this, following are some principles to be
considered:
✓ Consulta on should be made of a map, indica ng the farm layout such as roads, ponds,
irriga on facili es, number of plots and area, etc.
✓ Varie es of the crop should be selected following local and na onal requirements.
✓ Proper crop rota on should be followed for maintaining soil fer lity and for controlling pests
and diseases.
✓ Green manuring crops should be cul vated for organic ma er.
✓ A par cular place should be earmarked for animal husbandry.
✓ Irriga on and drainage facili es should be checked and made adequate for the cropping
scheme.
✓ Commercial crops should be considered.
✓ Last year’s applica on of fer lizer and its residual e ect should be considered.
✓ A source of capital should be secured.
CROPPING INTENSITY
Cropping intensity is a way to increase crop produc on from the same piece of land and
is de ned as the number of crops a farmer grows on the same eld in a given agricultural year.
This is calculated as the ra o of Gross Area Sown to Net Area Sown. Gross Cropped Area is the
total area that has been sown once, twice or more during a given year; the area is counted as
many mes as there are sowings during that year. This total area is some mes referred to as the
total cul vated area or the whole area that has been sown. Net Sown Area, on the other hand,
is the total area planted with orchards and crops. The area that is sown more than once in a
single year is only counted once.
Cropping Intensity = Gross Cropped Area/Net Sown Area x 100

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING
Cropping system refers to the crops and crop sequences and the management
techniques used on a par cular eld over a period of years. It represents crop (cropping)
pa erns used on the farm and their interac ons with farm resources, other farm enterprises,
and available technology, which determine their makeup. Example of such systems are mixed
and intensive cropping.
‣ MIXED CROPPING
Mixed cropping, also known as inter-cropping or co-cul va on, is a type of plant
produc on system that involves plan ng two or more species (or cul vars) simultaneously in
the same eld in a variable order—row or rowless.

17

ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
‣ INTENSIVE CROPPING
Intensive cropping refers to growing number of crops on the same piece of land during
the given period of me.

PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF MIXED CROPPING


Mixed cropping is the process of growing two or more crop together in the same piece
of land. This system of cropping is generally prac ced in areas where clima c hazards such as
ood, drought, frost etc., are frequent and common.
To properly execute such cropping system, some principles are needed to be taken into
considera on:
✓ Mixture should consist short and long dura on crops.
✓ Crops being a acked by similar insects, pests and diseases should not be sown together.
✓ Bushy crops should be sown with erect growing crops.
✓ Legumes should be sown with non-legumes.
✓ Harvests keep up pro tability with lesser input.
Every system has its posi ve and nega ve e ects. Following are the advantages of mixed
cropping:
‣ It reduces cost of cul va on .
‣ It improves or maintain the soil fer lity.
‣ Mixed cropping checks soil erosion, weeds etc.
‣ The farmers grow di erent crops which ful ll their daily need or demand for cereals.
‣ Family labour and ca le are employed throughout the year.
‣ All the crop do not fail under adverse clima c condi on.

References:
Agricultual Study. (2021, May 20). Mixed cropping Advantages and principles. Agricultural Study.
h ps://www.agriculturalstudy.com/2021/05/mixed-cropping-advantages-and-
principles.html#:~:text=Principles%20of%20Mixed%20Cropping%20%3A&text=
Mixture%20should%20consist%20short%20and%20long%20dura on%20crops.&text=
Crops%20being%20a acked%20by%20similar,should%20not%20be%20sown%
20together.&text=Bushy%20crops%20should%20be%20sown%20with%20erect%
20growing%20crops.&text=Legumes%20should%20be%20sown%20with,with
%20jowar%2C%20gram%20with%20wheat%20.
Cropping pa ern and cropping system - Intensive cropping- Sustainable agriculture – IFS. (n.d.).
h p://eagri.org/eagri50/AGRO101/lec15.pdf
Cropping scheme, cropping pa erns, cropping systems, Cropping intensity. (n.d.). University of
Sargodha. h ps://lms.su.edu.pk/lesson/147/week-03-cropping-scheme-cropping-
pa erns-cropping-systems-cropping-intensity
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences. (n.d.). Cropping Systems. Washington State University.
h ps://css.wsu.edu/research/agricultural-systems/cropping-systems/
Grover, N. (n.d.). Cropping intensity - agriculture notes. Prepp. h ps://prepp.in/news/e-492-
cropping-intensity-agriculture-notes#
Musa, A. (2021). Cropping Scheme (De ni on, U lity, Importance, Principle). Basic Agricultural
Study. h ps://agriculturistmusa.com/cropping-scheme-de ni on-u lity-importance-
and-principles-of-prepara on/#google_vigne e
Special Issue "Produc ve and Ecological Aspects of Mixed Cropping System." (n.d.). h ps://
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture/special_issues/Mixed_Cropping

18
fl

tt
tt
tt
ti
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
fi
ti
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
tt
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
Lecture 5
Intensive Cropping and Methods viz. Multiple and Intercropping |
Crop Diversi cation

INTENSIVE CROPPING AND METHODS


Intensive cropping is the process of growing a number of crops on the same piece of
land during the given period of me. It is a cropping method u lized when the area is limited
and the number of crops to be grown is increased within a de nite period of me. The main
objec ve is to increase the income/unit area within a speci ed period of me.
To make intensive cropping a success, di erent methods were developed. Some of which
are mul ple cropping and intercropping methods.
‣ MULTIPLE CROPPING
Mul ple cropping is the prac ce of growing two or more crops on the same eld in a
year. It involves the intensi ca on of cropping in temporal and spa al dimensions. It is a
philosophy of maximum crop produc on per land area with a minimum of soil health
deteriora on.
For successful mul ple cropping program the following things must be made available:
✓ Availability of most suited high yielding and short dura on crop varie es. These varie es
must be responsive to input doses and they should also be thermo and photo non-
sensi ve so that at least three crops could be grown every year.
✓ Availability of gene cally superior quality seed or plan ng materials so that a required
genotype could be grown and they may express their full yield poten als.
✓ An excellent physic-chemical proper es of soil like well leveled land surface, be er
structure, aera on, water holding capacity, permeability, free from undesirable salts, etc.
should be maintained. The soil should be fer le and rich in organic ma er content so that
it may sustain high intensity cropping with greater produc vity.
✓ The area should not be prone to clima c hazards like ood, drought, frost, etc. and all
preven ve measures should be taken in advance to meet any such challenges.
✓ Ready availability of inputs like labour, capital, irriga on, power, fer lizer, seed and plant
protec on materials and equipments with technical details.
✓ An o cial and regulated marke ng facili es should be provided to the growers so that
they may get remunera ve prices of their produce to enable them recycling of funds in
be er crop planning. This would also avoid glut in the market.
✓ The cul vators must be well acquainted with latest crop produc on technologies like zero
or minimum llage, relay or overlapping cropping systems etc.
✓ The farmers should get acquainted with allelopathic e ects of some crops and their
associated weeds so that the suscep ble crops could be avoided in succession viz.
accumula on of HCN in sorghum stubbles becomes toxic to wheat seedling, therefore,
wheat should be avoided a er the sorghum.
✓ The crops should be harvested at physiological maturity so that sowing of next crop could
not be delayed and every day of the year may be u lized for crop produc on.
✓ The farmers should know about post harvest processing of various crops and their
products which may help in genera ng employment opportuni es and in apprecia ng the
value of the produce. This would also reduce glut in the market and a lower marke ng
compe on which will help in stabilizing the prices of agricultural commodi es.
✓ Crop insurance scheme should be launched for high input requiring crops or cash crops like
potato, tobacco, co on etc.

19

tt
ffi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ft
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ff
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
tt
ti
✓ The farmers must be acquainted with ill-e ects of mul ple cropping like gradual deple on
in soil fer lity and de ciency of certain micro-nutrients, gradual build up in popula on of
certain pest and disease pathogens etc. so that mely cura ve measures may be taken.
✓ The farmers should be frequently trained in latest techniques through demonstra ons,
eld days, farmers’ mee ng etc. for an e cient transfer of technologies and their proper
adop on by the farmers.
‣ INTERCROPPING
The intercropping system employs growing several species in-between each other during
the same season, alterna vely to monoculture farming. Intercropping prac ces di er in the
arrangement, sowing me, and plant combina ons. Thus, perennials can grow together with
other perennials or annuals, and annuals can grow with other annuals. An example of a
perennial-annual intercropping match is garlic and tomatoes. In tropical regions, co ee and
banana make a popular perennial combina on.
Regarding the me of seeding, plants are sown either at the same me or when other
species are already owering or ready for harves ng.
The basic idea in proper companion matches is to make them bene t from each other,
not compete. The intercropping prac ce is based on principles and rules with respect to
di erent plant families, architecture, me of maturing, growth habits (sunlight and water
needs in par cular):
✓ Combine high growing and wide growing species.
✓ Match shallow-rooted plants with deep-rooted ones.
✓ Select species with similar water needs (e.g. cabbage demanding abundant irriga on must
not grow together with companions requiring scarce water supply).
✓ Match plants that do not compete for sunlight (one should be able to develop in the shade
of the other).
✓ Avoid grouping crops of the same family to mi gate pest invasions. For this reason, you
must not plant potatoes with eggplants or tomatoes; however, they go well with
beetroots. On the contrary, combina ons of di erent families in intercropping eliminate
infesta on. Thus, matches of solanaceous plants with corn reduce the movement of
Colorado potato beetles (host vs. non-host crops).
✓ Mind possible disease outbreaks due to close interac on in intercropping. Note that pests
not only damage crops physically by ea ng but bear viruses cri cal for speci c vegeta on.
✓ Add culinary herbs for the repellant e ect.
✓ Plant legumes with non-legumes to improve soil fer lity (to raise the concentra on of
nitrogen).
✓ Sow a ractant intercropping species to lure pollinators.
✓ Choose slow-growing and fast-growing cultures. In this case, when the la er are
harvested, the rst ones will have enough space to develop.
✓ Consider allelopathic proper es, which are among the main disadvantages of
intercropping.
✓ Select plants for physical support. Beans greatly wine on corn. However, their immediate
neighborhood complicates eld opera ons.

CROP DIVERSIFICATION
Crop diversi ca on means growing more than one crop in an area. Diversi ca on can be
accomplished by adding a new crop species or di erent variety, or by changing the cropping
system currently in use. Commonly it can mean adding more crops into an exis ng rota on.
Diversi ca on can also be implemented to replace low-value commodi es with high-value
commodi es, such as vegetables and fruits. It can also include an integra on of crops and
livestock, de ned as mixed farming. Crop diversity encompasses several aspects, such as crop
species diversity, varietal diversity within crop species, and gene c diversity within crop species.

