General Information

EPD Programme Operator Applicable Product Category Rules

BRE Global BRE 2023 Product Category Rules (PN 514 Rev 3.1) for
Watford, Herts Type III environmental product declaration of construction
WD25 9XX products to EN 15804:2012+A2:2019
United Kingdom

Commissioner of LCA study LCA consultant/Tool

CARES CARES EPD Tool

Pembroke House SPHERA SOLUTIONS UK LIMITED
21 Pembroke Road The Innovation Centre Warwick Technology Park
Sevenoaks Gallows Hill, Warwick
Kent, TN13 1XR Warwickshire
UK CV34 6UW
www.carescertification.com www.sphera.com

Declared/Functional Unit Applicability/Coverage

1 tonne of carbon steel reinforcing bars from the Manufacturer-specific product.

primary production route (Iron Ore/Blast Furnace)
and the secondary production route (scrap-based)
as used within concrete structures for a commercial
building.

EPD Type Background database

Cradle to Gate with options GaBi

Demonstration of Verification

CEN standard EN 15804 serves as the core PCR a

Independent verification of the declaration and data according to EN ISO 14025:2010

☐Internal ☒ External
(Where appropriate b)Third party verifier:
Pat Hermon
a: Product category rules
b: Optional for business-to-business communication; mandatory for business-to-consumer communication (see EN ISO 14025:2010, 9.4)

Comparability

Environmental product declarations from different programmes may not be comparable if not compliant with
EN 15804:2012+A2:2019. Comparability is further dependent on the specific product category rules, system boundaries
and allocations, and background data sources. See Clause 5.3 of EN 15804:2012+A2:2019 for further guidance
Information modules covered
Use stage Benefits and
loads beyond
Product Construction End-of-life
Related to the system
Related to the building fabric
the building boundary
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 D
Raw materials supply

Operational energy

Waste processing
Operational water

and/or Recycling
Reuse, Recovery
Transport to site

Deconstruction
Refurbishment
Construction –
Manufacturing

Replacement
Maintenance
Installation

demolition
Transport

Transport

Disposal

potential
Repair
Use

use

use
                
Note: Ticks indicate the Information Modules declared.

Manufacturing site
Shiu Wing Steel Ltd (member of CARES)

Shiu Wing Steel Mill

Tuen Mun Area 38
Tap Shek Kok
New Territories
Hong Kong

Construction Product:
Product Description
Reinforcing steel bar (according to product standards listed in Summary, Comments and Additional
Information) manufactured by hot rolling of steel billets manufactured via the blast furnace/basic oxygen
furnace route (BF/BOF) and via the secondary production route (scrap melted in Electric Arc Furnace).

The declared unit is 1 tonne of carbon steel reinforcing bars as used within concrete structures for a
commercial building.
Technical Information

Property Value, Unit

Production route EAF and BF-BOF
Density 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity 200000 N/mm2
Weldability (Ceq) max 0.50 %

Yield strength (as per CS2:2012) min 500 N/mm2 – max 650 N/mm2
Tensile strength (as per CS2:2012) min 540 N/mm2
(Tensile strength/Yield Strength ≥ 1.08)
Agt (% total elongation at maximum force as per min 5 %
CS2:2012)
Surface geometry (Relative rib area, fR as per min 0.040 for Bar Size >6mm & ≤12mm
CS2:2012) min 0.056 for Bar size>12
Re-bend test (as per CS2:2012) Pass
Fatigue test (Optional, as per CS2:2012) Pass
Recycled content (as per ISO 42.4 %
14021:2016/Amd:2021)
* Technical Information details are as per relevant product standards listed in References section.

Main Product Contents

Material/Chemical Input %
Fe 97
C, Mn, Si, V, Ni, Cu, Cr, Mo and others 3

Manufacturing Process
Reinforcing steel bar (according to product standards listed in Summary, Comments and Additional
Information) manufactured by hot rolling of steel billets manufactured via the blast furnace/basic oxygen
furnace route (BF/BOF) and via the secondary production route (scrap melted in Electric Arc Furnace).

In the BF/BOF production route, hot metal (molten iron) obtained from reducing ferrous rich materials (sinter,
iron ore, pellets) in Blast Furnace (BF) is converted into steel by Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) in which the
carbon content of the hot metal is reduced. This is then refined in secondary steel making steps to remove
impurities and alloying additions can be made to give the required properties.

