NIGERIA PEOPLES AND CULTURE

Course outline
Course code/Title: GST 113-Nigerian People and Culture
Course Description

GST is a general study course that aims at introducing the student to

the culture and history of
Nigeria. The study covers such areas as the study of Nigerian history,
culture and art in the pre-colonial era. Nigeria perception of his world
(self-image and appraisal of Nigeria), Culture areas of Nigeria and
their characteristics, the evolution of Nigeria as a political unit,
indigene and settler phenomenon, concept of trade, economic of self-
reliance, social justice, individual and national development, Norms
and values, negative attributes and conducts( cultism and related
vices), re-orientation of moral and national values, moral obligations
of citizens, environmental problems, etc.

Course Requirement

This course requires a 75% students’ attendance and participation in

class through oral contribution to discourses and issue area. The
students will be required to take part in assignment exercises, class
presentations and test writing all of which will reflect in students’
continuous assessment ( 40%)and then all students must sit for an
examination on areas they have been taught or instructed to study
during the course work(60%).
GST113- COURSE OUTLINE

Week 1
1. Meaning and characteristics of culture
2. Ethno-historical survey of Nigeria: major ethnic groups in Nigeria
Week 2
3. Nigerian culture and art in the pre-colonial era
Week 3
4. Nigeria and its self-image
Week 4
5. Culture areas(zones) of Nigeria and their characteristics
Week 5-6
6. The evolution of Nigeria as a political unit
Note: continuous Assessment 1 in week 6
Week 7
7. Indigenes and settler phenomenon
8. Inter-group relationship among Nigerian Communities
9. Trade and the economy of self-reliance in Nigeria

Week 8
10. Social justice in Nigeria and individual development
Week 9
11. National development, norms and value in Nigeria
Week 10
12. Cultism, kidnapping, rape, militancy and related vices
13. Re-orientation of morals and national values
Week 11
14. Moral obligations and duties of Nigerian citizens
Week 12-13
15. Environmental problems in Nigeria
Note: continuous Assessment 2 in week 13
Week 14
16. Revision
Week 15-16
17. Examination
Further Reading

Nzemeke, A.D. and E.O. Erhagbe. Nigerian Peoples and Culture. 2nd
Edition. Benin City:
University of Benin Press, 2002.
Crowder, M. and G.Abdullahi. Nigeria: An Introduction to its
History. Lagos: Longman, 1977.
Fafunwa, A.B. History of Education in Nigeria. London: Publisher,
1974.
Nnoli, Okwudiba. Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu Fourth
Dimension Publisher, 1978.
Onwuejeogwu, M.A. African Civilizations: Origin, Growth and
Development. Lagos: Uto
Publications, 2000. Ugowe, C.O.O. The Nigeria Legacy: A Handbook
of a Black Africa Culture
and Civilization. Lagos: Hugo Books, 1995.
Afigbo, A. E. “Igboland Before 1800”. In Obaro Ikime, ed.
Groundwork of Nigerian
History. Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980.
Akinjogbin, I. A. and E.A. Ayandele. “Yorubaland Up to 1800”. In
Obaro Ikime, Ed.
Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980.
Egharevba, J. U. A Short History of Benin. Ibadan: Ibadan University
Press, 1960.
Hodgkin, T. Nigerian Perspective. London: Oxford University Press,
1975.
Igbafe, P.A. “Benin in the Pre-Colonial Era”. Tarik, Vol.5 No.1
(1974).
Johnson, S. History of the Yourbas. Lagos: C.M.S., 1950.
Nzemeke, A.D and E.O Erhagbe, eds. Nigerian Peoples and
Cultures .2nd Edition. Benin
City: University of Benin, 2002.
Onwuejegwu, M.A. African Civilizations: Origin, Growth and
Development. Lagos: Uto
Publications
FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

LECTURE 1
1. Meaning and characteristics of culture
2. Ethno-historical survey of Nigeria: major ethnic groups in Nigeria
Meaning and characteristics of culture

Culture is a complex, dynamic and well embracing phenomenon. This

complex and varied nature of culture makes it difficult to have a
single, unified and generally
acceptable definition. As a result the concept of culture has attracted
many definition from scholars. According to E. B. Taylor, culture is
the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
custom, and other capabilities acquired by man a member of society.
This is the oldest definition of culture but anthropologists have
criticized it. Adams Hobel defined culture as integrated system of
learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the member of a
society which are not result of biological inheritance. For Clyed M.
Woods, culture is passed from generation to generation through the
process of socialization. It is shared by members of a group and its
characteristic features varies from society to society. In the words of
Allen R. Beals, culture means a social heredity or the things that men
learn when they are trained within a particular group of people.
Culture can also be defined as the total aggregate of a peoples ways of
life, including their learnt behavior that has enjoyed wide spread
acceptance across generations. The technology and mode of
production of a people also reflect their culture. General Olusegun
Obasanjo, during Festac 77 stated that people and culture are
inseparable. It means that people without a way of life are in
themselves nonexistent. Culture, is a total way of life of a people in
their attempt to harness and conquer their environment. It is what
gives meaning to their politics, economics, language, dietary, religion,
philosophy, aesthetics, etc.
Culture is dynamic in the sense that it undergoes changes. When two
or more cultures meet or interact, they undergo changes, shed part of
their old

2
features and acquire a new form(Akinjide, et al, 1997). Louis and
George Splindler
defined culture change as “any modification in the way of life of a
people whether
consequent to internal development or contact between two people
with unlike
ways of life.” Changes consequent to internal development are
usually traced to
diffusion of culture or borrowing. Culture borrowing or diffusion is
described by
Colin Legum “two selves warring in a society”. For Colin, there is
something new
in the old and something old in the new.
Culture can be dichotomized into two main broad categories which
are
material and nonmaterial culture. The material culture embraces all
aspect of man
culture that is a product of their technology and science. The
nonmaterial or
intangible culture are basically the aspect of man‟s culture that cannot
be touch or
handled in concrete terms. They include linguistics, morals, beliefs,
value systems,
literary and artistic output, religion, etc.