20
fi

ff
ti
tt
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
fi
ti
fl
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ffi
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
It is recognized as one of the most feasible, cost-e ec ve, and ra onal ways of developing a
resilient agricultural cropping system.
Through crop diversi ca on, farming households can spread produc on and economic
risk over a broader range of crops, thus reducing nancial risks associated with unfavorable
weather or market shocks. Growing diverse produce may also help nancially by expanding the
market poten al. The inclusion of a variety of crops, in some areas, can lead to the
development of new agriculturally based industries, improving the economic poten al of a rural
community. Addi onally, diverse cropping systems generally provide more varied and healthier
food for humans and livestock.
Produc on of diverse crops on the same land can produce many agronomic bene ts in
pest management by breaking insect and disease cycles, reducing weeds and soil erosion, and
conserving soil moisture. The more diverse a farming system is with plants, animals and soil-
borne organisms, the more varied the popula on of bene cial pest- gh ng microbes in the soil.
This approach may improve the economic picture of the farm by reducing produc on costs and
increasing gross income. For example, the inclusion of legumes into rota on reduces spending
on nitrogen fer lizer or adding crops (two or more) into the rota on, resul ng in fewer pest
problems, reducing expenditures on pes cides.

References:
AE: Lesson 30. Di erent Cropping Systems - i. (n.d.). h p://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/
page/view.php?id=1566
Crop Diversi ca on. (n.d.). University of Nevada, Reno. h ps://extension.unr.edu/
publica on.aspx?PubID=3816
Mul ple Cropping Systems: Basic Examples/Types, Bene ts. (n.d.). Basic Agricultural Study.
h ps://agriculturistmusa.com/mul ple-cropping-systems/#google_vigne e
Sergieieva, K. (2020, November 11). Intercropping: Ergonomic And E cient Farming. EOS Data
Analy cs. h ps://eos.com/blog/intercropping/

21

ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
tt
fi
ti
tt
fi
ti
ffi
ti
fi
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
fi
Lecture 6
Tillage De nition, Function, Importance, Types, and Methods

WHAT IS TILLAGE?
Tillage is the prepara on of soil for plan ng and the cul va on of soil a er plan ng. It is
the manipula on of the soil into a desired condi on by mechanical means; tools are employed
to achieve some desired e ect (such as pulveriza on, cu ng, or movement). It is the prac ce of
aera ng the soil to permit moisture and air to permeate, allowing seeds to germinate,
encouraging root growth, controlling weed growth, and integra ng fer lizers into the soil.

WHY TILL?
Tilling is prac ced to prepare a suitable seedbed, remove or destroy weeds, eliminate
compe on from weed growth, improve the physical condi on of the soil and control insects,
other pests, and disease organisms.
The goals of llage opera ons can be divided into three categories: physical, chemical,
and biological bene ts/improvements derived from the soil.
Physical bene ts/improvement of soil due to llage:
• To cut loose, shelter the dense soil to the desired depth and break the clods and crust to a
desirable extent for a suitable seedbed for plan ng.
• To cover and pack the seeds or plan ng propagates with soil.
• To improve the capacity of soil to receive rain or irriga on water, retain and release
moisture for crop plants, or increase percola on or drying of excess soil water.
• To redistribute the soil cons tuents, par cularly soil par cles, organic ma er, micro-
organisms, moisture, and air.
• To maintain the proper structural condi on of the soil.
• To incorporate crop residues, green manure, and other organic manure fer lizers.
• To prepare the land surface suitable for easy, early, and uniform irriga on and drainage
water distribu on.
• To increase soil aera on, par cularly in non-capillary spaces.
• To reduce soil erosion, degrada on, and deple on.
• To modify the thermal capacity of the soil.
Chemical bene ts/improvements of soil due to llage:
• To accelerate the weathering of soil
• To improve the availability of plant nutrients by enhancing the decomposi on of organic
ma er, mineraliza on, etc.
• To remove toxic gases from the prolonged reduced soil condi ons and detoxify soil from
any harm of agrochemicals.
• To reclaim problem soils.
Biological bene ts/improvements of soil due to llage:
• To control soil-borne insect pests, pathogens, and larger soil animals, including rodents
• To improve the distribu on of nutrients.
• To improve the growth of roots by reducing penetra on resistance of the soil promo ng
roots respira on a ects the moist zone of the soil.
• To provide an op mum habitat that encourages early and uniform growing and seedlings
establishment.
• To provide be er anchorage to crop plants and the underground development of storage
roots and stems.

22

tt
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
fi
fi
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ft
ti
ti
ti
• To encourage soil-inhabi ng growth and ac vity, bene cial ora and fauna, including
symbio c bacteria.
• To provide suitable condi ons for necessary eld opera ons, for instance, plan ng and
harves ng quickly, smoothly, and uniformly.

TYPES OF TILLAGE
1. Preparatory llage
2. Primary llage
3. Secondary llage
4. Inter llage
PREPARATORY TILLAGE:
The llage opera on is done for the purpose of the eld for raising crops. It consists of deep
plowing and loosening of soil to bring about desirable lth and incorporate or uproot weeds
and stables.
PRIMARY TILLAGE:
In preparatory llage, the rst cu ng and inver ng of the soil a er the harvest of a crop or
un lled fallow or bringing virgin or new land under cul va on is primary llage. The depth of
primary llage ranges from 10 – 30 cm. It may be done once, twice, or thrice in a year. Primary
llage includes plowing in which the soil is cut, li ed, sha ered, twisted, and inverted for
further prepara on. Large soil clods are formed due to primary llage.
SECONDARY TILLAGE:
The llage opera ons are done a er primary llage to bring a good soil lth. In this opera on,
the soil is not inverted. S ll, the ins nct of that s rred by breaking clods and crusts, uproo ng
and removing weeds and root stokes incorpora ng manures and fer lizers leveling, preparing
rides, farrows, and irriga on drainage channels of eld, conserving soil moisture, increasing
in ltra on and aera on, and checking erosion, post plowing but presiding llage opera on with
their s mula ng e ect of the soil destroy weed seedlings and prevent weed seed germina on.
INTER TILLAGE:
The llage opera ons are done in the eld a er sowing or plan ng and before harves ng crop
plants. i.e., during eld dura on. This is also known as inter cul va on or post-seeding of the
plan ng cul va on. It includes harrowing, hoeing, weeding, earthing up, raking, riding, and
furrowing. Inter llage is shallower in nature.

METHODS OF TILLAGE
1. Conven onal llage system
2. Zero llage
3. Minimum llage
4. Strip llage
5. Conserva on llage system
CONVENTIONAL TILLAGE SYSTEM:
This is a method commonly found worldwide, including in Bangladesh. Where ca le and horses
are used as the main power source. Later on, tractor power is also used in intensive manure.
Plowing, disking once or twice to break the soil clods, and collec ng the plant materials have
been common for many years. The conven onal llage usually prepares a farm seedbed free of
clods, and soil aggregates are rmly divided.
ZERO TILLAGE:
Zero llage may be de ned as the llage system that involves no seedbed prepara on other
than opening the soil to place the seed.

23
ti

fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fi
ft
tti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ft
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
fi
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
tt
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
MINIMUM TILLAGE:
The last amount of llage required to prepare a good seedbed for seed germina on, plant
establishment, and prevent weed growth is known as minimum llage.
STRIP TILLAGE:
The llage opera on performs in the isolated bands separated by the soil bands. That is not
distributed by llage implements is known as strip llage.
CONSERVATIVE TILLAGE SYSTEM:
A conserva on llage system may be de ned as a system of llage opera on that involves
minimum prepara on of the eld for raising crops. This is also called abnormal llage.

References:
De ni on of llage – objec ves, types, bene ts and methods. (n.d.). Basic Agricultural Study.
h ps://agriculturistmusa.com/de ni on-of- llage/#google_vigne e
Stewart, R. E. (2023, July 16). Tillage | De ni on, Types, Equipment, Prac ces, Importance, &
Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. h ps://www.britannica.com/topic/ llage
Tillage and cul va on. (2019, March 13). Oregon State University - College of Agricultural
Sciences. h ps://agsci.oregonstate.edu/mes/sustainable-onion-produc on/ llage-and-
cul va on

24

fi
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
fi
tt
fi
fi
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
Lecture 7
Effects of Tillage on the Soil Characteristics and Nutrient Availability |
Selection of Tillage Methods

Image retrieved from h p://aridagriculture.com/2018/02/06/introduc on-soil- llage/

EFFECTS OF TILLAGE ON THE SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY


Tillage can have both nega ve and posi ve e ects on soil characteris cs and nutrient
availability.
Nega ve e ects:
• Tillage can disrupt soil structure, leading to soil erosion and surface runo .
• Frequent llage can nega vely impact almost every characteris c of soil quality, including
bulk density, good soil pores and water-holding capacity, good in ltra on rates, overall
lth, and high levels of organic ma er and bene cial soil organisms.
• Inappropriate single llage treatment can cause soil par cles to migrate and se le,
accelerate the nutrients mineraliza on and deple on.
• Tillage reduces crop residue, which helps cushion the force of pounding raindrops, leading
to nutrient loss and damage to the soil's physical proper es.
Posi ve e ects:
• Researchers have found increased crop yield a er several years of conserva on llage.
• Ploughing plus harrowing plus ridging improved nutrient availability.
The e ects of llage on soil characteris cs and nutrient availability depend on the type
and frequency of llage, soil type, and other environmental factors.

25
ti

ti
ti
ff
ti
ff
ff
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ft
ti
fi
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
SELECTION OF TILLAGE METHODS
Producers frequently u lize a certain llage strategy based on history and familiarity.
When considering adjustments to their llage opera ons, they must "push the pencil"
somewhat to assess op ons and alterna ves. Learning from the experiences of others before
deciding on a llage method or inves ng in new or di erent equipment can also be cost-
e ec ve.
To reduce equipment requirements, the selec on of a llage strategy should take into
account all crops in the crop rota on across all soils on the farm. However, some soils or crops
may perform be er with a di erent llage strategy than the system used for the remainder of
the farm. In these cases, a comprehensive machinery analysis is required to determine whether
the yield gains outweigh the increased xed and variable costs of two or more llage and
plan ng processes. This approach may jus fy the addi onal equipment in some cases, such as
with no- ll drilled soybeans and/or wheat paired with mulch- ll corn or strip- ll for sugar beets
while no- lling the other crops in the rota on. Other mes, using only one llage strategy, such
as ridge-plan ng with con nuous row crops or no- ll for all crops, may be preferable.
Each llage strategy has advantages and disadvantages, and producers must also
consider their management skills. Fuel and labor requirements must be assessed, but they vary
widely because there are numerous ways to implement the same llage technique, based on
crops grown, machine size, opera on depths, soil types, and a variety of other factors. Weather,
soils, loca on, available moisture, rota ons, managerial abili es, and a variety of other factors
all in uence yield.