In the secondary (scrap based) production route, molten steel obtained from melting steel scrap in Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF) is refined in secondary steel making steps to remove impurities and alloying additions can be
made to give the required properties.

Molten steel obtained from either of the EAF and BOF is then cast into steel billets before being sent to the
rolling mill where they are rolled and shaped to the required dimensions for the finished bars of reinforcing
steel.

The products are packed by binding with steel wire or strap. Both the steel ties and products do not include
any biogenic materials.
Process flow diagram

Construction Installation
Processing and proper use of reinforcing steel products depends on the application and should be made in
accordance with generally accepted practices, standards and manufacturing recommendations.

During transport and storage of reinforcing steel products the usual requirement for securing loads is to be
observed.

Use Information
The composition of the reinforcing steel products does not change during use.

Reinforcing steel products do not cause adverse health effects under normal conditions of use.

No risks to the environment and living organisms are known to result from the mechanical destruction of the
reinforcing steel product itself.

End of Life
Reinforcing steel products are not reused at end of life but can be recycled to the same (or higher/lower)
quality of steel depending upon the metallurgy and processing of the recycling route.

It is a high value resource, so efforts are made to recycle steel scrap rather than disposing of it at EoL. A
recycling rate of 92% is typical for reinforcing steel products
Life Cycle Assessment Calculation Rules
Declared unit description
The declared unit is 1 tonne of carbon steel reinforcing bars manufactured by the primary (iron ore - based)
and the secondary (scrap-based) production route as used within concrete structures for a commercial
building (i.e. 1 tonne in use, accounting for losses during fabrication and installation, not 1 tonne as produced).

System boundary
The system boundary of the EPD follows the modular design defined by EN 15804+A2. This is a cradle to
gate – with all options EPD and thus covers all modules from A1 to C4 and includes module D as well.
Impacts and aspects related to losses/wastage (i.e. production, transport and waste processing and end-of-life
stage of lost waste products and materials) are considered in the modules in which the losses/wastage occur.
Once steel scrap has been collected for recycling it is considered to have reached the end of waste state.

Data sources, quality and allocation

Data Sources: Manufacturing data of the period 01/01/2023-31/12/2023 has been provided by Shiu Wing
Steel Ltd (member of CARES).
Precise measuring or assumptions have been considered for primary data. Manufacturing data specific for
rebar has been collected from recording of meters where applicable or justified assumptions has been made
where metering systems were not applicable. Primary data was verified during audit conducted by CARES.
The selection of the background data for electricity generation is in line with the BRE Global PCR. Country or
region specific power grid mixes are selected from LCA FE (GaBi) Dataset Documentation (Sphera 2023.1);
thus, consumption grid mix of China has been selected to suit specific manufacturing location.
Data Quality: Data quality can be described as good. Background data are consistently sourced from the LCA
FE (GaBi) Dataset Documentation (Sphera 2023.1). The primary data collection was thorough, considering all
relevant flows and these data have been verified by CARES.
Data quality level and criteria of the UN Environment Global Guidance on LCA database development:
Geographical Representativeness : Good
Technical Representativeness : Very good
Time Representativeness : Good
Allocation: Mill scale is produced as co-product from the steel rolling process. Impacts are allocated between
the steel and the mill scale based on economic value. The revenue generated from mill scale is 0.04%, which
is less than 1% in relation to the product based on current market prices, this co-product is of definite value
and is freely/readily traded in reality. For this reason, economic allocation has been applied to the processes
where this co-product arises.
Production losses of steel during the production process are recycled in a closed loop offsetting the
requirement for external scrap. Specific information on allocation within the background data is given in the
LCA FE (GaBi) Dataset Documentation (Sphera 2023.1).

Cut-off criteria
On the input side all flows entering the system and comprising more than 1% in total mass or contributing
more than 1% to primary energy consumption are considered. All inputs used as well as all process-specific
waste and process emissions were assessed. For this reason, material streams which were below 1% (by
mass) were captured as well. In this manner the cut-off criteria according to the BRE guidelines are fulfilled.

