Key:

- Red : Definition
- Blue : To be done later in further topics

CHAPTERS TO BE COVERED: (31/07/24 - Wednesday)

Chapter 11
Chapter 7 (second unit)
Chapter 6
Chapter 5

Criterion A: (01/08/24 - Thursday) ● Command terms

● Response length
● What information was provided
● Which concept or topic is the question focus on
● What am i suppose to find out
● Response structure
● Scientific reasoning
● Scientific terminology

Command Term List:

● Construct
● Define
● Design
● Justify
● Label
● State
● Solve
● Determine

Unit Name: Genes in Action (02/08/24 - Friday) Key

concept: System
Related concept: Evidence, Pattern & Models
Global context: Identities & Relationships

SOI: Analyzing the relationship between systems provides evidence that helps in
understanding the patterns and models of identity formation.

Unit Name: Genes in Action (07/08/24 - Wednesday) L.I: unpacking

cells state cell theory. Define cell like the functions and organisms

ALIVE OR NOT?

Living Object Characteristics:

Morement
Respiration
Sensitivity
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Nutrition

Cell Theory: (Schleiden & Schwann)

1. All living things are made of cells
2. Cells are the smallest working units of all living things and are the structural
and functional units of lifes
3. All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division

Types of cells: (Based on number)

1. Unicellular (one cell)
 2. Multicellular (2 or more cells)

Types of cells:
1. Prokariot (primitive-nucleus) (Bacteria)
2. Eukariot (Advance nucleus)

Cells: (08/08/24 - Thursday) ● They are the fundamental unit of

structure and function of life

Level of Organisation:
1. Atoms/Molecules
2. Macro molecules
3. Organelles
4. Cell (Nerve cell)
5. Tissue (Nervous tissue)
6. Organ (Brain)
7. Organ system (Nervous system)
8. Organism (Homo sapiens)

Definitions: (Small to Big)

1. Cells: They are the fundamental unit of structure and function of life
2. Tissues: Similar cells working together to do the same function/job 3.
Organs: Tissues work together to perform a specific activity 4. Organ
system: Two or more organs working together to perform a specific
function/job for the organism

Interesting Facts:
1. Largest Cell: Cheek Cell
2. Largest tissue: Skin
3. Largest organ: Liver
4. Largest Organ system: Integumentary(skin) system
5. Largest Organism: Blue whale
6. The organ that does the greatest no. of jobs: Liver
Parts of a Cell:
● Parts of the cell are also known/called as Organelles
1. Cell wall
2. Cytoplasm
3. Mitochondria
4. Endoplasmic reticulum
5. Golgi Apparatus
6. Chloroplast
7. Cell membrane
8. Nucleus
9. Vacuole
10. Ribosome
11. Lysosome

Fluid Mosaic Model (09/08/24 - Friday)

Cell Membrane:
It is the outer membrane
of an animal cell. It is
located below the cell
wall in the plant cell

Its main function is to

control the movement of
the substance in and out
of the cell
● It is a Double layer called
Lipid bi Layer
● Scientists say that the
cell membrane is
selectively permeable, which means that only certain substances can permeate
(go through) the membrane ● It is found in both animal and plant cells
● It also helps give shape to the cell
 Cell wall:
● Most commonly found in plant cells
and bacteria. NOT present in animal cells
● Surrounds the cell membrane in
the plant cell
● Most important function is to give
the cells shape and rigidity
● It also supports and protects cells
● Made up of cellulose
● In bacteria it is made up of Chitin
and peptidoglycan

Cytoplasm:
● Jelly-like substance
● Surrounded by cell membrane
● All cell organelles are embedded in this
● It contains the chemical which are necessary to carry out all the reaction that
happen within a cell
● Important chemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm whereby some of the
products are utilized by the organelles.