References:
Alam, K., Islam, M. M., Salahin, N., & Hasanuzzaman, M. (2014). E ect of Tillage Prac ces on Soil
Proper es and Crop Produc vity in Wheat-Mungbean-Rice Cropping System under
Subtropical Clima c Condi ons. The Scien c World Journal, 2014, 1–15.
h ps://doi.org/10.1155/2014/437283
Al-Kaisi, M., Hanna, M., & Tidman, M. (2004). Frequent llage and its impact on soil quality.
Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. h ps://crops.extension.iastate.edu/
encyclopedia/frequent- llage-and-its-impact-soil-quality
Comparing and selec ng a llage system. (2018, December 7). University of Nebraska-Lincoln
CropWatch. h ps://cropwatch.unl.edu/ llage/comparison
Liu, Z., Cao, S., Sun, Z., Wang, H., Qu, S., Lei, N., He, J., & Dong, Q. (2021). Tillage e ects on soil
proper es and crop yield a er land reclama on. Scien c Reports, 11(1). h ps://
doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84191-z
Lv, L., Gao, Z., Liao, K., Zhu, Q., & Zhu, J. (2023). Impact of conserva on llage on the distribu on
of soil nutrients with depth. Soil & Tillage Research, 225, 105527. h ps://doi.org/
10.1016/j.s ll.2022.105527
Tan, C., Cao, X., Yuan, S., Wang, W., Feng, Y., & Qiao, B. (2015). E ects of long-term conserva on
llage on soil nutrients in sloping elds in regions characterized by water and wind
erosion. Scien c Reports, 5(1). h ps://doi.org/10.1038/srep17592
Wolkowski, R.P. (2005). Impact of llage on soil proper es. Soil Science Extension - University of
Wincosin Madison. . h ps://extension.soils.wisc.edu/wcmc/impact-of- llage-on-soil-
proper es/

26

ff
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
fi
ff
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
Lecture 8
Characteristics of Good Seed | Types of Seeds

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SEED


The seeds in its real meaning must possess the following characters:
✓ It must be true to its type.
✓ The seeds must be healthy, pure and free from all the inert materials and weed seeds.
✓ The seeds must be viable, the germina on capacity is up to the standard and it has been
tested recently.
✓ The seeds must be uniform in texture and structure.
✓ The seeds must be truthfully labeled and produced under due care and strict supervision so
that it does not degenerate quickly.
✓ The seed must not be a ected by any seed born disease.
TYPES OF SEEDS
The seed is the embryonic plant that is enclosed inside the protec ve outer layer. The
structure is the most dis nguishable speci c gene c components that may vary among di erent
each and every seed. This varies with the kind of crop but not with the variety.
However, based on the number of cotyledons present in the seed, they are classi ed as
monocot and dicot seeds.

Image retrieved from h ps://www.geeksforgeeks.org/di erence-between-monocotyledon-and-dicotyledon/

‣ MONOCOT SEEDS / MONOCOTYLEDONS


Monocotyledons are a group of owering plants characterized by having a single
embryonic leaf, or cotyledon, in their seeds. They are one of the two major groups of
angiosperms, the other being dicotyledons. Monocots are dis nguished from dicots by
several features, including leaves with parallel veins, sca ered vascular bundles in the stem,
ower parts in mul ples of three, and a brous root system. Examples of monocots include
grasses, lilies, orchids, palm trees, and bamboo. Many monocots are important food crops,
such as rice, wheat, corn, and sugarcane. Monocots are also valued for their ornamental and
medicinal proper es, and they play important roles in the ecosystems in which they occur.
• Unique oral structures: Monocots o en have unique oral structures that are adapted for
speci c pollinators. For example, orchids have highly specialized owers that are
pollinated by speci c insects.

27
fl

fi
fl
ti
fi
tt
ti
ff
ti
ft
ti
fl
fi
fi
ff
ti
fl
tt
ti
fl
ti
ff
fi
• Lack of secondary growth: Monocots lack secondary growth. As a result, monocots have
limited ability to grow tall and wide.
• Parallel leaf vena on: Monocot leaves have parallel veins, which is di erent from the net-
like vena on found in dicot leaves. This feature is thought to be an adapta on for e cient
water uptake.
• Fibrous root systems: Monocots have a brous root system, which consists of many thin,
branching roots that spread out from the base of the plant. This type of root system is well
adapted for anchoring the plant and absorbing nutrients from the soil.
‣ DICOT SEEDS
Dicotyledons, also known as dicots, refer to a group of owering plants characterized by
the presence of two embryonic leaves or cotyledons in their seeds. This group of plants
belongs to the larger group of angiosperms, which are plants that bear owers and produce
seeds enclosed within fruits. Dicots o en have two seed leaves, net-like veins on their leaves,
ower parts that are mul ples of four or ve, and a taproot system. Dicots are characterized
by their capacity to create secondary growth, which enables them to enlarge in diameter
over me. This is done via lateral meristem ac vity, which generates new cells in a layer
known as the cambium. The xylem and phloem ssue that carries water, nutrients, and
carbohydrates throughout the plant is produced as the cambium cells divide. Many
dicotyledonous species eventually develop woody branches and trunks as a result of this
process.
Examples of dicot seeds are chickpea, bi er gourd, castor, black gram, green gram, horse
gram, soya bean, broad bean, cowpea, coconut, tomato, sesame, linseed, tobacco, le uce,
mustard, fenugreek, co on, beet, co ee, litchi, mango, neem and bo le gourd.

References:
Di erence Between Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon. (2023, August 25). Geeksforgeeks. h ps://
www.geeksforgeeks.org/di erence-between-monocotyledon-and-dicotyledon/
Singh, A. (2018, July 15). Seed Type and Characteris cs. SlideShare. h ps://www.slideshare.net/
AnkushSingh48/seed-type-and-characters cs
VENS. (2020, April 8). What is a Seed and its Types? Times of Agriculture. h ps://
mesofagriculture.com/what-is-seed-and-seed-types/

28
fl

ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ff
ft
fi
fi
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
tt
tt
ff
fl
tt
ti
ffi
tt
tt
Lecture 9
Seed Treatment | Factors Affecting Seed Germination | Different Methods of Seed
Placement in the Soil | Time of Sowing

SEED TREATMENT
Seed treatment refers to the applica on of biological, physical and chemical agents and
techniques that can be applied to seeds to provide them protec on. Seed treatment can also
encourage healthy crops by improving their immunity and promo ng uniform germina on.
While tradi onal crop protec on methods that are applied on a broader level to the crops have
their place, with seed treatment, the needs of every individual seed can be met. Seed treatment
enhances the resistance of the seeds, making them stronger against pest a acks and stresses in
their environment. Chemical or biological seed treatments can provide cri cal protec on since
the germina on stage, protec ng the emergence out of the soil and during the rst stage of the
crop cycle by preven ng seeds against soil-borne pathogens, seed-borne insects, diseases, and
pests.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEED GERMINATION


Factors a ec ng the germina on of seeds may be both external and internal.
EXTERNAL / ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
‣ WATER
Water is required for germina on. Mature seeds are o en extremely dry and need to
take in signi cant amounts of water, rela ve to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular
metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds
but not enough to soak them.
The uptake of water by seeds is called imbibi on, which leads to the swelling and the
breaking of the seed coat.
When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as starch,
proteins, or oils. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the
seed imbibes water, hydroly c enzymes are ac vated which break down these stored food
resources into metabolically useful chemicals. A er the seedling emerges from the seed coat
and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at
this point photosynthesis provides the energy needed for con nued growth and the seedling
now requires a con nuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
‣ AERATION
Germina ng seeds respire at a very high rate. Thus adequate supply of oxygen is
necessary for germina on to take place and the seedling to grow.
Germina on rate and germina on percentage of most kinds of seeds are adversely
a ected if the germina ng medium is poorly aerated. In seed-beds that are over-watered or
poorly drained with clayey soil, the soil pore spaces may be so lled with water that oxygen
supply to the seeds is retarded or prevented. A notable excep on is rice seeds which have an
anaerobic respira on that permits germina on in water-logged soils. Similarly, seeds of many
other species such as le uce, celery, carrot, beet, portulaca, petunia, etc. require
compara vely less oxygen during germina on and hence, these seeds germinate well even in
poorly drained soils. Apple seeds germinate be er in hypoxia (2, 5 and 10% 02) than in air or
in atmosphere enriched with oxygen.

29

ff
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti

ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ft
ti

ft
ti
ti
fi
ti

ti
tt
ti
fi
ti
ti
‣ TEMPERATURE
The temperature in uences strongly the percentage and rate of seed germina on, the
op mum temperature varying with the kind of seeds. In general, seeds of cool-season crops,
such as le uce, celery, etc. germinate best at rela vely low temperature of 0 to 10°C,
whereas seeds of warm-season crops like pumpkin, bo le gourd, etc. require rela vely high
temperature ranging from 20 to 30°C. Seeds of several other species germinate over a wide
range of temperatures. Many other kinds of seeds germinate be er when the temperature
uctuates daily about 10°C between maximum and minimum.
‣ SALINITY
Soil salinity and poor quality water used to irrigate the seed beds o en retard or prevent
germina on.
Salinity problems become severe when the germina on medium is lightly and frequently
watered; evapora on of water leaves salt deposits on the soil surface. Small, shallowly sown
seeds are likely to be damaged by salts. This problem can be solved by using soils with
adequate organic ma er, and irriga on water low in salts, with holding fer lizers and by
irriga ng more copiously but less frequently so that excess salts are leached out.
‣ PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
Pathogenic organisms on the seed surface, in the germina ng medium, in the irriga on
water or on the tools may cause low germina on and ro ng of seedlings. The situa on is
known as damping-o and is aggravated by high moisture and high temperature condi on.
‣ LIGHT OR DARKNESS
Light or darkness can be an environmental trigger for germina on and is a type of
physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not a ected by light or darkness, but many seeds,
including species found in forest se ngs, will not germinate un l an opening in the canopy
allows su cient light for growth of the seedling.
INTERNAL FACTORS
‣ Seed Dormancy Due to Internal Condi ons and Its Release
In some plants the embryo is not fully mature at the me of seed shedding. Such seeds
do not germinate ll the embryo a ains maturity. The freshly shed seed in certain plants may
not have su cient amounts of growth hormones required for the growth of embryo. These
seeds require some interval of me during which the hormones get synthesized.
The seeds of almost all the plants remain viable or living for a speci c period of me.
This viability period ranges from a few weeks to many years. Seeds of Lotus have the
maximum viability period of 1000 years. Seeds germinate before the ending of their viability
periods.
In many plants, the freshly shed seeds become dormant due to various reasons like the
presence of hard, tough and impermeable seed coats, presence of growth inhibitors and the
de ciency of su cient amounts of food, minerals and enzymes, etc.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF SEED PLACEMENT IN THE SOIL


Di erent methods of seed placement in the soil include broadcas ng, dibbling, drilling,
seed dropping behind the plough, and transplan ng.
‣ BROADCASTING
Broadcas ng is the most common and oldest method of seed sowing. In this method,
seeds are sca ered over the soil surface. This may be done manually with hands or through a
mechanical spreader.
Advantage: Quick and easy method and requires less labor and equipment.
Disadvantage: Seed distribu on is uneven, and some seeds may not be covered by soil,
leading to non-uniform germina on and crop stand.