The mass of steel wire or strap used for binding the product is less than 1 % of the total mass of the product.
LCA Results
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)
Parameters describing environmental impacts
GWP- GWP- GWP- GWP- ODP AP EP-
total fossil biogenic luluc freshwate
r
kg CO2 kg CO2 kg CO2 kg CO2 kg CFC11 mol H+ kg (PO4)3-
eq eq eq eq eq eq eq
Raw material supply A1 1.69E+03 1.69E+03 -0.569 0.608 1.54E-09 4.95 1.47E-03
Transport A2 68.5 68.5 0.047 0.020 4.67E-12 2.31 2.22E-05
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 295 295 0.017 0.080 5.61E-10 5.48 7.40E-05
Total (of product stage) A1-3 2.05E+03 2.05E+03 -0.505 0.708 2.11E-09 12.7 1.57E-03

Construction Transport A4 20.9 21.0 -0.292 0.191 1.81E-12 0.064 7.53E-05

process stage Construction A5 221 221 -0.164 0 2.85E-10 1.34 1.83E-04
Use B1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 2.05 2.05 0.001 4.51E-05 6.29E-14 0.011 2.45E-07
demolition
Transport C2 41.4 41.9 -0.898 0.407 4.04E-12 0.193 1.61E-04
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 1.17 1.20 -0.040 0.004 3.05E-12 0.009 2.42E-06

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery, - -
and loads beyond the D 2.18 -0.463 3.27E-09 -2.51 -8.26E-05
recycling potential 1.11E+03 1.12E+03
system boundaries

100% Lanfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 2.05 2.05 0.001 4.51E-05 6.29E-14 0.011 2.45E-07
demolition
Transport C2 1.89 1.92 -0.044 0.020 1.88E-13 0.007 7.83E-06
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 14.6 15 -0.499 0.047 3.82E-11 0.107 3.02E-05

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery,
and loads beyond the D 953 954 -1.86 0.396 -2.80E-09 2.15 7.06E-05
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Recycling Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 2.05 2.05 0.001 4.51E-05 6.29E-14 0.011 2.45E-07
demolition
Transport C2 44.8 45.3 -0.973 0.440 4.37E-12 0.209 1.74E-04
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery, - -
and loads beyond the D 2.53 -0.538 3.80E-09 -2.92 -9.59E-05
recycling potential 1.29E+03 1.30E+03
system boundaries

GWP-total = Global warming potential, total; ODP = Depletion potential of the stratospheric ozone layer;
GWP-fossil = Global warming potential, fossil; AP = Acidification potential, accumulated exceedance; and
GWP-biogenic = Global warming potential, biogenic; EP-freshwater = Eutrophication potential, fraction of nutrients reaching
GWP-luluc = Global warming potential, land use and land use change; freshwater end compartment
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)
Parameters describing environmental impacts
EP- EP- POCP ADP- ADP- WDP PM
marine terrestri mineral fossil
al &metals
kg N eq mol N kg kg Sb MJ, net m3 disease
eq NMVOC eq calorific world incidenc
eq value eq e
Raw material supply A1 0.544 10.8 3.47 7.48E-05 1.43E+04 deprive
94.6 6.61E-05
d
Transport A2 0.544 5.96 1.55 7.30E-07 830 0.133 4.01E-05
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 0.421 4.60 1.43 6.31E-06 3.46E+03 40.4 4.47E-05
1.35E+0
Total (of product stage) A1-3 1.509 21.4 6.45 8.18E-05 1.86E+04 1.51E-04
2
Construction Transport A4 0.029 0.329 0.058 1.33E-06 281 0.238 3.80E-07
process stage Construction A5 0.216 2.36 0.693 9.10E-06 2.05E+03 17.9 1.58E-05
Use B1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0.004 0.044 0.011 1.25E-08 27.6 0.016 6.69E-08
demolition
Transport C2 0.091 1.01 0.195 2.86E-06 633 0.511 1.52E-06
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0.002 0.024 0.007 5.54E-08 16.0 0.132 1.05E-07
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery, -
D -0.603 -6.53 -2.01 -1.16E-05 -15.9 -3.67E-05
the system recycling potential 8.25E+03
boundaries
100% Lanfill Scenario
Deconstruction,
C1 0.004 0.044 0.011 1.25E-08 27.6 0.016 6.69E-08
demolition
Transport C2 0.003 0.036 0.006 1.38E-07 29.2 0.025 3.65E-08
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0.028 0.303 0.083 6.92E-07 200 1.65 1.31E-06
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery,
D 0.516 5.58 1.72 9.90E-06 7.06E+03 13.6 3.14E-05
the system recycling potential
boundaries
100% Recycling Scenario
Deconstruction,
C1 0.004 0.044 0.011 1.25E-08 27.6 0.016 6.69E-08
demolition
Transport C2 0.098 1.10 0.212 3.10E-06 685 0.553 1.65E-06
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery, -
D -0.701 -7.58 -2.33 -1.34E-05 -18.4 -4.26E-05
the system recycling potential 9.58E+03
boundaries