Characteristics Of Culture

Culture is described as dynamic. That is, it changes with time and

modifies
itself and assumes new form. Some of the characteristics of culture
include
1. Cultures are shared and transmitted in a society.
2. Culture is not a biological inheritance but they are shared in a given
society
or community
3. Cultures are learnt
4. Cultures enjoys continuity and change
5. Cultures differ from one another as a result of geographical
differences
6. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the other and outlast
the life
span of an individual
7. Culture is conservative

According to Ejiofor, there are six principles and characteristics of

culture. They are
1. The principle of universality
2. The principle of cultural peculiarity
3. The principle of cultural imperfection.
4. The principle of cultural disequilibrium
5. The principle of cultural synthesis
6. The principle of cultural assimilation

For Ejiofor, these principles apply to all cultures regardless of

geographical
location or historic origin. Nigeria for instance has been rubbed off by
European and Arab cultures, yet the basic elements and features of
indigenous and traditional cultures of the people of Nigeria remains
and
coexist side by side by foreign cultures. For example, marriage
ceremonies,
dressing styles, food and even our music.
Ethno-historical survey of Nigeria: major ethnic groups in
Nigeria

Nigeria is situated on the West coast of the African continent, about

six times the
size of Georgia and more than two times the size of California( World
Factbook,
2015). Nigeria is the highest singular concentration of the Black race
in the world.
It lies on latitude 4 and 14 degree N of the equator and latitude 3 and
15 degree E
of the Greenwich Meridian. Nigeria is located within the tropics and it
is bounded
by the Republic of Benin in the west, in the north by the Republic of
Niger and
Lake Chad, on the east by the Republic of Cameroun and in the south
by the
Atlantic Ocean. It has a total area of 923, 768.4 square kilometers. It
has a total of
910, 768 landed mass and 13,000 square kilometre water ways. It is
mostly located
in the tropical region. Nigeria has a population of over 181 million
(world
factbook, 2015) people roughly equally divided between males and
females and
Christians and Muslims. There are still a sizeable worshippers of
African
traditional religion within the confines of Nigeria. The distance of
Nigeria from
south to the north is about1700km and the distance from west to east
at its
widest point is about 2350km. As one moves from the south to the
north, the
vegetation progressively changes from tropical rain forest to savannah
grassland.
Typically, there are two main seasons: rainy season and dry season
interspersed by
the harmattan season. The rains are heaviest in the south and thinnest
in the north.
Since the 1970s desert encroachment and desertification have become
a serious
environmental problem to the northernmost states.
From the environment we now move to the different people of
Nigeria. The
peoples of Nigeria are varied as would be discussed in detail below.
There are over
300 different ethnic and linguistic groups within Nigeria.
The major ethnic groups are Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Kanuri, Fulani,
Bini, Tiv, Ijaw,
and Nupe. There are some states that have more than ten different
ethnic groups
speaking different languages. The ethnic, cultural and economic
variations and

long years of intermingling among the various groups have combined

to produce
very rich cultures and art forms which form the heritage of modern
Nigeria.

The Hausa

The Hausa are predominantly located in the north-western part of

Nigeria. They
were substantially Islamized even before the Sokoto Jihad of 1804. As
clearly
demonstrated by Smith (1965), by the time of the Jihad a distinction
could be made
between the pagan Hausa and the Muslim Hausa.
Immigration and conquest mark Hausa history. The Hausa people
themselves are
groupings of a number of different people who have been
incorporated into the
“original” stock through conquest and assimilation. Homogeneity of
the Hausa
stems from a common language and religion (Islam).
The Hausa claim to have descended from a certain hero named
Bayajida (or Abu
Yazid) a refugee prince from Baghdad. The legend states that after
leaving the
Middle East, he stayed for a while in Kanem, where he married a
daughter of the
Mai (or king) called Magira. Later on he fled westward in order to
escape the
wrath of his father-in law, the Mai, and abandoned his wife who had
already bore
him a male child. Before reaching Daura, where he was credited to
have killed an
evil snake that was preventing people of the town from drawing water
from a well,
he briefly stayed in Gaya. Perhaps because of his bravery and as a
reward, he is
believed to have later married the Queen of Daura (Magajiya), which
enabled him
to become the ruler of the state. His descendants are claimed to have
founded what
was known as the seven Hausa states of Biram, Bagauda (Kano),
Gunguma
(Zazzau), Duma (Gobir), Kumayo (Katsina), Zamma (Rano) and
Gazora (Daura).
These were collectively referred to as the Hausa Bakwai.
Distinctively, the pagan
Hausa lived in small villages of exogamous patrilineal kin and they
worshiped
natural spirits which were referred to as Iskoki. The Muslim Hausa
had a large
centralized system. They had highly developed technologies and
economy. The
Hausa were famous for leatherwork, cloth-making, dyeing, iron-
making, trading,
etc.
You may recall that the success of the Jihad campaigns of Shehu
Usman
Danfodiyo in Hausaland at the beginning of the 19th century, gave
birth to the
Sokoto Caliphate and this gave the Fulani an important position in the
political
affairs of the Hausa states. It is important to know that the head of a
typical Hausa
state was the Sarki, who was supported by a retinue of officials in an
elaborate
court. In political terms, the development of the office of the Sarki of
a birni (city)
like Kano was very significant. His full title was Sarkin Kasa,
meaning: „ruler of
the land‟ and not just the city. Thus, he was both a political and
religious leader of
the people. He was also the chief executive and
judge of the state. He was aided by a council of
state. However, with the introduction of Islam in
the 14th and 15th centuries, new socio-political
institutions – combination of social and political
factors – were introduced into the Hausa political
structure. For example, the offices of the Galadima
(senior counselor), Madawaki (palace
administrator), Magaji (overseer), Dogari (guard),
and Zagi (orderly) have roots in the Islamization of Hausaland during
the two
centuries. The judicial and fiscal systems were similarly influenced by
Islam. Such
titles, concepts and institutions as the Alkali or the Qadi (judge),
Zakat (tax on
income), Jangali (tax on livestock) became commonplace in the
administration of
the state.
The three most important Hausa rulers at the wake of the 15th century
were those
of Kano, Zaria and Katsina which adopted Islam in their political as
well as social
and economic systems.
The Fulani Culture
The Fulani ethnic group is largely nomadic. They are believed to have
originated
from the Futa Jalon highland region of West Africa from where they
migrated in
stages to various places in the West African sub-region. Fulani is a
notable ethnic
group in Northern Nigeria. They are described differently as follows:
“Peul” by the
Wolof, “Fula” by the Bambara, “Fellata” by the Kanuri and are
generally called
Fulani by other Nigerians. The Fulani call themselves “Fulbe”. They
profess Islam
while others maintain syncretic practice and their main occupational
activity is
cattle-rearing by the males and cow-milking by the females. The
Fulanis are of two
categories, namely: fulanin daji (nomadic) fulani and fulanin gida
(sedentary)
fulani. The former, who have maintained their nomadic way of life,
move from one
place to another in search of pasture or grazing land for their
livestock. The latter
have settled in towns and villages teaching, farming, trading etc. The
Fulani are
widely distributed in West Africa most especially in the Sahel,
wandering from one