30
fl




fi
ti
ti
ti
ffi
ff
tt
ffi
tt
ti
ffi
ti
ti
ff
tt

fl
ti
ti
ti
tt
tti
ti
ti

ff
ti
ti


ti
tt
ti
ti
tti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ft
ti
fi
ti

ti
ti
ti

ti
ti
ti
‣ DIBBLING
Dibbling involves placing seeds in holes or pits at equal predetermined distances and
depths. It may be done manually or with the use of a dibbler. A dibbler is a conical instrument
that makes proper holes in the seedbed. This method is usually used to sow vegetables.
Advantage: Requires less seed and provides uniform spacing between plants.
Disadvantage: Labor-intensive method and may not be suitable for large-scale farming.
‣ DRILLING
Drilling is a method where seeds are dropped into furrow lines in a con nuous ow and
are then covered with soil.
The equipment used for drilling is known as a driller. The driller may be either operated
manually, mechanically or automated. The se ng of seed metering is done before sowing for
proper placement of the seeds in the furrow. We can use the driller for placing the seeds in
two to three rows at once. There also exists a conven onal method where one person make
furrows and drops the seed using driller and the other person covers the furrow with the soil
either manually or mechanically.
Advantage: Provides proper seed placement at proper depths and spaces and can be done
mechanically or manually.
Disadvantage: Requires specialized equipment and may not be suitable for all soil types.
‣ SEED DROPPING BEHIND THE PLOUGH
Seed dropping behind the plough is a method commonly used in villages to sow
a variety of food crops such as maize, peas, wheat, barley, and gram. Seeds are dropped in
furrows behind the plough by a device known as malobansa. It comprises of a bamboo tube
with a funnel-shaped mouth. It needs two men to drop the seeds. One handles the bullocks
and the plough and the other drops the seeds.
Advantage: Low-cost method as it can be done with tradi onal farming equipment.
Disadvantage: May not provide uniform seed placement and spacing. Also consumes a lot of
me and is labor-intensive.
‣ TRANSPLANTING
Transplan ng is a process where the seedlings are rst planted in nurseries and then
planted in the prepared elds. It is usually done to grow vegetables and owers. It may be
done manually or mechanically with the aid of a transplanter.
Advantage: Provides uniform spacing between plants and reduces seed wastage.
Disadvantage: Time-consuming and labor-intensive method.
The selec on criteria for seed placement methods depend on various factors, including
the crop being grown, the available resources, and the desired spacing between plants and
rows. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and farmers should choose the
method that best suits their needs.

TIME OF SOWING
The ideal me of sowing for crops varies depending on several factors such as the crop
type, region, and weather condi ons. A website called Asia Farming suggests on what is best to
do every month in gardening vegetables and owers in the Philippines. This can be accessed on:
h ps://www.asiafarming.com/month-by-month-gardening-in-the-philippines-for-vegetables-
and- owers
Generally, sow seeds early in the morning so the water has enough me to permeate
the soil and get warm throughout the day. You can do it in the evening but make sure the seed
ats stay warm overnight.

31
ti

fl
tt
fl
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fl
tti
ti
ti
fi
fl
ti
ti
fl
References:
Jagdish. (2019, April 13). Seed sowing methods, Types of sowing in agriculture. Agri Farming.
h ps://www.agrifarming.in/seed-sowing-methods-types-of-sowing-in-agriculture
Nagar, P. (2016, May 28). Factors A ec ng Seed Germina on (Presenta on). SlideShare.
h ps://www.slideshare.net/pawannagar8/factor-a ec ng-of-seed-germina on
Seed Treatment. (n.d.). UPL. h ps://www.upl-ltd.com/agricultural-solu ons/crop-protec on/
seed-treatments
Sowing. (n.d.). Byju's. h ps://byjus.com/biology/sowing/
Sowing, Germina on, and Hardening. (n.d.). Bank on Seeds. h ps://bankonseeds.com/pages/
germina on-sowing-and-hardening
What are the Di erent Methods of Sowing Seeds? (2022, October 14). Krishi Jargan. h ps://
krishijagran.com/agripedia/what-are-the-di erent-methods-of-sowing-seeds/

32

tt
tt
ti
ff
ti
tt
tt
ff
ti
ff
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
Lecture 10
Importance of Water to Plants | Critical Growth Stages of Water Application

Image retrieved from h ps://www.trustbasket.com/blogs/how-to-grow/importance-of-water-for-plants

IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO PLANTS


Water is an essen al nutrient for plants and comprises up to 95% of a plant's ssue.
Here are some of the reasons why water is important for plants:
• Nutrient availability: Plants need water to absorb nutrients from the soil. Water dissolves
the nutrients and carries them to the plant's roots, ensuring that the plant has access to
the necessary elements for growth and development.
• Photosynthesis: Water is essen al for the process of photosynthesis, where plants use
energy from the sun to create their own food. During photosynthesis, plants use carbon
dioxide from the air and hydrogen from the water absorbed through their roots, releasing
oxygen as a byproduct.
• Cooling: Plants release water from their stems and leaves through a process called
transpira on, which helps them regulate their temperature. This cooling e ect is
important for the plant's overall health and survival.
• Transport of nutrients and sugars: Water is responsible for the movement of nutrients and
sugars throughout the plant. These substances are dissolved in water and move from
areas of high concentra on, like the roots, to areas of lower concentra on, such as the
blooms, stem, and leaves, for growth and reproduc on.
• Germina on: Water is necessary for seed germina on. Seeds depend on water to signal
that it's me to sprout and grow.
• Structural support: Water is responsible for cell structural support in many plants. It
creates a constant pressure on cell walls called turgor, which makes the plant exible yet
strong and allows it to maintain its shape.
• Preven on of drought stress: Plants that are not adequately watered can su er from
drought stress, which can lead to stunted growth, wil ng, and even death. Proper water
applica on helps prevent drought stress and ensures the plant's overall health and vitality.
Without water, plants cannot grow and produce food.

33

ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ff
ff
ti
CRITICAL GROWTH STAGES OF WATER APPLICATION
Water applica on is cri cal for plant growth and development, especially during certain
stages of growth. Here are some of the cri cal growth stages for water applica on in di erent
crops:
• Rice: When the water resources are limited, the land may be submerged at least during
the cri cal stages of growth, viz. llering and owering, and maintained only saturated at
other stages.
• Wheat: The cri cal stages during the growth are crown-root ini a on (three weeks a er
sowing), owering and grain development.
• Barley: Barley is similar to wheat in its growth habit. The cri cal stages for water
requirement are early llering, boot stage, grain lling.
• Maize: (Sweet Corn) The cri cal stages of growth are tasseling, silking and ear
development. Drought stress during tasseling and silking results in poor pollina on, few
kernels on the ears, small ears or poor development of the ps of the ears. A lack of
moisture during ear development will decrease yield, reduce quality and e ect avor.
• Sorghum and Other Millets: Pre- owering (boot stage) and grain development are the two
cri cal stages in respect of moisture. The crop should be irrigated at least at the cri cal
stages to maintain op mum moisture in the root-zone during the dry spell.
• Pluses or Grain Legumes: Cri cal periods in the legumes are the early vegeta ve growth,
owering and pod development.
• Oilseeds: In case of groundnut, 8-10 irriga on of about 50 mm each are applied at 10-15
days intervals during its growth period (cri cal stages - pegging to pod forma on).
Sa ower, Mustard and Linseeds should receive 3-4 irriga on during their growth.
Branching (30-40 days a er sowing) and owering (60-70 days from sowing) are the
cri cal stages with respect of moisture stress.
• Co on: Op mum soil moisture is necessary during the stages of owering and boll
forma on.
• Sugarcane: Since only vegeta ve growth is of economic importance, a good crop should
never su er from moisture stress during its growth.
• Tobacco: Cigar tobacco needs light and frequent irriga on during 4 months. For hookah
tobacco, 12-13 irriga on of 50mm. of water each are required. Water with high chloride
content, is unsuitable for irriga ng tobacco. In case, tobacco topping is the cri cal stage
for moisture requirement.
• Vegetables: Asparagus needs water during fern development and growth a er harves ng.
Drought stress during the growing season can reduce harvest yields the following year. In
broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauli ower and kohlrabi, during head development.
Drought stress during periods of high temperatures is a contribu ng factor to bol ng
(premature owering). In beans and peas, during ower bud forma on to pod
enlargement. Too li le water can cause ower or pod drop, or poor seed ll within the
pods. In beets, carrots and other root vegetables during root enlargement. Cracking,
knobby growth and hot avor can all be symptoms of dry growing condi ons. In
cucumbers and other vine crops, during fruit enlargement. Drought stress can cause
ower or fruit drop, and blossom-end rot in cucumbers, summer squash and melons. In
eggplant, pepper and tomato, during owering, fruit set and enlargement. Drought stress
can cause ower or fruit drop, and blossom-end rot. In le uce (crisphead, bu erhead, leaf
or buncing and romaine), during head enlargement or leaf growth. Dry condi ons can
stunt plant growth and reduce head quality. Drought stress contributes to bol ng
(premature owering). In onion and related crops, due to a small, and rela vely ine cient
root system, it require even soil moisture throughout their growth. Early water shortages
will limit leaf growth and will e ect later bulb enlargement. Dry condi ons during bulb
enlargement also e ects size development. In potato, during tuber set and enlargement.

34
fl
fl

ffl
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ff
fl
fl
ti
fl
fl
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ff
ti
fl
fl
fl
ti
ti
fl
fl
ti
fi
ti
tt
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ff
ti
ft
fi
tt
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ffi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ff
An uneven supply of water will cause tuber defects such as hollow heart, knobbiness and
spli ng.
• Fruit-trees: All fruit-trees required adequate soil moisture during their establishment
period of 3-4 years. On the full development of the root-zone down to 75-90 cm, the crops
may be irrigated when 2/3 of the available moisture is depleted during blossoming, fruit-
se ng and fruit-enlargement. In case of grapes too much moisture during ripening causes
spli ng and ro ng of berries. A slight moisture stress during this period results in
increased sucrose content and be er colour.
In general, the rst few weeks of growth following germina on, right a er transplan ng,
and during owering and fruit development are cri cal periods of water need for vegetables.
Each crop has its unique needs at each growth stage, so farmers must adjust fer lizer
applica on, watering, and other prac ces accordingly. Proper water applica on during these
cri cal growth stages can help prevent drought stress, ensure adequate nutrient absorp on,
and promote healthy plant growth and development.