EP-marine = Eutrophication potential, fraction of nutrients reaching marine ADP-fossil = Depletion potential of the stratospheric ozone layer;
end compartment; WDP = Water (user) deprivation potential, deprivation-weighted water
EP-terrestrial = Eutrophication potential, accumulated exceedance; consumption; and
POCP = Formation potential of tropospheric ozone; PM = Particulate matter.
ADP-mineral&metals = Abiotic depletion potential for non-fossil resources;
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)

Parameters describing environmental impacts

IRP ETP-fw HTP-c HTP-nc SQP

kBq U235
CTUe CTUh CTUh dimensionless
eq
Raw material supply A1 7.26 1.47E-03 2.17E-06 2.42E-05 1.14E+03
Transport A2 0.140 2.22E-05 1.07E-08 4.99E-07 14.0
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 1.98 7.40E-05 1.34E-07 4.58E-06 166
Total (of product stage) A1-3 9.38 1.57E-03 2.31E-06 2.93E-05 1.32E+03

Construction Transport A4 0.053 7.53E-05 3.98E-09 2.48E-07 117

process stage Construction A5 1.23 1.83E-04 2.30E-07 3.06E-06 184
Use B1 0 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0.001 2.45E-07 6.18E-10 1.84E-08 0.043
demolition
Transport C2 0.117 1.61E-04 8.94E-09 5.22E-07 249
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0.021 2.42E-06 1.34E-09 1.48E-07 3.89

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery,
and loads beyond the D 16.2 -8.26E-05 -1.72E-06 -6.66E-06 777
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Lanfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0.001 2.45E-07 6.18E-10 1.84E-08 0.043
demolition
Transport C2 0.005 7.83E-06 4.14E-10 2.45E-08 12.2
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0.263 3.02E-05 1.68E-08 1.85E-06 48.6

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery,
and loads beyond the D -13.9 7.06E-05 1.47E-06 5.69E-06 -664
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Recycling Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0.001 2.45E-07 6.18E-10 1.84E-08 0.043
demolition
Transport C2 0.127 1.74E-04 9.68E-09 5.65E-07 270
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits
Reuse, recovery,
and loads beyond the D 18.8 -9.59E-05 -2.00E-06 -7.73E-06 902
recycling potential
system boundaries

IRP = Potential human exposure efficiency relative to U235; HTP-nc = Potential comparative toxic unit for humans; and
ETP-fw = Potential comparative toxic unit for ecosystems; SQP = Potential soil quality index.
HTP-c = Potential comparative toxic unit for humans;
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)

Parameters describing resource use, primary energy

PERE PERM PERT PENRE PENRM PENRT

MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ

Raw material supply A1 1.42E+03 0 1.42E+03 1.44E+04 0 1.44E+04

Transport A2 5.43 0 5.43 832 0 832
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 3.58E+02 0 3.58E+02 3.46E+03 0 3.46E+03
Total (of product
A1-3 1.78E+03 0 1.78E+03 1.87E+04 0 1.87E+04
stage)
Construction Transport A4 19.9 0 19.9 281 0 281
process stage Construction A5 228 0 228 2.07E+03 0 2.07E+03
Use B1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0 0 0

Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational energy
B6 0 0 0 0 0 0
use
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0.049 0 0.049 27.6 0 27.6
demolition
Transport C2 42.4 0 42.4 634 0 634
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 2.61 0 2.61 16 0 16
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery,
D 1.37E+03 0 1.37E+03 -8.35E+03 0 -8.35E+03
the system recycling potential
boundaries
100% Landfill Scenario
Deconstruction,
C1 0.049 0 0.049 27.6 0 27.6
demolition
Transport C2 2.07 0 2.07 29.3 0 29.3
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 32.6 0 32.6 200 0 200
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery,
D -1.17E+03 0 -1.17E+03 7.14E+03 0 7.14E+03
the system recycling potential
boundaries
100% Recycling Scenario
Deconstruction,
C1 0.049 0 0.049 27.6 0 27.6
demolition
Transport C2 45.9 0 45.9 687 0 687
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Potential benefits
and loads beyond Reuse, recovery,
D 1590 0 1590 -9.69E+03 0 -9.69E+03
the system recycling potential
boundaries