Nucleus: (14/08/24 - Monday)

● Easiest organelle to see under

the microscope
● Control center of cell
● Directs cell activity
● Separated from cytoplasm by nucleus membrane
● Contains genetic material - DNA
● Controls the production of proteins in the cells
● All the information regarding the cell and its activities are stored here

● DNA to RNA (ribonucleic acid) to Protein is called the central dogma of

 life(foundations procedure to be who you are)
● Genotype (genetic information) , Phenotype (Physical appearance)

Chromosome:
● In the nucleus of every cell there are a number of long thread called
chromosomes
● Chromosomes are a packaged form of DNA
● Human cells contain 46 chromosomes, which are in pairs. Sex cells (Sperm
and ova) contain only 23 chromosomes. The 23 chromosome comprise one
from each pair
● Perm and ova cells have 23 chromosomes called haploid (46 chromosomes
diploid)

Nucleic acid: (21/08/24 - Wednesday) ● Nucleic acid are macromolecules

that form when long chains of molecules called nucleotides join together
● The order of DNA & RNA is important and work as codes and instructions
● There are 3 types of RNA:
- mRNA (messenger)
- tRNA (transfer)
- rRNA (ribosomal)

● gene is a part of DNA which codes for a specific protein

DNA RNA

Adenine Adenine
Thymine Uracil

Guanine
Guanine
Cytosine
Cytosine
Uracil

DNA is double stranded RNA is single stranded

 Guanine bonds with Cytosine (A triple bond)

Adenine bonds with Thymine

● Nucleotide: A nucleotide is a combination of pentose sugar + nitrogenous

base + phosphate group

DNA:
● Deoxyribonucleic acid is a self
replicating material which is present in
nearly all living organisms as the main
constituent of chromosomes. It is the
carrier of genetic material
● Each chromosome contains one
very long molecule of DNA

Mitochondria:
● It is also known as the
“Powerhouse of the cell”
● Produces energy through chemical
energy-breaking down food
● Mitochondria is surrounded by 2 membranes (outer and inner membrane)

● Outer membrane: It is smooth and has a large number of special protein

known as the proteins
● Inner membrane: It is more complex in structure and folded into a
number of folds many times and is known as cristae. This folding helps to
 increase the surface area inside
● Controls level of water and other materials in cell
● Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats and carbohydrates
● Contain their own DNA.

Vacuoles:
● Membrane bound sacs for storage,
digestion and waste removal
● Vacuoles may contain larger food
particles, enzymes, water or many other
substances
● Helps plants maintain shape
● Usually one large vacuole is
present in plant cell (take up 95% of
space)
● Animal cells have small vacuoles
but they are more in number

Endoplasmic reticulum:
● There are 2 types - Smooth and
rough ER
● Rough ER- As they have
ribosomes attached to their surface.
Protein synthesis occurs here
● Smooth ER - they have no ribosome attached to them. Helps in carbohydrate
metabolism, lipid and steroid synthesis. It extends from the Nucleus

Ribosomes:
● Each cell contains thousands of
ribosomes.
● Produced in the nucleus of a cell.
 ● They act as factories of the cell to
produce Proteins.
● They can be found either in their free
form in the cytoplasm or attached to an
organelle (The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum).
● It is made up of a larger and a smaller
sub-unit.

Golgi apparatus/Golgi
body/Golgi complex:
● —The main function of
the Golgi apparatus is to
modify, sort and package the
macromolecules that are
synthesized by the cells for
secretion purposes or for use
within the cell.
● It mainly modifies the
proteins that are prepared by
the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
● They are also involved in the transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
● They also create lysosomes.
● The Golgi complex is thus referred to as a post office where the molecules are
packaged, labeled and sent to different parts of the cell.

Lysosome:
● —Digestive organelle.
● —They contain acid enzymes to break
down food particles, waste materials and
cellular debris. It can also destroy organelles
that have been damaged. If the cell lacks an
adequate amount of food, the lysosomes may
 actually digest healthy organelles to provide
the cell with energy.
● Found only in animal cells.
● Should the lysosome break and release its
powerful enzymes, the entire cell can be
destroyed, which is why the lysosome is
sometimes called the "suicide sac."