References:
Applica on of water at cri cal stages. (n.d.). Indiaagronet. h ps://indiaagronet.com/
indiaagronet/water_management/CONTENTS/Cri cal%20Stages.htm
Browning, S. (n.d.). Cri cal Periods of Water Need in the Vegetable Garden (VeggieWatering).
Nebraska Extension in Lancaster County. h ps://lancaster.unl.edu/hort/ar cles/2013/
VeggieWatering.shtml
Duford, M. J. (2023, September 26). Why do plants need water? Home for the Harvest. h ps://
www.homefortheharvest.com/why-do-plants-need-water/
How plants use water. (2021, March 1). Extension | West Virginia University. h ps://
extension.wvu.edu/lawn-gardening-pests/news/2021/03/01/how-plants-use-water
Imajery. (2018, May 7). Why is Water so Important to Plants? Cohen & Master Tree and Shrub
Services. h ps://www.cmtrees.com/water-important-plants/
Keerthi, S.B. (2021, August 5). Importance of water for plants. TrustBasket. h ps://
www.trustbasket.com/blogs/how-to-grow/importance-of-water-for-plants
Water is Essen al for Food Produc on. (n.d.). InTeGrate. h ps://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/
teaching_materials/food_supply/student_materials/1090

35

tti
ti
tti
tti
ti
ti
fl
ti
tti
tt
ti
fi
ti
tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
tt
tt
ti
tt
tt
ft
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
Lecture 11
Sources of Water Irrigation | Methods of Irrigation | Factors Affecting Selection
Method viz. Crop, Soil, and Source of Water

SOURCES OF WATER IRRIGATION


Water is an essen al resource for irriga on, and there are several sources of water that
can be used for this purpose. The most common sources of water for irriga on include:
‣ GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is found underground and can be accessed through wells or springs.
Groundwater is an important source of irriga on water, especially for small-scale irriga on
projects.
‣ SURFACE WATER
Surface water includes water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and other bodies of water.
‣ RAINWATER
Rainwater can be collected and stored for later use in irriga on. However, the amount of
rainwater that can be collected depends on the climate and the size of the collec on system.
‣ MUNICIPAL WATER
Municipal water is water that is supplied by a city or town's water system. Municipal
water can be used for irriga on, but it may be more expensive than other sources of water.
‣ TREATED WASTEWATER OR DESALINATED WATER
In some areas, treated wastewater or desalinated water may be used for irriga on.
It is important to determine the amount of water needed based on crops grown,
weather condi ons, me of year, and the environment control system. Addi onally, samples of
a poten al water supply should be sent to an irriga on water tes ng laboratory for analysis.
Farmers should also protect their agricultural water source to minimize the poten al for
contamina on.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irriga on is the the controlled applica on of water for agricultural purposes through
manmade systems to supply water requirements not sa s ed by rainfall. Crop irriga on is vital
throughout the world in order to provide the world's ever-growing popula ons with enough
food. Many di erent irriga on methods are used worldwide, including:
‣ CENTER-PIVOT
Center-pivot is an automated sprinkler irriga on achieved by automa cally rota ng the
sprinkler pipe or boom, supplying water to the sprinkler heads or nozzles, as a radius from
the center of the eld to be irrigated. Water is delivered to the center or pivot point of the
system. The pipe is supported above the crop by towers at xed spacings and propelled by
pneuma c, mechanical, hydraulic, or electric power on wheels or skids in xed circular paths
at uniform angular speeds. Water is applied at a uniform rate by progressive increase of
nozzle size from the pivot to the end of the line. The depth of water applied is determined by
the rate of travel of the system. Single units are ordinarily about 1,250 to 1,300 feet long and
irrigate about a 130-acre circular area.
‣ DRIP OR MICRO-IRRIGATION
Drip or micro-irriga on is a planned irriga on system in which water is applied directly
to the Root Zone of plants by means of applicators (ori ces, emi ers, porous tubing,
perforated pipe, etc.) operated under low pressure with the applicators being placed either
on or below the surface of the ground.

36

ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
fi
ti
ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
‣ FLOOD OR FURROW
Flood or furrow is the applica on of irriga on water where the en re surface of the soil
is covered by ponded water.
Early humans would have used this "low-tech" method of irriga ng crops -- collect water
in a bucket and pour it onto the elds. Today, this is s ll one of the most popular methods of
crop irriga on. The system is called ood irriga on -- water is pumped or brought to the
elds and is allowed to ow along the ground among the crops. This method is simple and
cheap, and is widely used by socie es in less developed parts of the world as well as in the
U.S.
‣ SPRAY OR SPRINKLER
Spray or sprinkler is a planned irriga on system in which water is applied by means of
perforated pipes or nozzles operated under pressure so as to form a spray pa ern.
‣ SUB-IRRIGATION
Sub-irriga on is applying irriga on water below the ground surface either by raising the
water table within or near the root zone or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe
system that discharges directly into the root zone.
‣ SURGE FLOODING
Tradi onal ooding involved just releasing water onto a eld. In using surge ooding,
water is released at prearranged intervals, which reduces unwanted runo .

Center-Pivot Drip

Flood/Furrow Spray/Sprinkler

Sub-irriga on Surge Flooding

37
fi

ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
fl
fi
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ff
tt
fl
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION METHOD (viz. Crop, Soil, and Water Source)
• Crop Type:
Di erent crops have di erent water requirements, and selec ng an irriga on
system that suits the water demand of the crops planted is essen al. For instance, crops
with deep root systems need deeper watering using drip irriga on systems. Similarly, the
height of the crop and its life cycle length (annuals, perennials, etc.) may a ect the
decision. In taller plants, check basin irriga on method is more suitable as compared to
sprinkler method.
Moreover, sprinkler and drip systems can require high levels of investment. For
this reason, it’s be er to reserve their use for high-value crops like vegetables, small fruits
and orchard crops rather than applying them to commodity crops like wheat and
soybeans.
• Soil Type:
Soil type plays an essen al role in irriga on. Di erent soils have di erent abili es
to retain water (water-holding capacity) or allow drainage. For example, sandy soils have a
low water storage capacity and a high in ltra on rate. They therefore need frequent but
small irriga on applica ons, in par cular when the sandy soil is also shallow. Under these
circumstances, sprinkler or drip irriga on are more suitable than surface irriga on. On
loam or clay soils all three irriga on methods can be used, but surface irriga on is more
commonly found. Clay soils with low in ltra on rates are ideally suited to surface
irriga on.
When a variety of di erent soil types is found within one irriga on scheme,
sprinkler or drip irriga on are recommended as they will ensure a more even water
distribu on.
Other factors like the slope of the eld, the shape and size, and the soil health
(salinity levels, organic content, etc.) and depth should also be taken into account.
• Water Source:
The source of water used for irriga on is an important factor in selec ng the
appropriate irriga on method. For example, drip irriga on is suitable for areas with
limited water supply, such as arid regions. Surface irriga on methods, such as ooding and
channeling, are more suitable for areas with abundant water supply. Sprinkler irriga on is
suitable for areas with high wind speeds.
The water quality of the source also a ects the choice of irriga on method. For
instance, if the water contains dissolved salts, drip irriga on is par cularly suitable, as less
water is applied to the soil than with surface methods. Sprinkler systems are more
e cient than surface irriga on methods in leaching out salts.

38

ffi
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
fl
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
References:
2. WATER SOURCES AND WATER AVAILABILITY. (n.d.). h ps://www.fao.org/3/U5835E/
u5835e03.htm
5 factors to consider when choosing an irriga on system. (n.d.). W.P. Law Incorporated.
h ps://wplawinc.com/5-factors-to-consider-when-choosing-an-irriga on-system
Adeoye, D. (n.d.). Factors to consider when selec ng an irriga on system. Wikifarmer.
h ps://wikifarmer.com/factors-to-consider-when-selec ng-an-irriga on-system/
CHAPTER 7. CHOOSING AN IRRIGATION METHOD. (n.d.). h ps://www.fao.org/3/S8684E/
s8684e08.htm
Crivelli, M. (2022, May 8). Agricultural Water: Water Sources & Irriga on Methods. The Produce
Nerd. h ps://www.theproducenerd.com/2019/04/agricultural-water/
Ti ksha. (2015, August 27). The Following Factors A ect Any Selected Method Of Irriga on.
Biology Discussion. h ps://www.biologydiscussion.com/ar cles/the-following-factors-
a ect-any-selected-method-of-irriga on/2415
Water: supply and sources. (2017, February 8). University of Massachuse s Amherst - Center for
Agriculture, Food, and the Environment. h ps://ag.umass.edu/greenhouse- oriculture/
greenhouse-best-management-prac ces-bmp-manual/water-supply-sources
Water Science School. (2018, June 11). Irriga on methods: A quick look. U.S. Geological Survey.
h ps://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/irriga on-methods-
a-quick-look#overview

39

ti
ff
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ff
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
Lecture 12
Importance of Intercultural Operations in Crop Production | Introduction with the
Methods, Tools, and Equipment Required for Interculture | Weed, its Characteristics,
Classi cation, Useful and Harmful Effects

IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS IN CROP PRODUCTION


Intercultural opera ons refer to the lighter and ner ac ons performed on the soil
between sowing and harves ng. These opera ons are important in crop produc on for several
reasons:
• Weed Control: Intercultural opera ons such as weeding help to control weed growth,
which can compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
• Fer lizer Applica on: Intercultural opera ons such as mulching and fer lizing help to
improve soil fer lity and nutrient availability, which can increase crop yields.
• Pest and Disease Control: Intercultural opera ons such as crop rota on and intercropping
can help to reduce pest and disease pressure, which can improve crop health and reduce
the need for pes cides.
• Soil Management: Intercultural opera ons help to keep the soil loose and so , allowing
rainwater to be retained and organic fer lizer to be added to the soil.

INTRODUCTION WITH THE METHODS, TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR


INTERCULTURE
Common intercultural opera ons are weeding, mulching, earthing up, and thinning and
gap lling.
‣ WEEDING
Weeding is the process of removing unwanted plants from a eld. The agricultural eld
is weeded primarily using two methods: lling and mowing.
Weeding can be done through weed preven on, control and eradica on.
- Weed preven on is the process of preven ng weeds from infec ng a given region.
- Weed control entails a variety of methods to limit weed infesta ons and reduce
compe on.
- Weed eradica on is the full removal of weeds, vegeta ve reproduc ve components and
seeds from the environment. It is the complete control of a weed.
‣ MULCHING
Mulching is the process of applying natural or ar cial layer of plant residue or other
materials on the soil surface. It is a protec ve covering, as of bark chips, straw, or plas c
shee ng, placed on the ground around plants to suppress weed growth, retain soil moisture,
or prevent freezing of roots. Such material, layer, or covering is called mulch.
Mulches are applied to the soil surface, around trees, paths, ower beds etc. They are
applied at various mes of the year depending on the purpose. Towards the beginning of the
growing season, mulches serve ini ally to warm the soil by helping it retain heat which is lost
during the night. This allows early seeding and transplan ng of certain crops, and encourages
faster growth. As the season progresses, mulch stabilize the soil temperature and moisture,
and prevent the growing of weeds from seeds. Mulch layers are normally 2 inches or deeper
when applied.
Mulches can be classi ed into di erent types:
- Organic Mulches: Commonly available are leaves, grass clippings, peat moss, wood chips,
bark chips, straw, carpet etc. Organic mulches decay over me and are temporary. The way

40

ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
fi
ti
par cular organic mulch decomposes and reacts to we ng by rain and dew a ects its
usefulness. Stubble and straw mulches are also in this category.
- Soil mulch or dust mulch: If the soil surface is loosened, it acts as mulch for reducing
evapora on. Inter cul va on creates soil or dust mulch in growing crops.
- Colored mulch: Such types of mulches are wavelength selec ve and are used to absorb
some wavelength from solar radia on and maintain leaf temperature. Thus these helps in
plant growth and development.
- Plas c mulch: Some plas c materials like polyethylene and polypropylene are used.
Polyethylene is used mainly for weed reduc on, while polypropylene is used mainly
on perennials. This mulch is placed on top of the soil and can be done by machine or hand
with pegs to keep the mulch ght against the soil. This mulch can prevent soil erosion,
reduce weeding, conserve soil moisture, and increase temperature of the soil.
- Biodegradable mulch: These are plant starches and sugars or polyester bers which come
from plants such as wheat and corn. These mulch lms may be a bit more permeable
allowing more water into the soil. This mulch can prevent soil erosion, reduce weeding,
conserve soil moisture, and increase temperature of the soil.