PERE = Use of renewable primary energy excluding renewable PENRE = Use of non-renewable primary energy excluding non-
primary energy used as raw materials; renewable primary energy resources used as raw materials;
PERM = Use of renewable primary energy resources used as raw PENRM = Use of non-renewable primary energy resources used
materials; as raw materials;
PERT = Total use of renewable primary energy resources; PENRT = Total use of non-renewable primary energy resource
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)

Parameters describing resource use, secondary materials and fuels, use of water

SM RSF NRSF FW
MJ MJ
kg m3
net calorific value net calorific value
Raw material supply A1 0 0 0 94.6
Transport A2 0 0 0 0.133
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 -432 0 0 40.4
Total (of product stage) A1-3 -432 0 0 1.35E+02

Construction Transport A4 0 0 0 0.238

process stage Construction A5 0 0 0 17.9
Use B1 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 0 0 0.016
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0.511
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0.132

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D -488 0 0 -15.9
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 0 0 0.016
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0.025
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 1.65

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D 432 0 0 13.6
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Recycling Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 0 0 0.016
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0.553
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D -568 0 0 -18.4
recycling potential
system boundaries

SM = Use of secondary material; NRSF = Use of non-renewable secondary fuels;

RSF = Use of renewable secondary fuels; FW = Net use of fresh water
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)

Other environmental information describing waste categories

HWD NHWD RWD

kg kg kg

Raw material supply A1 -3.40E-07 19.4 0.080

Transport A2 2.64E-09 0.078 9.81E-04
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 -6.05E-08 1.62 0.031
Total (of product stage) A1-3 -3.98E-07 21.1 0.113

Construction Transport A4 1.04E-09 0.041 3.64E-04

process stage Construction A5 -4.66E-08 11.9 0.015
Use B1 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 1.57E-11 0.004 7.03E-06
demolition
Transport C2 2.30E-09 0.090 8.15E-04
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0
Disposal C4 3.49E-10 80.1 1.82E-04

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D -2.10E-08 -16.6 0.146
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 1.57E-11 0.004 7.03E-06
demolition
Transport C2 1.08E-10 0.004 3.78E-05
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0
Disposal C4 4.36E-09 1.00E+03 0.002

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D 1.80E-08 14.2 -0.125
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Recycling Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 1.57E-11 0.004 7.03E-06
demolition
Transport C2 2.49E-09 0.097 8.82E-04
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D -2.44E-08 -19.2 0.170
recycling potential
system boundaries

HWD = Hazardous waste disposed;

NHWD = Non-hazardous waste disposed;
RWD = Radioactive waste disposed
LCA Results (continued)
(MND = module not declared; MNR = module not relevant; INA = indicator not assessed; AGG = aggregated)

Other environmental information describing output flows – at end of life

Biogenic Biogenic
CRU MFR MER EE carbon carbon
(product) (packaging)
MJ per
kg kg kg energy kg C kg C
carrier
Raw material supply A1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Transport A2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Product stage
Manufacturing A3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total (of product stage) A1-3 0 0 0 0 0 0

Construction Transport A4 0 0 0 0 0 0
process stage Construction A5 0 -18.8 0 0 0 0
Use B1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maintenance B2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Repair B3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Use stage Replacement B4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Refurbishment B5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational energy use B6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Operational water use B7 0 0 0 0 0 0

%92 Recycling / %8 Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 -920 0 0 0 0
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0 0 0
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D 0 0 0 0 0 0
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Landfill Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 0 0 0 0 0
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0 0 0
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D 0 0 0 0 0 0
recycling potential
system boundaries

100% Recycling Scenario

Deconstruction,
C1 0 -1.00E+03 0 0 0 0
demolition
Transport C2 0 0 0 0 0 0
End of life
Waste processing C3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposal C4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Potential benefits and

Reuse, recovery,
loads beyond the D 0 0 0 0 0 0
recycling potential
system boundaries

CRU = Components for reuse; MER = Materials for energy recovery;

MFR = Materials for recycling EE = Exported Energy
Scenarios and additional technical information