Chloroplast:
● Usually found in plant cells.
Also present in trace amounts in
Bacteria, fungi and algae.
● It is not present in animal cells.
● Contains a green pigment
called chlorophyll which traps light
energy and converts it into food
through photosynthesis.
● Surrounded by two membranes
(inner and outer)
● It contains its own DNA.

● Centrioles form spindle fiber during cell division

Kingdom classification: (23/08/24 - Friday) ● Two
kingdom classification: Carolus Linnaeus - Animalia
- Plante
● Five kingdom classification: RH Whittaker
- Monera
- Protista
- Fungi:
- Plante: Algae is kept in this classification
- Animalia
- Viruses do not have a place in the 5 kingdom classification
2 kingdom classification
-Carolus Linnaeus

5 kingdom
-RH Whittaker

Binomial nomenclature is a method of giving species a name consisting of two words

The first name is generic name which is the name of the genus and the second name is
the name of the species ie specific name

Genus name is written by capital letter and species name is written in small letter
Both Names should be underlined or should be written in italic form.

Bacteria

Types
Methanogens-Methane
Halophiles-Salt
Acidophiles-living in acidic conditions

Types on shape

Coccus (CIRCLE)
Bacillus
Vibrio
Spirilium

Kindom monera (bacteria)

Bacterial structure is very simple but they are complex in behavor and
show metabolic diversity.
Some bacteria are autotrophic(synthesize food from inorganic
substrates.)
Majority are heterotrophs they do not synthesize the food but depend
on other organism or on dead organic matter for food.
Both contain ribosomes
Both conduct cell division

Protista
Primarly aquatic
Link with plants,animals and fungi
Reproduce asexually and sexually(cell fusion and zygote formation)
Single-celled eukaryotes
Well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
Some have flagella or cilia(both are used for locomotion and
movement).
Starter activity

Octopus
8 tentacles
Suction things on tentacles - create vacuum and stick to surfaces
Kingdom Animalia

A dichotomous key is a scientific tool that is used to identify

living and non living things based on their external or
internal features.
Genes and Inherence:

Gene is a part of DNA which codes for protein

DNA-Nucleic acid made up of nucleotides

Genotype-Genetic makeup of and organism

Phenotype-physical expression of the genotypes

Chromosome-Super coiled DNA

Genome-complete gene sequence of an organisms

Central Dogma-A theory stating that genetic information flows only in one
direction.
DNA----->RNA----->Protein

MRNA-Messenger
rRNA-ribosomal
TRNA-Transfer(transfer of amino acid to ribosome)

RNA splicing is a process that removes non-coding regions of RNA

(introns) and joins coding regions (exons) back together to create a mature
messenger RNA (mRNA). This process is important to produce the final set
of instructions for the protein.
Cell division has 2 types
Mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
A single division of the A single division of the
chromosomes and the nucleus chromosomes,but a double
division of the nucleus
The number of chromosomes The number of chromosomes is
remains same halved
Homologous chromosomes do Homologous chromosomes do
not associate associate to form bivalents in
prophase I
Chiasmata are never formed Chiasmata are formed
Crossing over never occurs Crossing over may occur
Daughter cells are identical to Daughter cells are genetically
parent cells(in the absence of different from parental ones
mutations)
2 daughter cells are formed 4 daughter cells are formed

Similarities-both divide cell and nucleus in different parts

They both have same name of stages(prophase,etc)
Both have spindle fibre formation.
Transcription
Translation
Mitosis is required for
Growth
Asexual reproduction
Tissue repair
Embryonic development

Cell cycle
Series of events through which cells pass to divide and create two
identical daughter cells

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from one

generation to another, leading to continuity of the species and
variations within it.

Chromosome

In the nucleus of each cell,the dna molecule is packaged ito thread liek
structures called chromosomes

Each chrome it made up of DNA tightly coiled around protein called

histones that supports structure

22 pairs are autosomes chromosomes

1 pair is sex chromosome(decides gender)

The number and appearance of chromosomes in cells is knows as

karyotype

Dominative genes
Are in Caps lock
Recessive are small

Variation are two types

Continuous and discontinues

A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the possible genotypes

and phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross. It helps visualize how
alleles from each parent combine and calculate the probabilities of
specific traits being passed on.