‣ EARTHING UP
Earthing up consists of li ing up or shi ing the soil from the central por on of the space
between rows towards the base of plants so as to cover the plant base or certain plant
organs grown from below or at the soil surface. Earthing up may be done both under wet and
dry condi ons of soil.
Earthing up is done to make be er root anchorage, prevent lodging, or cover stolons and
rhizomes in some crops.
‣ THINNING AND GAP FILLING
Thinning is the removal of excess plants a er germina on from the crop eld or seed
bed. Excess plants in a crop eld reduce crop yield due to intra-crop compe on. As a result
there occurs shortage of space, nutrients, light, air and moisture for individual crop plant
which ul mately reduce yield. So, if required, excess seedlings are removed leaving the
strongest ones.
On the other hand, gap lling is the sowing of seeds or transplan ng of seedlings in a
gap where early sown seed had not germinated.
Opera ons would not easily be done without the aid of certain tools and equipments.
Such example are hoes, cul vators, harrows, rotary hoes, etc.
‣ HAND HOE
Hand hoe is the most popular manually operated weeding tool used in the farm. It
consists of an iron blade and a wooden handle. The operator holds the handle and cuts the
soil with the blade to a shallow depth of 2-3 cm, thereby weeds are cut and soil is s rred. The
handle is short (30-40cm long) hence the operator uses the tool in bending posture.
‣ HOE CUM RAKE
The hoe cum rake is mul purpose hand tool, which consists of a at blade on one side
like powrah and prongs on the other side. The blade and prongs are either made from single

41

ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ft
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ft
ti
ft
fi
tti
ti
ti
fl
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ff
ti
stock with an eye in the centre or joined to an eye by welding. A wooden handle is ed to
the eye for opera on. The at blade is used for digging and rake side for weeding and
collec on of weeds and trashes. The hoe cum rake is a secondary nursery bed prepara on
tool and is used for lighter opera ons.

1) Hand Hoe;
2) Hoe Cum Rake
Images Retrieved from
h ps://
1 2 veliyathgarden.com

‣ LONG-HANDLE WEEDERS
Hand hoes exert greater strain on the operator because of the short handle which
necessitates the operator to do weeding job in bent posture. To avoid this nowadays long
handles are used in hoes and hence they are called as long handle weeders. The popular long
handle weeders available are a) star type weeder b) peg type weeder. Such weeders are also
called as dry land weeders since they are used in dry lands.
- Star-type Weeder: Consists of a blade for cu ng the weeds, a fulcrum wheel for push-pull
movement and a long handle for easy opera on. The radial arms of the fulcrum wheel is
cut in to star like projec ons and hence the name star type weeder. Star wheel is designed
for loamy soils.
- Peg-type Weeder: Similar with star-type but there are pegs welded on the periphery of the
wheel hence the name peg type weeder. Peg type wheel is designed for clayey soils.

‣ CULTIVATORS
Cul vators are an implement for inter cul va on with laterally adjustable nes or discs
to work between crop rows. This can be used for seed bed prepara on and for sowing with
seeding a achment. The nes may have provision for ver cal adjustments also.
The cul vator s rs the soil, and breaks the clods. The nes ed on the frame comb the
soil deeply in the eld. A cul vator performs func ons intermediate between those of plough
and the harrow. Destruc on of weeds is its primary func on.
The cul vator can be a: disc cul vator, rotary cul vator, or ne cul vator.

42

tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
tti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
- Disc cul vator: A cul vator ed with discs.
- Rotary cul vator: A cul vator with nes or blades mounted on a power driven horizontal
sha .
- Tine cul vator: A cul vator ed with nes having shovels.

Depending upon the type of power available for the implement, the cul vator can be
classi ed as tractor drawn or animal drawn.

WEED, ITS CHARACTERISTICS, CLASSIFICATION, AND USEFUL AND HARMFUL EFFECTS


Weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted. It can also include plants that were not
inten onally sown in a speci c loca on or plants that are more compe ve or interfere with the
ac vity of people.
Weeds have several characteris cs that are considered nega ve and as men oned
previously, interfere. Below are some characteris cs of weeds:
• Plants that produce an abundant of seed
• Plants that have an extensive root system or other vegeta ve structures that spread above
or below the ground
• Plants that grow quickly
• Plants that can cause bodily harm to humans or animals
• Plants that can harbor diseases or insects that a ect desired plants
• Plants that can produce chemicals that are toxic to surrounding plants
• Plants that can reduce crop growth or inhibit harvest
With regard to classi ca on, weeds are commonly classi ed according by gross
morphological features or by their life cycle.
In terms of morphology, the may be classi ed as grasses, sedges, and broadleaves.
‣ GRASS WEEDS
Weeds considered true grasses are monocotyledons having only one seed-leaf when
seedlings emerge from the soil. They have leaves that are long and narrow with a parallel
vena on pa ern. Leaves arise in an alternate pa ern on each side of a hollow stem or culm.
Each leaf has two parts: the lower por on called the sheath, which is wrapped around the
culm, and the upper por on called the blade. Most have brous root systems.
‣ SEDGE WEEDS
Weeds considered sedges are also monocotyledons, but not true grasses, though they
exhibit a lot of the same characteris cs as grasses. They are di erent from grasses in that
their stems are solid, triangular, and have no nodes. Their leaves have a three-ranked
arrangement (instead of an alternate arrangement) with each leaf one third the way around
the stem from the one below it. The basal por on of leaf forms a tube around the stem with
no clear division between sheath and blade.
‣ BROADLEAF WEEDS
Broadleaf weeds are di erent from grasses and sedges in that their leaf blades are
expanded. Their leaves have ne ed vena on as they are dicotyledons. Their stems branch as
the plant grows, and they o en have owers. When broadleaf weed seedlings emerge from
the soil, they have two seed-leaves. They o en have tap roots or coarsely branched roots.

43

ti
ft
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
ft
fi
tt
tt
ff
fi
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ff
ti
tt
fi
fi
ti
ff
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
Figure retrieved from h ps://ipm.ucanr.edu/TOOLS/TURF/PESTS/brdgrsed.html

In terms of life cycle, weeds may be classi ed as annual, biennial, or perennial weeds.
‣ ANNUAL WEEDS
Annual weeds complete their life cycle in one year or less. During that me, they
germinate, complete their growth cycle, ower, produce seeds, and die. Some develop
prostrate stems or adven ous roots. If the stems are cut, they may develop into new plants.
‣ BIENNIAL WEEDS
Biennial weeds have life cycles that span two years (i.e. two growing seasons). During
the rst year, biennials germinate, and the plant focuses on growth. The plant overwinters,
and then during the second year or growing season, it owers, produces seeds, and dies.
‣ PERENNIAL WEEDS
Perennial weeds have life cycles that span more than two years. They reproduce from
seeds or vegeta ve parts of the plant like rhizomes, bulbs, tubers, and stolons.
Weeds are known for its harmful e ects. Following are such:
• Weeds have serious impacts on agricultural produc on. It is es mated that in general
weeds cause 5% loss in agricultural produc on in most of developed countries, 10% loss in
less developed countries and 25% loss in least developed countries. In India, yield losses
due to weeds are more than those from pest and diseases.
• Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce the
crop yields.
• Weeds also act as alternate hosts that harbor insects, pests and diseases and other micro-
organisms.
• Some weeds release into the soil inhibitors of poisonous substances that may be harmful
to the crop plants, human beings and livestock.
• Weeds reduce the quality of marketable agricultural produce. Contamina on of some
weed seeds is harmful to human health. Weed seeds present in the produce cause odd
odor some mes.
• Weeds not only reduce yield but also interfere with agricultural opera ons. Weeds make
mechanical sowing a di cult process and render harves ng di cult, leading to increased
expenditure on labor, equipment and chemicals for their removal.
• In aqua c environment, weeds block the ow of water in canals, water-transport system
and drainage system, rendering naviga on di cult. The dense growth of aqua c weeds
pollutes water by deoxygena ng it and killing the shes.
• Weeds are also a nuisance and a re hazard along railway lines, roads, right-of- ways,
airports, forest and industrial sites.
In spite of all the di cul es caused by weeds, they can o er some bene cial proper es,
par cularly when occurring at low densi es. Following are some bene cial proper es of such:

44

ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ffi
ti
ti
ffi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ff
fl
ti
fl
ffi
fi
fi
ti
fl
ti
ffi
ff
ti
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
• Helping to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will
reduce the amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, par cularly
nitrogen which could otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
• Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alterna ve food
sources for crop pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing
e ec veness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
• Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing condi ons in a eld, for example of
water levels, compac on and pH.
• Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds. Bird popula ons
have been declining on farmland over the last few decades and leaving weeds as a
resource has been shown to help revive bird popula ons.