spot to another with their herds of cattle. In fact, they are found in
almost every
country of the Sudan zone of West Africa extending from the Senegal
area in the
West to the Upper Nile in the east. The pastoral Fulani‟s life is
principally basic
and simple. They strive to maintain their tradition and culture
wherever they go.
They generally adhere to a code of behaviour referred to as pulaaku
which
suggests they must exhibit the following qualities: shiness, bravery,
ownership of
cows etc. In the pre-colonial period, the Fulani, under Shehu Usman
Danfodiyo‟s
leadership, were able to revive Islam in most parts of the Hausaland.
Following the
Jihad, (an aggressive campaign for an idea) they functioned basically
as
administrators and sometimes as cultivators. As devout Muslims, they
were very
instrumental in assisting Shehu Usman Danfodiyo in the execution of
the popular
Sokoto Jihad which helped in the socio-political as well as the
religious changes of
Northern Nigeria in the course of the nineteenth century.
The Kanuri Culture
Another notable ethnic group in Nigeria is the Kanuri. There are
many versions of
Kanuri origin. The “So” version reveals that Kanuri were the original
settlers in
Kanem-Borno. They developed a sophisticated socio-political culture
based on
agriculture and the knowledge of the use of iron technology.
In addition to the “So” version there is the Saif bin Dhi Yazan myth.
This version
attributes the foundation of the Kanem-Borno polity to the great Arab
hero Saif bin
Dhi Yazan of Himyar, which supposedly happened between the 9th
and the 10th
centuries CE. Saif was also credited to have established the renowned
Saifawa
Dynasty. The socio-political organization of the Kanem-Borno people
was based
on kingship. For instance, the Mai (king) was the highest authority in
the political
structure of the empire. The mother of the Mai, known as magira was
a very
important and respected personality in the Kanem-Borno political
structure. The
sister of the Mai (mogaram) was also important because she assisted
the Mai in the
administration of the empire.
Another political institution that is kingship oriented in the Kanuri
Culture was an
imperial state council known as the council of the twelve or the
“Nokena”, which
acted in advisory capacity to the Mai.
The khadi was the chief judge of the state. He plays a major role in
the Kanuri
political structure as the chief judge and the legal advisor to the Mai.
The army
played a significant role in the Kanem-Borno political system. It was
a professional

7
army divided strategically into two divisions: Home and Bush
Garrisons. Another
institution of the Kanem-Borno political structure was the titled
nobility. They
were known to have exercised great influence in state affairs and the
Mai assigned
them to the fiefdoms to administer. The most important of these titles
were the
Galadima (governor of the western province), the Kaigama
(commander in chief
of the army), the Yerima (governor of Yeri province) and the
Mustrema (queen
mother‟s representative fief). Slaves and eunuchs made up the servile.
They also
played important roles in the administration of the dynasty and held
offices such as
the Mushemu, Yuroma and Kachalla.
The Nupe Culture
This ethnic group can be found in central part of Nigeria. Like many
Nigerian
ethnic groups, the Nupe people have different versions of origin.
Many scholars
believe that the early Nupe people originated from where they are
presently (part
of Kogi, Kwara and Niger States). Other scholars argued that the first
people of
Nupe originated from Egypt. Hence Egypt seems to be the origin of
Nupe people
in this regard. Edegi is considered by some Nupe people as the
founder of their
state; and according to Nupe tradition Edegi might have arrived in the
early
Sixteenth Century from Idah. He (Edegi) was also believed to have
had an Igala
father and a Nupe mother. Historical traditions reveal that the Nupe
people had at a
time paid allegiance and tribute to the Atta of the Igala state. To them
(the Nupe) in
the Sixteenth Century, a hero, an Idah prince, known as Tsoede re-
established
Nupe independence with himself as the Etsu Nupe (King of
Nupeland).
Regarding their religion, the Nupe people are highly Islamized group
found in the
Niger valley above its confluence with the Benue. A strong Nupe
kingdom had
existed since the 15th Century up to the Jihad. The Fulbe jihad leaders
who took
over Nupe land were completely absorbed into Nupe culture and
became Nupe.
The Nupe are a highly united group. A unity sustained by a belief in
common
origin, a common language and culture, the symbol of the Etsu Nupe
and a feeling
of Nupe consciousness. Due to early contact with the Europeans on
the river Niger,
they are highly westernized.
Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe kingdom. He operated
a two-level
administration: central and provincial. Etsu Nupe enjoyed a divine
status and
people worshipped him and respected him. His words were laws. His
power and
actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos.

Besides the Etsu Nupe there was a class of powerful gentlemen called
nobility. Its
main task is to help the king carry out his duties as leader. Such
nobility include:
shaba, kpotuh and maku.
At the village level, there was a head called Zitzu. He was an
appointee of the Etsu
and he was assisted by a council of elders. He was expected to pay
tribute to Etsu.
The Yoruba Culture
The ethnic group now commonly referred to as the „Yoruba‟ have
been identified
by different names spanning millenniums and centuries. Pacheco
Pereira identified
them in 1500 as the Lucumi while early missionary accounts of the
19th Century
referred to them as the Aku. Yoruba, which originally referred to the
Oyo, began to
be used for the generality of the group by the Europeans and it has
caught on. The
earliest known account of their existence in the region according to
archaeological
evidence dates to around 9000 BCE as revealed by human remains at
Iwo Eleru.
However, their inability to develop arts of writing early in their
history gave rise to
fables and conflicting accounts of their origin. R.C.C. Law traced the
first written
account of Yoruba origin to the second Sultan of the Sokoto
Caliphate, Sultan
Mohammed Bello. In his writing, Infaq al Maisuri, Bello in his
version in 1812
stated that the Yoruba derived from Nimrod, a descendant of the
cursed Ham who
fled Mecca while resisting Islam. This account was later appropriated
by new Oyo
palace historians who expanded it to identify Nimrod as Lamurudu
whom they
now referred to as the father of Oduduwa, the acclaimed progenitor of
the Yoruba.
Samuel Johnson on his part adapted this account but replaced the
Meccan origin
with Egyptian Coptic Christians. Another myth of the Yoruba origin
alleged that
Oduduwa descended from heaven sent by God to create the earth.
That Oduduwa‟s
first point of arrival on earth was Ile-Ife, hence the notion that Ile-Ife
is the centre
of the earth.
What is however certain is the fact that the Yoruba are indigenous to
Southwest
Nigeria. The Itsekiri are their kins. They constitute a sizeable
population of Middle
Belt states of Kwara and Kogi. There are indigenous Yoruba in Edo
state. Until the
colonial conquest of Africa, the Yoruba region extended from Benin
Republic to
parts of Togo. A sizeable number also settled in Sudan en route to or
from Mecca.
The Trans-Atlantic slave trade also led to their forced migration to the
Americas
where Yoruba cultural traditions have endured to the present in Brazil
(as Lucumi),
in Trinidad and Tobago and in Cuba, amongst many other places.
In Nigeria, the Yoruba constitute a homogenous socio-linguistic and
cultural
group. Their language belongs to the Niger-Congo language family
and shares
basic characteristics with the Igbo, Edo, Fulani, Bariba, Efik, Jukun,
among other
groups. Ile-Ife developed a centralized state system, complex artistic
and
craftsmanship abilities, socio-cultural and religious practices, as well
as economic
versatility. It became a cultural and political model for other Yoruba
communities
which began to replicate the Ife model in their domains. Ile-Ife
became the
spiritual motherland of the Yoruba. However, Oyo soon developed a
more
complex political and military system.
The Yoruba political system is very complex. The Oba (king) is an
absolute ruler
with divine authority, yet his powers are checked by various
institutions such as
the council of chiefs (the Oyomesi – hereditary advisers in Oyo in
particular and
Ilu in other Yorubalands), the Ogboni society, Ifa divination, and
sometimes by
mass rebellion or rejection of his authority or person. Any member of
the council
of chiefs could in turn be deposed by the king. Kingship rotates
among several
royal houses, hence, the son of a reigning king cannot succeed his
father. A
paramount ruler (the king) seldom appeared in public and was not
commonly
accessible to his subjects. His subordinate chiefs administered the
quarters,
villages, the towns and other domains on his behalf. Yet, each of the
chiefs has
specific traditional duties limited to each of them alone. Yoruba
settlement had the
Oba‟s palace in the centre. Village heads (Baale) are subject to the
king through
his chiefs, while lineage heads (baale and mogaji in Ibadan)
administer the
quarters and the wards but are subjected to the immediate higher head.
Youths and
quarter children have their roles and rights. The rights of women are
assured as
their leader is an official member of the council of chiefs.
Marriage among the Yoruba was exogenous, hence, it was not a mere
event
between two individuals but an event involving two previously
unrelated families.
After betrothal, a man must not only give presents to his future wife,
but also
should help her father on his farm or when building a house. The
would-be in-law
also plays important role in funeral rites.
The Yoruba operate patrilineal societies. Polygamy is a common
feature among the
Yoruba.
Apart from farming, the Yoruba were also traders and craftsmen.
Cooperative
efforts used in farming include „aaro‟ and „owe‟. The „aaro‟ form of
labour
mobilisation was reciprocal in that farmer who was assisted to weed
his farm or
10