A monohybrid cross involves the study of inheritance for a single

trait between two organisms. In this type of cross, both parents are
heterozygous (e.g., Aa x Aa), and it typically follows Mendel’s first law,
the Law of Segregation, which shows a 3:1 ratio for dominant to
recessive traits in the offspring.
A dihybrid cross examines the inheritance of two different traits
simultaneously (e.g., AaBb x AaBb). This follows Mendel’s second law,
the Law of Independent Assortment, where the typical phenotypic ratio
in the offspring is 9:3:3:1 when both parents are heterozygous for both
traits.

Types of Variation

Inter specific Variation

Differences between organism belonging to different
species/group

Eg Difference between water lily and cat

Intra specific variation
Differences between organisms belonging to same
species/group,

Eg Difference between a cat and a tiger

Criterion c interpret with continuous and discontinuous

Strand 1 and 2

Alil is 1 characteristic with multiple organisms

Two types of variation

Discontinuous
A characteristic you either have or don't
Distinct, alternativ phenotypes

Continuous
Produces a range of differences for a single characteristic within a
population

Gradual or not so clear cut variation with intermediates

Bell shaped graph

Goes up and comes down

The classes are artificial and have been decided upon by us to make it
easier to draw a graph

May be caused by genes or environment or both

Eg weight, leaf length, height, skin color

Independent assortment of genes during the formation of haploid cells

in meosis

Crossing over of chromatids

Dominant and recessive traits

Environmental factors

The features than an organism develops to adapt to a certain environment

can be referred to as variations created by the environment

Eg if these are leaves of plants that are in normal environment the

following slide shows leaves of plants in extreme environment

Xerophytes-Plants that grow in desert

Hydrophytes-Plants that grow in water
Mesophytes-Plants that grow in terrestrial condition(normal)

Mutation is a alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the geno of an

organism,virus,extrachromosonel dna

Ethidium bromide can cause genetic modification

Any susbtance that causes cancer is carcinogenic

Research or read about genetic disorders caused by mutation

UNIT 2

Asexual reproduction-One parent which prodicues offspring without

fertilization.

Because offspring inherit all of their dna from one parents they are
genitically identical to their parent and each other

Types
Binary fission
Budding
Regeneration
Vegetative propagation

Fission:Cell division in prokaryotes that form two genetically identical

cells

DNA is copied

The cell begins to grow longer,pulling the two copies apart

The cell membrane pinches inward in the middle of the cell.

Cell splits from two new uniform, identical offspring

Example-Bacteria, Ecoli, pond critters

Budding:A new organism grow by mitosis and cell division on the body of
its parent

The Bud, or offspring is identical to the parent

The bud when large enough, can break off of the parent and lives on its own

Offspring may remain attached and form a colony

Example:Yeast, Hydra, Cactus

Regeneration:Occurs when an offspring grows from a piece of its parent.

Producing new organisms:Sea Stars

Sea urchins, sea cucumber, sponges, and planarians

Producing new body parts:Gecko

Newts, tadpoles, crabs, hydra, and zebra fish

Vegetative Propagation:Uniform offspring grow from a part of a parent

plant

Parents plants send out runners

Where the runner touches the ground,routs can grow

A new plant is produced even if the runner is broken apart

Each new plant is uniform and identical to the parent

Examples:Strawberries,potatoes,ivy,crabgrass
Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:

1. Fast Reproduction: Asexual reproduction allows for quick population

growth since only one parent is needed, and offspring can be produced
rapidly.
2. No Need for a Mate: Organisms do not need to spend energy finding a
mate, which can be beneficial in isolated environments.
3. Energy Efficient: It requires less energy since there is no need for
complex reproductive structures or mating behavior.
4. Stable Environment: It works well in stable environments where the
parent’s traits are already suited to the conditions.
Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:
1. Lack of Genetic Variation: Since offspring are clones of the parent,
there’s no genetic diversity, which can make the species vulnerable to
diseases or changes in the environment.
2. Limited Adaptability: Without variation, the ability of the species to
adapt to new environments or changes is reduced.
3. Overcrowding: Rapid reproduction can lead to overcrowding and
competition for resources.
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction:
1. Genetic Diversity: Offspring have a mix of genes from both parents,
increasing genetic diversity, which helps species adapt and survive in
changing environments.
2. Better Adaptation: Species can evolve over time to better fit their
environment due to the variation in traits.
3. Disease Resistance: Genetic variation can help populations resist
widespread disease outbreaks.
Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction:
1. Slower Process: It usually takes more time to produce offspring because
it involves finding a mate and the development of specialized reproductive
cells.
2. Requires More Energy: Sexual reproduction requires more energy for
 finding mates and sometimes for complex mating behaviors or structures.
3. Fewer Offspring: Typically, fewer offspring are produced compared to
asexual reproduction, which may slow population growth.

Peduncule-helps connect plant with flower

Receptacle-Supports and holds the flower

Flower structure.

Carpel: female reproductive part:

- Stigma
- Style
- Ovary
- Ovule (sex cell)
Stamen: male reproductive part
- Anthem (cell)-holds polen
- Filament-holds anther
- Pollens (Male Sex Cells)
sepal :Protecting the bud

Petal(corolla)
Attracting insects for pollination

Pollination-sex

A flower is pollinated when pollen grain falls on stigma of same flower

species
Each carpel grows into a fruit which contains the seeds
Plants use wind, insects,bats, birds and mammals to transfer pollen
from the male (stamen) part of the flower to female (stigma) part of the
flower

Types-
Cross-pollination
Pollen travels from one plant to others stigma
Stigma will be taller than anther so that its own pollen doesn't land on
the stigma

Types-
Insect pollinated-
Wind pollinated-different in structure because they dont need to
attract insects to them but need to be exposed to wind

Petals are small and green

No scent or nectar
Stigma are feathery to catch pollen in wind
Anthers are exposed to wind so that pollen can easily be blown away
Pollen are small and light.occur in VERY large numebrss.

Self-pollination
Pollen travels from anther to stigma
Stigma will be smaller then anther so that pollen lands on top easily

How is pollen grain adapted for pollination

-Sticky
-Barbed
-Lightweight

Fertilization-male and female sex cells fuse to make zygote

Germination:
Pollen grains germinate on the stigma, growing down the style to reach
an ovule

Pollen grains develop seeds, carpel enlarges - flesh of fruit - PROTECT

ovary

When pollen grain falls on stigma then the pollen tube is created
through the style and it goes inside the ovule.

Ovules turn into seeds

Flowers pollinated - diffe rent organisms.

Seed becoms dormant in a fruit as all the water goes to the flesh so to
plant seed we put water to remove top layer of seed for it to start
growing

False fruit:A fruit derived from the ovary adn its contents as well as
other parts of flower are present is false fruit
EG apple

True:A fruit that only comes from ovary and its contents(female parts)
EG pea

After fertilisation petals,stamen adn sepals fall of .ovuls into

seed,fertilized egg inside develops into a embryo plant.

Amylase-starch-maltose-absored-root-shoot

Why root arrises first

Absorb water and nutrients and anchor the plant
Why biomass is so less
When nutrients inside seeds is completely used to make root and shoot

Parthenogenesis - growth and development of embryo without

fertilization by male
Sexual reproduction

A type of reproduction, genetic materials from 2 different cells

combine

Sex cells:
- Egg(ovum/ova)(female)
- Sperm(male)

Fertilization: when the two cells join together

New cell formed called zygote

Species which do sexual reproduction have different genders

Dioecious - separate sexes

Sexual dimorphism - male and female look different. (often)

Sperm (male gamete) formed by meiosis in testes

Eggs (female gamete) formed by meiosis in ovary

Mating - male and female join together to ensure fertilization not

essential to sexual reproduction

External Fertilization:
Males and females release sperms and eggs into environment -sperm
ad egg join outside the body