References:
How are Weeds Classi ed. (n.d.). FastGrowingTrees.com. h ps://www.fast-growing-trees.com/
pages/classi ca on-of-weeds
Implements for Intercultural Opera ons - Hoes, Long Handled Weeders, Cul vators, and Rotary
Tilers. (n.d.). h p://www.eagri.org/eagri50/FMP211/pdf/lec11.pdf
Priyono, W. (2019, April 7). The intercultural opera ons in agriculture. 1001 Ar cial Plants.
h ps://www.1001ar cialplants.com/2019/04/07/intercultural-opera ons-in-
agriculture/
Thinning and Gap Filling. (n.d.). h p://eagri.org/eagri50/AGRO101/lec12.pdf
Tiwari, S. (2020, April 18). Mulching Meaning- Types & Usage. Agriculture Wale.
h ps://www.agriculturewale.com/mulching-meaning-types-usage/
Weeding. (n.d.). Vedantu. h ps://www.vedantu.com/biology/weeding
Weeds - Harmful and Bene cial E ects. (n.d.). h p://eagri.org/eagri50/AGRO304/pdf/lec01.pdf
What Makes a Plan A Weed? Characteris cs of Weed and What They Are. (n.d.) .Spring-Green.
h ps://www.spring-green.com/learn/blogs/blog-plant-characteris cs-weeds

45

ff
ti
tt
tt
tt
fi
ti
tt
fi
ti
fi
tt
ti
fi
ff
tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
Lecture 13
Medium of Seed Weed Dispersal | Methods of Weed Control

MEDIUM OF SEED WEED DISPERSAL


Weeds reproduce and spread through varying mediums and may have special adap ons
to assist their dispersal. These include seeds, spores, runners and separated root and shoot
fragments. Nature plays a big part in spreading weeds over small distances in wind and water.
Humans, unfortunately, are by far the worst o enders at spreading weeds, par cularly on dirty
tools, machinery, vehicles, clothing and transported animals. Some of the more common
mediums of weed spread and methods used to prevent this are discussed as follows:
‣ STOCK FEED
Contamina on of hay and grains with wet seeds is one of the most common means by
which weeds are spread. Feeding animals in a con ned area or in one paddock reduces the
risk of weeds invading the rest of the property.
‣ STOCK
Weed seeds ingested by stock can remain viable a er passing through the diges ve
tract. New stock should therefore be con ned to one paddock for a week a er arrival. This
allows me for any viable seeds that have been ingested by the stock to be expelled. Seeds
which are s cky or spiny can spread on the animals, for example in sheep eece.
‣ MACHINERY
A er using machinery in weed-infested areas ensure they are thoroughly cleaned. Weed
seed can be transported in res and in other road materials.
‣ SOIL DISTURBANCE
Minimize the amount of soil and vegeta on disturbance when carrying out work.
Disturbed ground creates an ideal seed bed for both exis ng and introduced weed seeds to
germinate.
‣ HUMANS AND ANIMALS
Check your own clothing, socks, cu s, jumpers, boots etc. a er walking through weed-
infested areas. Remove and destroy the seeds you nd. Dogs and cats can also disturb seeds
in their coats, as can wild animals, par cularly vermin such as foxes and rabbits. Birds also
transport seeds when they feed on wet fruits and seeds such as blackberry and cotoneaster.
‣ WATER AND WIND
Wet seeds entering waterways or drains can be spread to new areas downstream. On
windy days when plants are seeding, the wind can easily disperse the seed quite some
distance. Many weed species have seeds especially adapted to be carried by the wind.
‣ EXPLOSIVE PROJECTION
Many weeds such as gorse disperse their seeds through explosive projec on. The seeds
are encased in pods, which can be thrown up to several meters from the parent bush.

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL


Weed control is an important aspect of crop produc on, and there are several methods
available to control weeds. Here are some of the general categories of weed control methods:
‣ PREVENTIVE METHODS
Any method that prevents the establishment of weeds in a pasture or across a farm is
considered preven ve weed control. Preven on is the most essen al aspect of weed
management. Sources of weed introduc on include weedy stock, weed seeds in the growing
area or nearby, or plant propagules in manure, soil, uncomposted yard waste, or other
organic ma er sources. Many growers cul vate or treat the margins of the property with

46

ft
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ff
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
ft
ti
ft
ti
fl
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
herbicides to reduce the number of wind-borne or water-carried seeds that can move to the
growing area.
‣ CULTURAL METHODS
These methods involve the use of cultural prac ces to control weed growth. Examples
include crop rota on, crop compe on, and mechanical cul va on. Mechanical control of
weeds can be very e ec ve, but it is labor-intensive. Weeds can be pulled by hand or
removed with the use of a simple hand rake or hoe. When implemen ng mechanical control,
keep in mind that weeds are removed much easier when they are young, lightly rooted, and
in moist soil.
‣ CHEMICAL METHODS
The use or applica on of chemicals (herbicides) to weeds or soil to control weed growth
is called chemical weed control. Herbicides are considered the most e ec ve and me-
e cient method of weed control. Some herbicides are formulated so as not to cause harm to
the surrounding plants of the weed. Chemical control is an e ec ve way of controlling
weeds. Currently, there are many chemical products available on the market for this control.
‣ BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Any technique involving the use of living agents that are natural suppressors of weed
growth is known as biological weed control. Living agents, such as grazing animals, insects,
fungi, or bacteria, are being used not only to eradicate weeds but also to control the
germina on of its seeds. Insects are o en u lized in biological weed control, with some
naming this prac ce as insect bio-control or integrated pest management (IPM).
‣ MECHANICAL METHODS
These methods involve the use of machines to control weed growth. Examples include
mowing, lling, and mulching. Mowing is a common method of weed control in lawns and
pastures. Tilling is e ec ve for controlling annual species.

References:
Describe the ve general categories of weed control methods. (2016, January 8). Forage
Informa on System. h ps://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/
instructormaterials/availabletopics/weeds/control
How are weeds spread? (n.d.). New England Weeds Authority. h ps://www.newa.com.au/how-
are-weeds-spread.php
Weed control methods: Which best suits you? (2019, September 11). Pasture.io. h ps://
pasture.io/farm-diseases-pests-weeds/control
Weed Control Op ons for the Home Vegetable Gardener. (2019, January 10). University of
Georgia Extension. h ps://extension.uga.edu/publica ons/detail.html?
number=C1144& tle=weed-control-op ons-for-the-home-vegetable-gardener

47

ffi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
tt
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ff
ti
ti
ff
ti
tt
ti
Lecture 14
Plant Nutrient Elements

PLANT NUTRIENT ELEMENTS


Plants require essen al nutrients to grow and develop properly. There are 16 essen al
elements that plants need, which can be categorized as macronutrients, secondary nutrients,
and micronutrients.
‣ MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are needed by plants in large quan es. These include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
‣ SECONDARY NUTRIENTS
Secondary nutrients are required in lesser amounts and include calcium, magnesium,
and sulfur.
‣ MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are required in very small amounts but are s ll important to the plant.
Such include iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine.
Each essen al nutrient a ects speci c func ons of plant growth and development, and
de ciencies or excesses of nutrients can damage plants by slowing or inhibi ng growth and
reducing yield.
Collec vely carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which are derived from the atmosphere and
soil water, are the basis for carbohydrates such as sugars and starch, which provide the strength
of cell walls, stems, and leaves, and are also sources of energy for the plant and organisms that
consume the plant. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, on one hand, contribute to plant
nutrient content, func on of plant enzymes and biochemical processes, and integrity of plant
cells. De ciency of these nutrients contributes to reduced plant growth, health, and yield. While
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also important for plant growth and development, but
required in lesser amounts than the primary macronutrients. Others will be discussed
speci cally in the following.

Nutrient Func ons

Carbon (C) Cons tuent of carbohydrates; necessary for photosynthesis


Source: Air

Hydrogen (H) Maintains osmo c balance; important in numerous biochemical


reac ons; cons tuent of carbohydrates
Source: Water

Oxygen (O) Cons tuent of carbohydrates; necessary for respira on


Source: Air/Water

Nitrogen (N) Cons tuent of proteins, chlorophyll and nucleic acids (a ect growth
and yield).
Source: Air/Soil

48

fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
Phosphorus (P) Cons tuent of many proteins, coenzymes, nucleic acids and metabolic
substrates; important in energy transfer
Source: Soil

Potassium (K) Involved with photosynthesis, carbohydrate transloca on, protein


synthesis, etc.
Source: Soil

Calcium (Ca) A component of cell walls; plays a role in the structure and
permeability of membranes
Source: Soil

Sulphur (S) Important component of plant proteins


Source: Soil

Magnesium Enzyme ac vator, component of chlorophyll


(Mg) Source: Soil

Iron (Fe) Involved with chlorophyll synthesis and in enzymes for electron
transfer
Source: Soil

Manganese Controls several oxida on-reduc on systems and photosynthesis


(Mn) Source: Soil

Boron (B) Believed to be important in sugar transloca on and carbohydrate


metabolism
Source: Soil

Chlorine (Cl) Involved with oxygen produc on in photosynthesis


Source: Soil

Zinc (Zn) Involved with enzyme systems that regulate various metabolic
ac vi es
Source: Soil

Copper (Cu) A catalyst for respira on; a component of various enzymes


Source: Soil

Molybdenum Involved with nitrogen xa on and transforming nitrate to ammonium


(Mo) Source: Soil

A plant that lacks an essen al nutrient cannot complete its life cycle—the seed may not
germinate; the plant may not be able to develop roots, stems, leaves, or owers properly; or it
may not be able to produce seeds to create new plants. O en the plant itself will die. However,
having too much of a nutrient can harm and even kill plants. For example, having too much
nitrogen can cause a plant to grow more leaves but less or no fruit. Too much manganese can
make the leaves turn yellow and eventually die. And excess boron can kill a plant.

49

ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
fl
Image retrieved from Pinterest

References:
Main func ons of plant nutrients. (2023, August 10). Haifa Group. h ps://www.haifa-
group.com/ar cles/main-func ons-plant-nutrients
Nutrient management. (n.d.). h ps://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soilFer lityCA/CA1/CA1_print.html
Provin, T.L. & McFarland, M.L. (2023, August 28). Essen al Nutrients for Plants. Texas A&M
AgriLife Extension. h ps://agrilifeextension.tamu.edu/library/gardening/essen al-
nutrients-for-plants/
Sela, G. (2021). The essen al plant nutrients. Cropaia. h ps://cropaia.com/blog/plant-nutrients/

50

ti
ti
ti
tt
tt
ti
ti
tt
ti
tt
ti
Lecture 15
Soil Fertility | Types of Fertilizer and Manners used to Maintain Soil Fertility |
Methods of Fertilizer Application | Amount and Time/Stages of Fertilizer Application
| Advantages of Organic Fertilizers

SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fer lity is the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth by providing essen al plant
nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteris cs as a habitat for plant
growth.
Soil fer lity is crucial for agricultural produc vity and therefore for food security. It can
be maintained or increased through several management prac ces. Farmers can improve soil
fer lity and soil health by op mizing soil nutrient management in terms of maximizing net
returns, minimizing the soil nutrients deple on, and minimizing nutrient losses or nega ve
impacts on the environment. Some of the prac ces that can help improve soil fer lity include:
- Use of organic and inorganic fer lizers to the soil.
- Use of grain legumes, which enhance soil fer lity through biological nitrogen xa on.
- Crop rota on with legumes.
- Use of improved germplasm.
- Good management of soil fer lity can help reduce soil, water, and air pollu on, regulate
water resources availability, support a diverse and ac ve bio c community, increase
vegeta on cover, and allows for carbon neutral footprint.