build his house today would be called upon tomorrow to render

similar service.
While the „owe’ was not reciprocal. Drumming and feasting would
normally
follow after the execution of an „owe’ or an „aaro’ task.
The Igbo Culture
Another notable ethnic group in Nigeria is the Igbo. The Igbo have a
unique
culture. There are three versions on the origin of the Igbo. The first
version says
the Igbo migrated from the Middle East to their present location.
The second version says they have been in their present location in
eastern Nigeria
from the beginning. The third version says they descended from the
sky.
The language of the Igbo belongs to the Niger-Congo family. The
Igbo people
thrived in the Igbo-Ukwu art culture while they cherished Arochukwu
in the
spiritual realm. You need to know that birth, marriage and burial are
considered the
three most important family events. Igbo traditional marriage, known
as igbankwu
is not just an affair between the future husband and wife, it involves
parents, the
extended family and the whole village. The would-be groom parent
will bring
palmwine and kolanuts to the bride‟s family and other items such as
goats,
chickens etc as requested by the family. We wish to state that the
wedding
ceremony varies from village to village. Birth is also celebrated
among the Igbo
but the naming ceremony is usually performed on the 28th day. Many
customs
surround the burial rites such as paying last respect to the dead,
singing traditional
songs and traditional dances, acrobatic diplays by masquerades, etc.
The village of
Igbo-Ukwu is the harbinger of the oldest known sculpture from
Igboland. In that
village (Igbo-Ukwu), there was an excavation of the grave of a man of
some
importance and wealth dating back to the 9th Century which produced
some of the
earliest bronze castings, glass beads, bowls and ornaments. The
objects found at
Igbo-Ukwu are also for ritual as well as secular purposes. The objects
found at this
site were a large collection of objects and regalia mostly made
through the “lost
wax” technique and others made through smithing and casting
method.
In terms of style, the artifacts found at Igbo-Ukwu are not similar to
the Bini, Ife or
any other Nigerian arts; they are originally local in shape and content.
The findings
at this site indicate a very well developed economy with surplus to
engage in
artistic production. The Igbo political system is a segmentary system
of
governance where you have hierarchy of power from the family to the
age group
and to special titles. This power is often distributed among the
following title

11

holders: Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi, Okpara, Ezeji
and a few
others.
Similarly, others that hold powers include priests, elders, diviners,
medicine men,
the Okparas, members of secret society and age grades. They all have
recognized
roles to play within the Igbo political set up.
The Bini Culture
This is another notable culture in Nigeria. There are three versions of
the origin of
the Benin kingdom. The first version is from Edo mythology.
According to this
mythology, the Benin Kingdom was founded by the youngest of the
children of
Osanubua (the high god). This child came with his elder brothers who
subsequently founded Ife and Yoruba Kingdoms.
The Second Version talks about the elders of Benin requested King of
Ife
(Oduduwa) to send his son as the King of Benin. Oduduwa complied
by sending
Oranmiyan. But Oranmiyan did not stay for long. He impregnated the
daughter of
the Onogie of Edo. This woman later delivered a son who was
installed as the first
Oba of Benin. This Oba was later called Eweka. He and the people of
Benin lived
at Usama.
The Third Version according to Igharevba (1968), the Bini migrated
from Egypt
and in the course of their journey southward, they settled at Ile-Ife and
finally
moved to their present location.
The leadership of the Bini people was based on segmentary system
where authority
is exercised right from the family. There are three types of families:
1. The Nuclear Family
2. The Joint Family
3. The Extended Family
Each is headed by an elder who sanctions each member of the family.
Similarly,
there are societal elders constituting authority based on the village
system and
there are representative title holders who constitute a councilor court
for
discharging laws and justice in the whole kingdom.
The Itsekiri Culture
You may wish to know this important culture in Nigeria. The people
of Itsekiri
claimed to have descended from Umale-Okun (the sea god) some of
the Itsekiris
claim to have descended from Ode, a Yoruba town in Ijebu Water-
side.
In a different dimension, one part of the Itsekiri tradition claimed a
relationship
with Iginuwa, a son of one of the chiefs of the Yoruba; it was said that
Iginuwa
was sent to the Itsekiri land in company of chiefs and their servants
whereby, the
chief, together with the Itsekiri established the present land On his
arrival Iginuwa
met with some Ijaw who took him along with his followers and
consolidated his
power as a leader of the new land.
The socio-political organisation of the Itsekiri was closely related to
the Bini
people. The palace and titles for instance were modelled after that of
the Benin
kingdom. But in the Itsekiri‟s case, instead of the Oba, the kingdom
was ruled
rather by the Olu. He alone presided over a council known as Ojoye
which was
made up of seven nobles or title holders. The Olu combined in
himself spiritual
and temporal powers.
The Ijaw Culture
We now move to the Ijaw culture. The Ijaw ethnic group accounts for
a sizeable
percentage of Nigeria‟s population. You also need to know that they
are located
along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria from the Forcados to
Bonny River, long
and extensive years of interaction with various neighbours have
greatly influenced
their traditions thereby leading to differences in the cultural
assumptions of
component Ijaw groups. They are mostly identified as Western Delta
Ijaw
(Gbaramatu, Mein, Iduwini, Arogbo, Egbema (Bassan), Apoi Ijaw);
the Central
Delta Ijaw (Apoi, Furupagha, Olodiama Ijaw); and the Eastern Delta
Ijaw (Bonny,
Elem Kalabari, Nembe (Brass), Okrika).
Some scholars have come up with different Ijaw traditions of origin.
These
scholars include Kenneth Dike (1956), G.I. Jones (1964) and E.J.
Alagoa (1972).
Dike ascribed the establishment of Ijaw politico-religious institutions
to the
commencement of trans-atlantic trade around the 15th Century, while
G.I. Jones
modified this submission by propounding claims of migration from
Eastern Delta
pinning it to the period of or before Portuguese contact with the
region (1450-
1550). On the contrary, Alagoa, an Ijaw, brought up „Mein tradition‟
to assert
migration from Central Delta to Eastern Delta. Archaeological studies
sponsored
by Alagoa to settle this controversy provided a more concrete
information. The
results showed that Eastern Delta Ijaw communities were settled far
ahead of the
Central Delta region.