Males and females may come in close proximity

Eggs and larvae develop outside the body
Many gametes produced, many zygotes formed
Usually aquatic

Internal fertilization

Join of sperm and egg inside body after mating

- Common in bird, reptile mammal

- Parents care for younger
- Ensures selection of mate(not random),promotes diversity
- Less sex cell produced increase probability of successful
reproduction
- Doesn't require water, can occur on land

Two types

External development,internal development

Internal fertilization and internal development

Females put large amount of energy into development of embryo-very

few in litter or clutch-different schemes
External development

Eggs are laid and chicken sits on egg and hatch egg

Male reproductive system

- Bladder
- Sperm duct: transfers from prostate gland to epididmis
- Prostate gland: secrete fluid, activitating the cells
- Penis
- Urethra: goes through the penis, for urine excretion and sperm
- Testis: meiosis happens here
- Epididymis: sperm stored here
- Scrotum:

Female reproductive system

- Ovary: produces female gametes

- Ureter
- Uterus: lining of uterus
- Uterus: site of development for embryo
- Endometrium
- Urethra -
- Uterus
- Cervix:neck of uterus,producing mucus which prevent entry of
bacteria inside
- Vagine
Male sperm cell have more mitrochondria and female have less
Because male sperm cell has to move

Women system tries to kill sperm cell because it thinks its bacteria

So a lot of sperm is produced and goes in vagina because most of it is

killed.

Sperm Ovum
Millions lives very few days one/28 days
Sperm is much smaller than eg Egg is much larger than sperm
Have flagellum for motility Do not have flagellum
Very little cytoplasm Egg cells contain more cytoplasm
than any other human cell
The nucleus contains either x or y Nucleus always contains an x
chromosomes chromosome

Menstruation cycle

Follicular phase: follicles develop, egg matures, ovulation,

endometrium repair, thickens.

Luteal Phase: Corpus luteum (follicle without egg), endometrium

continues to develop, No fertilization, corpus luteum breaks, no
estrogen & progesterone, endometrium sheds

Hormons

Fsh Lh Oestrogen,progesteron
e
Secreted by Pituitary gland Ovaries
(at the base of the
brain)
Function Control the release Change the thickness of
of egg from ovary uterus lining

HORMONAL CONTROL OF MENSTRUATION

● Pituitary hormone: FSH and LH

● FSH: Growth and maturation of follicle
● LH: Trigger Ovulation
● Oestrogen: helps in building up the lining of the uterus- grows
thich, spongy.
● Progesterone: Maintains the lining of the uterus.

Positive feedback amplifies change negative feedback brings it back to

equillibrium

CANT HAVE NORMAL BIRTH U WILL NEED TO HAVE C SECTION

IF BABY IS at the neck of the cervix
Placenta connect baby to mother and where nutrients gas and
everything is exchanged

It is removed from mother after baby is removed

The placenta is an organ that connect developing fetus to the uterine

wall to allow nutrient uptake,waste elimination and gas exchange vie
mothers blood supply

Attached to lining on uterus and is attached to the embryo with the

help of umbilical cord

Injection put after baby so that next baby doesn't get killed cause
remains of last baby are there

amniotic sack adnd amniotic fluid maintains temperature and prevetns

mechanical damage and also prevents entry of bacteria
Antibiotics

anti biotic=against life

fungus
antibiotics are chemicals released by fungi to protect themselves from
bacterial invasion
which is now harvested in large scale to produce antibiotics as
medicines against bacteria
through industrial biotechnology
mechanism- 1st disrupting the cell wall of bacteria
2nd-disruption replication process of bacterial cells
3rd - packaging of bacterial cells

during viral infections an antibiotic can be given to stop or cure any

secondary bacterial infection when your immune system is suppressed

What not to do

Take antibiotics without prescription

Taking

​
 ​ If you consume too much antibodies in a large variation (especially without prescription), you
will create a superbug.

​ Also too often

Or too rarely

Is bad

Types of bones
Long
Short
Flat
Irregular

Minerals in bones
calcium phosphorus iron