TYPES OF FERTILIZER AND MANNERS TO MAINTAIN SOIL FERTILITY


There are two types of fer lizers: organic and inorganic. Organic fer lizers are
substances of natural origin, such as dried manures, bone and blood meal, and co onseed and
soybean meals. They are broken down in the soil by bacteria into inorganic, water-soluble
forms. Inorganic fer lizers, on the other hand, are mineral salts that are water-soluble and do
not need bacteria to make them available to plants.
Some common types of organic fer lizers include compost, manure, and plant residues.
Manure is an organic fer lizer that contains essen al nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus. It can be of natural origin or can be produced by compos ng animal waste.
To maintain soil fer lity, it is important to use the right kinds and amounts of fer lizers.
For example, fer lizers with a nutrient ra o of 1-2-2 or 1-3-1 for nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium will meet the needs of most plants. In addi on to using fer lizers, adding organic
ma er to the soil each year is a good garden prac ce. Composted plant material such as leaves,
co on burrs, hay, or straw can be spread on, mixed with the soil, or used as a mulch around
growing crops.
Here are some manners to maintain soil fer lity:
- Use the right kinds and amounts of fer lizers based on soil test results.
- Add organic ma er to the soil each year.
- Prac ce crop rota on, bush fallowing, no- ll farming, growing cover crops, use of manures,
and weed control.
- Mix the fer lizer with the soil to prevent damage to seeds or roots of the young plants.
- Avoid over-fer liza on, which can injure growing plants.
- Use fer lizers with a greater concentra on of phosphorus if the soil lacks it.

51

tt
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION
There are several methods of fer lizer applica on that can be used to maintain soil
fer lity. Here are some of the most common methods:
‣ BROADCASTING: This method involves uniformly distribu ng fer lizer over the en re eld. It
can be done at sowing or plan ng (basal applica on) or in standing crops as top dressing. The
main objec ve of broadcas ng is to uniformly distribute the fer lizer over the en re eld and
to mix it with soil.
‣ SIDE DRESSING: This method involves applying fer lizer in con nuous bands on one or both
sides of the row of crops. It is commonly used for crops like sugarcane, potato, maize, cereals,
etc.
‣ PLACEMENT: This method involves placing the fer lizer in a concentrated zone near the
developing roots of the plants. It can be done by banding, which is placing the fer lizer 2
inches to the side and 2 inches deeper than the seeds or plants. Another method is the ring
method, which involves placing the fer lizer in a circle around the base of a plant.
‣ FOLIAR APPLICATION: This method involves spraying liquid fer lizer directly onto the leaves
of plants. It is o en used in conjunc on with other applica on methods to improve nutrient
uptake by the plants.
‣ INJECTION: This method involves placing liquid or gaseous fer lizer below the soil near plant
roots.
‣ PELLET APPLICATION: This method involves applying fer lizer, especially nitrogen in pellet
form such as to the lowland rice to avoid nitrogen loss.

AMOUNT AND TIME/STAGES OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION


• The amount of fer lizer to apply depends on the nutrient needs of the plants and the soil
test results.
• The recommended amount of fer lizer can be found on the fer lizer bag or in the soil test
report.
• It is important to avoid over-fer liza on, which can damage the plants.
• Fer lizer is most e ec ve when used on plants at their peak growing cycle.
• Vegetables growing in well-drained, porous soil need to be fer lized about every three to
four weeks throughout the plants’ growing season.
• Granular fer lizers are generally applied about every six to eight weeks.
• For plants growing in organic soil that’s rich with organic ma er, only fer lize a li le bit
every three to four weeks.

ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS


Organic fer lizers are made from plant or animal waste, such as manure or compost, and
o er several advantages over synthe c fer lizers. Here are some of the advantages of using
organic fer lizers:
- Soil structure: Organic fer lizers improve the structure of the soil, allowing it to hold water
and important nutrients for a longer period of me.
- Microbes thrive: Organic fer lizers contain carbon, which feeds microbes and enables them
to make nutrients available for plants in a naturally occurring biological process.
- Sustainable and environmentally friendly: Organic fer lizers are all-natural and do not contain
ar cial compounds that can upset the balance in the soil or leave behind harmful residues.
- Reduce fer lizers and pes cides: Organic fer lizers can reduce the need for pes cides and the
overall nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium requirements, making them cost-neutral or
even cost-saving.
- Balances the soil ecosystem: Organic fer lizers balance the soil ecosystem and boost plant
health naturally.

52

ff
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
fi
ti
fi
- Contain micronutrients: Organic fer lizers contain adequate levels of micronutrients such as
calcium, magnesium, zinc, sulfur, and copper, in addi on to primary nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium.
- Safe: Organic fer lizers are safe for the environment, your family, and your pets, and do not
require a signi cant amount of fossil fuels to produce and process.
- Easy to apply: Organic fer lizers are just as easy to apply as synthe c fer lizers.

References:
Advantages and Disadvantages of using organic fer lizers. (2019, January 31). Emerald Lawns.
h ps://emeraldlawns.com/organic-fer lizers-pros-cons/
Casteleijin, M. (2022, August 18). What are the Advantages of Organic Fer lizers? Royal
Brinkman. h ps://royalbrinkman.com/knowledge-center/crop-care/advantages-organic-
fer lizers
Ersek, K. (2021, April 14). 8 Advantages and disadvantages of using organic fer lizer. h ps://
www.holganix.com/blog/8-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-using-organic-fer lizer
Gibson, M.J.R. (2023, June 28). Understanding Soil Fer lity. PennState Extension.
h ps://extension.psu.edu/understanding-soil-fer lity
Gill, D. (2017, May 27). When and how o en should you apply plant fer lizer: Tips and Timing.
NOLA. h ps://www.nola.com/entertainment_life/home_garden/when-and-how-o en-
should-you-apply-plant-fer lizer- ps- ming-more-in-dan-gills/
ar cle_b0aa27e7-4bc5-58f7-bc54-665f56398b78.html
Grant, B. L. (2021, April 24). When To Fer lize Plants: Best Times For Applica on Of Fer lizer.
Gardening Know How. h ps://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/soil-
fer lizers/best- mes-to-apply-fer lizer.htm
Hillock, D. (2019, May 1). Improving garden soil fer lity. Oklahoma State University. h ps://
extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/improving-garden-soil-fer lity.html
Improving soil fer lity. (n.d.). Interna onal Atomic Energy Agency. h ps://www.iaea.org/topics/
improving-soil-fer lity
Jaiswal, D. (2016, March 9). Top 4 methods of applica on of fer lizers| Soil Science. Your Ar cle
Library. h ps://www.yourar clelibrary.com/fer lizers/top-4-methods-of-applica on-of-
fer lizers-soil-science/77385
Manures and Fer lizers - Advantages And Disadvantages. (2023, August 24). GeeksforGeeks.
h ps://www.geeksforgeeks.org/manures-and-fer lizers/
NRCCA Study Resources. (n.d.). Competency Area 4: Nutrient Sources, Analyses, Applica on
Methods. Cornell University. h ps://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/nutrient/CA4/CA0434.php
Nutrient Management :: Methods of fer lizers applica on. (n.d.). TNAU Agritech Portal.
h ps://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_nutrientmgt_methodso er lizerappln.html
Soil fer lity. (n.d.). h ps://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/areas-of-work/soil-fer lity/en/
Tajer, A. (2021, May 18). 6 Popular Ways to Apply Fer lizer You Should Know About. Greenway
Biotech, Inc. h ps://www.greenwaybiotech.com/blogs/gardening-ar cles/di erent-
types-of-fer lizer-applica on
The advantages of organic fer lizers over chemical fer lizers. (2021, September 24). Kellogg
Garden Organics. h ps://kellogggarden.com/blog/fer lizer/the-advantages-of-organic-
fer lizers-over-chemical-fer lizers/

53

ti
tt
tt
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
tt
tt
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
tt
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ft
ti
Lecture 16
Various Methods of Harvesting of Different Crops | Factors of Harvesting

VARIOUS METHODS OF HARVESTING OF DIFFERENT CROPS


Di erent crops can be harvested using various methods, including manual harves ng,
harves ng with hand tools, and harves ng with machinery. Here are some of the methods of
harves ng di erent crops:
‣ HAND HARVESTING: This method involves picking crops, fruits, and vegetables by hand
without using any tools. It is o en used for delicate crops, such as sa ron or vanilla beans,
and for vegetables from the roots and tubers families, which are harvested by pulling up the
plant by hand.
‣ HARVESTING WITH HAND TOOLS: Farmers use a few tools to harvest crops, such as small
sickles, big sickles, darat, gandasa, and small axes. This method is o en used for barley, rice,
and wheat grains.
‣ HARVESTING WITH MACHINERY: This method involves using modern harvesters to gather
large quan es of grains. Harvesters can combine with other machinery to cut and clean the
grains at the same me. This method is o en used for crops like corn, soybeans, and wheat.

FACTORS OF HARVESTING
Harves ng is the act of removing a crop from where it was growing and moving it to a
more secure loca on for processing, consump on, or storage. The major factor determining the
me of harvest is the maturity of the crop, but other factors such as weather, availability of
harvest labor, and economic and marke ng issues are also important in deciding when to
harvest a commodity. Here are some factors that could a ect harves ng:
‣ MATURITY
The crop should be harvested at the right stage of maturity to ensure maximum quality
and yield. Factors such as size, color, content of sugar, starch, acid, juice or oil, rmness,
tenderness, heat unit accumula on, days from bloom, and speci c gravity can be used to
schedule harvest.
‣ WEATHER
Weather condi ons such as late frosts, un mely rains, and severe winds can a ect the
ming and quality of the harvest.
‣ LABOR
Availability of harvest labor is an important factor in deciding when to harvest a crop.
‣ ECONOMIC AND MARKETING ISSUES
Before the crop can be harvested, the grower must be sure that there is a demand for
the crop and that the price is su cient to make harves ng the crop pro table.
‣ HANDLING SPEED
Because of the perishable nature of vegetables, harves ng and handling speed is of
utmost importance as soon as harvest maturity has occurred. Every producer should have
products reach the end consumer as quickly as possible.

54
ti
ti

ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ffi
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
fi
ft
ti
ff
fi
fi
ff
ti
References:
Cengage. (2018, May 29). Harves ng. Encyclopedia.com. h ps://www.encyclopedia.com/
sports-and-everyday-life/food-and-drink/food-and-cooking/harves ng
Dainello, F.J., Parsons, J.M., & Wagner, A.B. (n.d.). Chapter X: Harves ng and Handling -
Vegetable Resources Vegetable Resources. Texas A&M Agrilife Extension. h ps://aggie-
hor culture.tamu.edu/vegetable/guides/texas-vegetable-growers-handbook/chapter-x-
harves ng-handling/
Delaurier, J. (2020, August 6). Factors that could A ect Your Harvest. Grainews. h ps://
www.grainews.ca/columns/wheat-cha /factors-that-could-a ect-your-harvest/
What are the di erent methods of harves ng crops? (2022, July 28). MachineFinder Blog.
h ps://blog.machine nder.com/33941/what-are-the-di erent-methods-of-harves ng-
crops

55

tt
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ti
ff
ff
tt
ff
ti
ff
ti
tt
tt
ti

You might also like