13

They belong to the Niger-Congo linguistic subgroup and they speak

Izon. The
eastern Ijaw group, however, speak Kalabari. The western Delta Ijaw
also speak
Edoid languages while the Ogbia clan, the Andoni as well as the
Obulom speak
Cross-River languages.
Horton (1969) noted that the politico-religious organisations of the
Ijaw is similar
to those of other Southeastern Nigerian groups especially the Igbo.
The entire adult
male population seats in three age grades assembly to perform
legislative and
judicial functions presided over by the Amanyanabo (village head).
The village
head is chosen from a single descent group.
In Ijaw cosmology, a High God (Tamuno) is acknowledged. An
ancestor cult
similar to that of the Igbo also exists. Being riverine people, there is a
strong belief
in the water goddess (Owu) that plays certain roles in human affairs.
The Ijaw,
over the course of their history are reputed fishermen, canoe builders,
salt
manufacturers and above all elaborate and extensive merchants and
traders, well
known for the establishment of merchant houses.
Origin of the Tiv
Needless to say again that the origin of the Tiv people is not certain.
What we
know about their origin came from oral traditions of myths and
legends and
theories of migration. Tiv Version
According to the Tiv oral tradition, it was Tiv, as a person, that
founded the Tiv
ethnic group of today. So, the word Tiv refers both to the language
and founding
father of the group.
Swem Versio: Other traditions argue that earlier settlements of the
ethnic group
came from Swem down to their present location through Nwange and
Ibinda, and
this occurred between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The
Socio-Political
Organisation of the Tiv
Again, P. Bohannan (1953) argues that the socio-political system of
the traditional
Tiv was very unique. It was a classic example of segmentary or
largely
decentralized system of government in pre-colonial and post-colonial
Nigeria ever
studied “Tsombor”. “Tsombor” was the name of the family group and
was the
largest recognized entity as well “Mbavessen” (Elder) Mbavessen or
elder was the
head of a unit. You should remember that in Tiv traditional system,
each family
group was in turn divided into smaller units. You should also
remember that the
Tiv attached much importance to the spirit of brotherhood and mutual
relations

14
because of the belief that all of them were from one father and
therefore from one
lineage. For Bohannan (1953) the Tiv socio-political structure “was
so simple that
it was difficult to understand.” According to him, Tiv society was
very much
segmented. It was a hierarchical society. It started with the individual
at the lowest
level, the family, the extended family, the kindred, and through clan
to Tiv, i.e. the
whole tribe. In Tiv society, more than in any other Nigerian ethnic
group,
genealogical affiliation was very strong. Even today, in traditional Tiv
society, it is
upon this kind of genealogical framework of hierarchy that kinship
relationship is
organized.
The Igala: Origin of the Igala
Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the origin of the Igala people
is not clear.
However, Idah has always been known as the capital state of Igala
people.
Abutu Eje Version
History tells us that Abutu Eje was the first personality to seriously
contribute to
the development or evolution of the Igala state. Abutu Eje sometimes
identified as
child reared by a leopard (Eje) or as a prince from Ado (Benin) or
Apa (Wukari
Jukun), was a foreigner. According to the legend, the sovereignty was
transferred
to him from an aboriginal population (the Okpoto).
Achadu Version
Some Igala elites attribute the emergence of their state to one Achadu.
He is
believed to have come from the Igbo country. He married the Attah
and later
became a patron (ritual husband) and the leader of the kingmakers
(Igalla-mela).
The Yoruba Version
Some scholars also argue that the Igala are of a Yoruba extraction.
Historical
evidence exists to show that the territories of the Igala and some
Yoruba speaking
peoples had been contiguous.
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Igala
Ayagba or Idoko is best known as the ancestor to all the Attahs. He is
also credited
to have founded the present Igala dynasty. History tells us that he was
the one who
helped the Igala people to break away from the Jukun rule.
Politically speaking, each Igalla Mela was the head of any effective
Igala territory.
His administrative power was like that of the Uzama Nihiron of Benin
or the

15
Oyemisi of the Yoruba. The traditional Igala political structure was
operated on
two levels. There was the central and the provincial level of
administration. The
Attah was head of the centre. A council of chiefs and other officials
assisted him in
the local or provincial administration of the kingdom.
The Jukun (Kwararafa): Origin of the Jukun
Again, like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the origin of the Jukun
people is not
fixed. The Jukun are also known as the Kwararafa. They are believed
to have
occupied the area between the River Benue and the River Ibi in
Gongola state.
Wukari was also known as the principal town of the Jukun people,
and it is in that
town that their King resided. The Jukun State was large.
The Kano Chronicle Version
The Kano chronicle version was the most authentic source that could
say
something convincing about the Jukun history of origin. According to
records from
the Kano Chronicle, the Jukun people raided the Hausaland and
Bornu in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This shows that although the
origin of the
Jukun people was almost unknown, they were at least in existence
before the
sixteenth century or thereabout
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Jukun
As said earlier, the Jukun state was certainly not a small state. This is
one of the
reasons why Jukun was seen as a confederation of peoples who
recognized the
religious supremacy of the AKU UKA. History tells us that by the end
of the
seventeenth century, the Jukun had been well established in the
middle Benue
region. The Jukun people operated a theocratic system of government.
AKU UKA
was the head of any effective Jukun state. He was believed to be
spiritually
appointed and was regarded as the representative of the gods on earth.
Although
AKU UKA was very powerful, his system of government was not
despotic.
He had no absolute power over his people. There were many ways of
regulating his
power. According to Jukun tradition, AKU UKA was judged, for
instance, by his
performance (result). Since he was the symbol of the Jukun existence,
a good
harvest could bring in more prestige while a bad harvest could result
in serious
calamity, and thereafter, his unpopularity and downfall. Also, there
were many
taboos which acted as checks on his royal power as well. Even as the
head of the
executive, legislative and judiciary, AKU UKA also ruled with the
advice of his

16

nobles and subjects. Public opinion was respected in Jukun pre-

colonial
administration.
Achuwo
He was the head of Aku Uka‟s Council of nobles. He functioned as
the Prime
Minister. He was seconded by the Abo Zike, Kinda Achuwo and the
Aku Nako.
You should also remember that these nobles were representatives of
their lineages
as well.
Tutorial Questions
Write on the myth and legends of the following ethnic groups
a. Igbo
b. Yoruba
c. Ijaw
d. Hausa
e. Fulani
f. Hausa Fulani
g. Bini
h. Itsekiri
Nigerian culture and art in the pre-colonial era

In the study of Nigerian art and culture in the pre-colonial era, we

shall examine the following art
and culture in the pre-colonial era.
1. The Benin Art and culture in the pre-colonial era
Benin art is the artifact from the Benin kingdom or Edo Empire
around 1440–1897, a pre-
colonial African state located in the South-South region of Nigeria.
these art works where made
from cast bronze and carved ivory, Benin art was produced mainly for
the court of the Oba of
Benin - a divine ruler for whom the craftsmen produced a range of
ceremonially significant
objects. The artworks of Benin are all about events and achievements,
actual or mythical that
occurred in the past. These art works was grounded on traditional
values and religious beliefs,
which also displayed iconographic affinities. Until 15th century A.D,
Benin art items were not
known outside the ancient Benin kingdom and commanded very little
monetary and aesthetic
values. There are different Benin art and culture which include the
following:
The royal arts of the Benin Kingdom: this affirm the centrality of the
oba, or divine king,
portraying his divine nature. While recording the kingdom’s
significant historical events and the
oba's involvement with them, they also initiate the oba’s interactions
with the supernatural and
honor his deified ancestors, forging a continuity that is vital to the
kingdom’s well-being. The
materials used in Benin’s royal arts—primarily brass, ivory, and coral
—are endowed with sacred
power. The innate value of these materials within Benin and the time
and skill that is invested in
working them reflect the earthly and otherworldly influence of the oba
and the great wealth of
his kingdom. Benin’s royal arts belong to a tradition that favors
convention even as it promotes
creativity and innovation, especially as a reflection of royal
prerogative. Through time, rulers
have used the arts to interpret the history of the kingdom and to orient
themselves with the past
in an effort to support their own initiatives and define their images for
posterity. Although only
made popular to Western audiences after the Punitive Expedition in
the 19th century, Benin art
has been in existence since at least the 13th century.

Ancestral altars: A newly installed oba is responsible for creating an

altar dedicated to
his father, commissioning the appropriate objects to adorn it and
activating it on a regular basis
with sacrifices of food or animal blood. The oba does the same for his
mother if she attained the
title of iyoba, or queenmother. While bells and rattle staffs are placed
on all ancestral altars,
ivory tusks and commemorative brass heads are made specifically for
royal altars. Associated
with trade, ivory and brass are durable and valuable, and their colors
—white like sacred kaolin
clay and red like fire and coral beads—relate to royal power. Before
the British conquest, an
oba’s courtyard was the focal point for rituals in his honor. British
troops reported 18 altars
dedicated to previous obas when they took possession of the palace in
1897. Today, all of the

royal altars stand together in a single courtyard. One of the objects

unique to Benin art is an
Ikegobo, or "altars to the hand," which celebrates the
accomplishments of exceptional
individuals. The hand is associated with action and productivity, and
is considered the source of
wealth, status, and success for all those who depend on manual skill
and physical strength. Altars
of this kind are commissioned in terracotta, wood, or brass, depending
on the status of the patron.

Art related to rituals at court

Private and public ceremonies mark many of the important moments
in Benin’s yearly
calendar. In the past, an elaborate series of rites were performed
throughout the year to secure
otherworldly support for the kingdom’s well-being and to celebrate
decisive events in its history.
For the sake of convenience, the current monarch, Oba Erediauwa,
emphasizes the end-of-year
festival called Igue, which is held during the winter holidays to allow
the greatest number of
people to attend. Igue includes a sequence of rituals that renew the
oba’s supernatural powers
and cleanse the kingdom’s unruly spirits. Benin’s other important
ritual festivals include Ague,
where the first budded yams are blessed in hopes of a successful
harvest; Ugie Ivie, the Festival
of Beads, in which the oba’s coral and red stone regalia is bathed in
cow’s blood to reinvest it
with spiritual force; Ugie Erha Oba, which honors the oba’s father
and all paternal ancestors;
Oduduwa, a masquerade that likewise honors the oba’s paternal
ancestors; and Ugie Oro,
celebrating Oba Esigie’s victory over the Idah Kingdom in the 16th
century. Finely carved ivory
double gongs are examples of art related to rituals at court. They are
called ―double‖ gongs
because of second, smaller resonating cups at their front. Typically,
the central image is the oba
in coral regalia supported by the high priests osa and osuan, officials
who tend the altars of the
kingdom’s two patron gods. These gongs are still carried today by the
oba during Emobo, the last
of the empowering rites of the Igue festival. The oba gently taps the
ivory instrument, creating a
rhythmic sound to calm and dismiss unruly spirits from the kingdom

Leopard imagery in the arts of Benin

The oba is referred to metaphorically as ―the leopard of the house,‖
and images of the
beautiful, cunning, and immensely dangerous cat appear frequently in
Benin’s royal arts. Before
the British invasion in 1897, domesticated leopards were kept in the
palace to demonstrate theoba’s mastery over the wilderness. Leopard
imagery is also frequently linked to the oba’s
military might.

The Igbo art and culture in the pre-colonial era.

The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. In rural
Nigeria, Igbo people
work mostly as craftsmen, farmers and traders. The most important
crop is the yam; celebrations
take place annually to celebrate its harvesting. Other staple crops
include cassava and taro. The
Igbos are also highly urbanized, with some of the largest metropolitan
areas, cities and towns in
Igboland being Onitsha, Enugu, Aba, Owerri, Orlu, Okigwe, Asaba,
Awka, Nsukka, Nnewi,
Umuahia, Abakaliki, Afikpo, Agbor and Arochukwu. Before British
colonial rule, the Igbo were
a politically fragmented group. There were variations in culture such
as in art styles, attire and
religious practices. Various subgroups were organized by clan,
lineage, village affiliation, and
dialect. There were not many centralized chiefdoms, hereditary
aristocracy, or kingship customs
except in kingdoms such as those of the Nri, Arochukwu, Agbor and
Onitsha
The Igbo art and culture amazed the entire world given its complexity
and technicality. The
Igbo-Ukwu bronzes amazed the world with a very high level of
technical and artistic proficiency
and sophistication which was at this time distinctly more advanced
than bronze casting in
Europe. Peter Garlake compares the Igbo-Ukwu bronzes "to the finest
jewelry of rococo Europe
or of Carl Faberge, and William Buller Fagg states they were created
with "a strange rococo
almost Faberge type virtuosity. Frank Willett says that the Igbo-Ukwu
bronzes portray a standard

that is comparable to that established by Benvenuto Cellini five

hundred years later in Europe.
Denis Williams calls them "an exquisite explosion without antecedent
or issue." One of the
objects found, a water pot set in a mesh of simulated rope is described
by Hugh Honour and John
Fleming as A virtuoso feat of cire perdue (lost wax) casting. Its
elegant design and refined
detailing are matched by a level of technical accomplishment that is
notably more advanced than
European bronze casting of this period.
The archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu revealed bronze artifacts dated to the
9th century A.D. which

were initially discovered by Isiah Anozie in 1939 while digging a well

in his compound in Igbo-
Ukwu, an Igbo town in Anambra State, Nigeria. As a result of these
finds, three archaeological

sites were excavated in 1959 and 1964 by Thurstan Shaw which

revealed more than 700 high
quality artifacts of copper, bronze and iron, as well as about 165000
glass, carnelian and stone
beads, pottery, textiles and ivory. They are the oldest bronze artifacts
known in West African and
were manufactured centuries before the emergence of other known
bronze producing centers
such as those of Ife and Benin. The bronzes include numerous ritual
vessels, pendants, crowns,
breastplates, staff ornaments, swords, and fly-whisk handles.
Examples include: Intricate
bronze ceremonial pot, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu
We should understand that the metal workers of ancient Igbo-Ukwu
were not aware of
commonly used techniques such as wire making, soldering or riveting
which suggests an
independent development and long isolation of their metal working
tradition. It is therefore
perplexing that they were able to create objects with such fine surface
detail that they depict, for
example small insects which seem to have landed on the surface.
Though these appear to have
been riveted or soldered on to the artifacts, they were actually cast in
one piece. (Honour, Hugh;
Fleming, John, 2005) The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and
Techniques in Art describes
them as being "among the most inventive and technically
accomplished bronzes ever made.
(Gerald W.R., 2008) Although the lost wax casting process was used
to produce the bronzes,
latex was probably used in Igbo-Ukwu instead of beeswax which
would explain how the artists
were able to produce such fine and filigrann surface detail. Some of
the techniques used by the
ancient smiths are not known to have been used outside Igbo-Ukwu
such as the production of
complex objects in stages with the different parts later fixed together
by brazing or by casting
linking sections to join them. (Willet, Frank 1972) However the
complexity of some of the Igbo-
Ukwu objects has led to considerable altercation between various
metallurgic experts and

debates regarding the actual production process which is an affidavit

for the highly developed
and intricate work of the ancient artists. The composition of the metal
alloys used in the
production of the bronze is unique, with an unusually high silver
content and is distinct from
alloys used in Europe, the Mediterranean or other African bronze
centers. The origin of the metal
ore used to produce the bronze has been located to old mines in
Abakiliki about 100 kilometers
from Igbo-Ukwu.
The Yoruba Art and Culture in the Pre-colonial Era

The Yoruba of West Africa (Benin, and Togo, with migrant

communities in parts of Ghana, and
Sierra Leone) and more importantly of Nigeria are responsible for one
of the finest artistic
traditions in Africa, a tradition that remains vital and influential today.
Much of the art of the
Yoruba, including staffs, court dress, and beadwork for crowns, is
associated with the royal
courts. The courts also commissioned numerous architectural objects
such as veranda posts,
gates, and doors that are embellished with carvings. Other Yoruba art
is related to shrines and
masking traditions. The Yoruba worship a large pantheon of deities,
and shrines dedicated to
these gods are adorned with carvings and house and array of other
figures and other ritual
paraphernalia. Masking traditions vary regionally, and a wide range of
mask types are employed
in various festivals and celebrations.
The custom of art and artists among the Yoruba is deeply rooted in
the Ifá literary corpus,
indicating the orishas Ogun, Obatala, Oshun and Obalufon as central
to creation mythology
including artistry (i.e. the art of humanity). In order to fully
understand the centrality of art (onà)
in Yoruba thought, one must be aware of their cosmology, which
traces the origin of existence
(ìwà) to a Supreme Divinity called Olódùmarè, the generator of ase,
the enabling power that
sustains and transforms the universe. To the Yoruba, art began when
Olódùmarè commissioned
the artist deity Obatala to mold the first human image from clay.
Today, it is customary for the
Yoruba to wish pregnant women good luck with the greeting: May
Obatala fashion for us a good
work of art.
The concept of ase influences how many of the Yoruba arts are
composed. In the visual arts, a
design may be segmented or seriate- a "discontinuous aggregate in
which the units of the whole
are discrete and share equal value with the other units." Such elements
can be seen in Ifa trays
and bowls, veranda posts, carved doors, and ancestral masks. The
Yoruba people regard the

human head (ori) as the most important part of a person. Likewise, the
head is the most
prominent part of Yoruba sculpture. An analysis of Yoruba ontology
reveals that the Yoruba
regard the head as the locus of the ase of Olodumare. Therefore, the
head constitutes a person's
life-source and controlling personality and destiny. Babatunde Lawal
identifies three different
modes of representing the head in Yoruba sculpture: "the naturalistic,
which refers to the
external, or physical head (ori ode); the stylized, which hints at the
inner, or spiritual, head (ori
inu); and the abstract, which symbolizes the primeval material (oke
ipori) of which the inner
head was made. Yoruban blacksmiths create sculpture from iron,
through hand-beating, welding,
and casting. Ogun is honored as the god of iron. Examples of Yoruba
art work include the
following:

Hausa art and culture in the pre-colonial era

The Nok culture is an early Iron Age population whose material

remains are named after the
Ham village of Nok in Nigeria, Africa, where their famous terracotta
sculptures were first
discovered in 1928. The Nok Culture appeared in northern Nigeria
around 1000 BCE and
vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 CE, thus having
lasted for approximately
1,500 years. Iron use, in smelting and forging for tools, appears in
Nok culture by at least 550
BCE and possibly earlier. Data from historical linguistics suggest that
iron smelting was
independently discovered in the region prior to 1000 BCE. Scientific
field work began in 2005 to
systematically investigate Nok archaeological sites, and to better
understand Nok terracotta
sculptures within their Iron Age archaeological context
The function of Nok terracotta sculptures is still unknown. For the
most part, the terracotta is
preserved in the form of scattered fragments. That is why Nok art is
well known today only for
the heads, both male and female, whose hairstyles are particularly
detailed and refined. The
statues are in fragments because the discoveries are usually made
from alluvial mud, in terrain
made by the erosion of water. The terracotta statues found there are
hidden, rolled, polished, and
broken. Rarely are works of great size conserved intact making them
highly valued on the
international art market. The terracotta figures are hollow, coil built,
nearly life sized human
heads and bodies that are depicted with highly stylized features,
abundant jewelry, and varied
postures. Little is known of the original function of the pieces, but
theories include ancestor
portrayal, grave markers, and charms to prevent crop failure,
infertility, and illness. Also, based
on the dome-shaped bases found on several figures, they could have
been used as finials for the
roofs of ancient structures.
Margaret Young-Sanchez, Associate Curator of Art of the Americas,
Africa, and Oceania in The
Cleveland Museum of Art, explains that most Nok ceramics were
shaped by hand from coarse-
grained clay and subtractively sculpted in a manner that suggests an
influence from wood

carving. After some drying, the sculptures were covered with slip and
burnished to produce a
smooth, glossy surface. The figures are hollow, with several openings
to facilitate thorough
drying and firing. The firing process most likely resembled that used
today in Nigeria, in which
the pieces are covered with grass, twigs, and leaves and burned for
several hours. As a result of
natural erosion and deposition, Nok terracottas were scattered at
various depths throughout the

Sahel grasslands, causing difficulty in the dating and classification of

the mysterious artifacts.
Luckily, two archaeological sites, Samun Dukiya and Taruga, were
found containing Nok art that
had remained unmoved. Radiocarbon and thermo-luminescence tests
narrowed the sculptures’
age down to between 2,000 and 2,500 years ago, making them some
of the oldest in West Africa.
Many further dates were retrieved in the course of new archaeological
excavations, extending the
beginnings of the Nok tradition even further back in time. Because of
the similarities between the
two sites, archaeologist Graham Connah believes that "Nok artwork
represents a style that was
adopted by a range of iron-using farming societies of varying cultures,
rather than being the
diagnostic feature of a particular human group as has often been
claimed."

The Ijaw art and Culture

The Ijaw speak nine closely related Niger–Congo languages, all of

which belong to the Ijoid
branch of the Niger–Congo tree. The primary division between the Ijo
languages is that between
Eastern Ijo and Western Ijo, the most important of the former group
of languages being Izon,
which is spoken by about ten million people. There are two prominent
groupings of the Izon
language. The first, termed either Western or Central Izon (Ijaw)
consists of Western Ijaw
speakers: Ekeremor, Sagbama (Mein), Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma
(Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei),
Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma (Yenagoa). Nembe, Brass
and Akassa (Akaha)
dialects represent Southeast Ijo (Izon). Buseni and Okordia dialects
are considered Inland Ijo.
The other major Ijaw linguistic group is Kalabari. Kalabari is
considered an Eastern Ijaw
language but the term "Eastern Ijaw" is not the normal nomenclature.
Kalabari is the name of one
of the Ijaw clans that reside on the eastern side of the Niger-Delta
(Abonnema, Buguma, Bakana,
Degema etc.) who form a major group in Rivers State, hence their
involvement in the fight for
greater oil control. Other "Eastern" Ijaw clans are the Okrika, Ibani
(the natives of Bonny,
Finima and Opobo) and Nkoroo. They are neighbours to the Kalabari
people in present-day
Rivers State, Nigeria.
The Ijaw were one of the first of Nigeria's peoples to have contact
with Westerners, and were
active as go-betweens in the slave trade between visiting Europeans
and the peoples of the
interior, particularly in the era before the discovery of quinine, when
West Africa was still
known as the "White Man's Graveyard" because of the endemic
presence of malaria. Some of the
kin-based trading lineages that arose among the Ijaw developed into
substantial corporations
which were known as "houses"; each house had an elected leader as
well as a fleet of war canoes
for use in protecting trade and fighting rivals. The other main
occupation common among the
Ijaw has traditionally been fishing and farming.
Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant
shipping sector in the early
and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian independence). With the advent
of oil and gas exploration in
their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main
occupation are in the civil service of
the Nigerian states of Bayelsa and Rivers where they are predominant.
Extensive state-government sponsored overseas scholarship programs
in the 1970s and 1980s
have also led to a significant presence of Ijaw professionals in Europe
and North America (the
so-called Ijaw diaspora). Another contributing factor to this human
capital flight is the abject
poverty in their homeland of the Niger Delta, resulting from decades
of neglect by the Nigerian
government and oil companies in spite of continuous petroleum
prospecting in this region since
the 1950s.
The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice,
plantains, yams, cocoyams,
bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava,
mangoes and pineapples;
and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are
processed for export. While
some clans (those to the east- Akassa, Nembe, Kalabari, Okrika and
Bonny) had powerful chiefs
and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any
centralized confederacies
until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the
neighbouring Kingdom of
Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also
had chiefs and governments
at the village level.
Marriages are completed by the payment of a bridal dowry, which
increases in size if the bride is
from another village (so as to make up for that village's loss of her
children). Funeral
ceremonies, particularly for those who have accumulated wealth and
respect, are often very
dramatic. Traditional religious practices center around "Water spirits"
in the Niger river, and
around tribute to ancestors.
Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (95% profess to be),
with Roman Catholicism
and Anglicanism being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent
among them, they also have
elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Veneration of
ancestors plays a central role
in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as Owuamapu
figure prominently in the
Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination
called Igbadai, in which
recently deceased individuals are interrogated on the causes of their
death. they also embrace the
Cherubim and Seraphim church of christ including Zion church all of
the C & S Churches
prominent among them is Apostle J.E Patani a police officer from the
western Izon division
Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans in having
personal strengths and
shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before
being born. The role of
prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living
in the good graces of the
water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this
world, and each year the Ijaw
hold celebrations in honor the spirits lasting for several days. Central
to the festivities is the role
of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved
masks dance to the beat of
drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the
quality and intensity of their
dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually
be in the possession of the
particular spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.

The Ijaw are also known to practice ritual acculturation

(enculturation), whereby an individual
from a different, unrelated group undergoes rites to become Ijaw. An
example of this is Jaja of
Opobo, the Igbo slave who rose to become a powerful Ibani (Bonny)
chief in the 19th century.
Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods
that are not widespread in
Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as
clams, oysters and
periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:
Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil
Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green)
plantains, fish, other seafood or
game meat ("bushmeat") and palm oil
Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served
with fried plantains
Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried,
fried in groundnut oil or
pickled in palm oil
Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that
is eaten with foofoo, rice
or yams
Other related Ijaw subgroups which have distinct languages but very
close kinship, cultural and
territorial ties with the rest of the Ijaw are the Epie-Atissa, Engenni
(also known as Ẹgẹnẹ), and
Degema (also called Udekama or Udekaama). These groups speak
Delta Edoid languages. The
Ogbia clan, Andoni people, as well as residents of Bukuma and
Abuloma (Obulom) speak Cross
River languages.