Scenarios and additional technical information

Scenario Parameter Units Results

On leaving the steelworks the reinforcing steel products are transported to a fabricator where
they are converted into constructional steel forms suitable for the installation site, then
transported on to the construction site, including provision of all materials and products. Road
transport distance for rolled steel to fabricators and road transport distance for steel
construction forms to site are assumed to be 100 km and 250 km, respectively.
Only the one-way distance is considered as it is assumed that the logistics companies will
optimise their distribution and not return empty in modules beyond A3.
A4 – Transport to the
building site Truck trailer - Fuel litre/km 1.56

Distance km 350

Capacity utilisation (incl. empty returns) % 85

Bulk density of transported products kg/m3 7850

The fabrication process is a relatively simple unit process and accounts for the transformation
of the rolled steel product into construction steel forms. The operations in this unit process are
primarily cutting and welding. As such, other inputs to the process include electricity, thermal
energy, and cutting gases. Other outputs of this process are steel scrap and wastewater
(where applicable).
Fabrication into structural steel products and installation in the building; including provision of
all materials, products, and energy, as well as waste processing up to the end-of-waste state
or disposal of final residues during the construction stage. Installation of the fabricated product
A5 – Installation in into the building is assumed to result in 10% wastage (determined based on typical installation
the building losses reported by the WRAP Net Waste Tool [WRAP 2017]). It is assumed that fabrication
requires 15.34 kWh/tonne finished product, and that there is a 2% wastage associated with
this process.
Ancillary materials for installation - Waste material from
fabrication, losses per tonne of construction steel forms
% 2
Energy Use - Energy per tonne required to fabricate
kWh 15.34
construction steel forms

Waste materials from installation wastage % 10

B2 – Maintenance No maintenance required

B3 – Repair No repair process required

B4 – Replacement No replacement considerations required

B5 – Refurbishment No refurbishment process required

Reinforcing steel products are used in the main building structure so the reference service life
will equal the lifetime of the building. The Concrete Society follows the definitions provided in
Reference service life BS EN 1990, which specifies “building structures and other common structures” as having a
lifetime of 50 years (Design working life (concrete.org.uk)). On this basis, the RSL for this EPD
is assumed to be 50 years.
B6 – Use of energy;
No water or energy required during use stage related to the operation of the building
B7 – Use of water
Scenarios and additional technical information

Scenario Parameter Units Results

The end-of-life stage starts when the construction product is replaced, dismantled or
deconstructed from the building or construction works and does not provide any further
function. The recovered steel is transported for recycling while a small portion is assumed to
be unrecoverable and remains in the rubble which is sent to landfill. 92% of the reinforcing
steel is assumed to be recycled and 8% is sent to landfill [STEELCONSTRUCTION.INFO
2012].
Once steel scrap is generated through the deconstruction activities on the demolition site it is
considered to have reached the “end of waste” state. No further processing is required so
there are no impacts associated with this module. Hence no impacts are reported in module
C3.
Waste for recycling - Recovered steel from crushed concrete % 92
Waste for energy recovery - Energy recovery is not considered for this
study as most end of life steel scrap is recycled, while the remainder is - -
landfilled
Waste for final disposal - Unrecoverable steel lost in crushed concrete
C1 to C4 % 8
and sent to landfill
End of life,
Portion of energy assigned to rebar from energy required to demolish
building, per tonne
MJ 24
Transport to waste processing by Truck - Fuel consumption litre/km 1.56
Transport to waste processing by Truck – Distance km 463
Transport to waste processing by Truck – Capacity utilisation % 85
Transport to waste processing by Truck – Density of Product kg/m3 7850
Transport to waste processing by Container ship - Fuel consumption litre/km 0.0041
Transport to waste processing by Container ship - Distance km 158
Transport to waste processing by Container ship – Capacity utilisation % 50
Transport to waste processing by Container ship – Density of Product kg/m3 7850
It is assumed that 92% of the steel used in the structure is recovered for recycling, while the
remainder is landfilled. “Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary” (module D) accounts
for the environmental benefits and loads resulting from net steel scrap that is used as raw
material in the EAF and that is collected for recycling at end of life. The balance between total
scrap arisings recycled from fabrication, installation and end of life and scrap consumed by the
manufacturing process (internally sourced scrap is not included in this calculation). These
benefits and loads are calculated by including the burdens of recycling and the benefit of
avoided primary production.

This study is concerned with billets manufacturers from Iron Ore used in Blast Furnace-BOF
and steel scrap used in EAF as raw materials. In secondary production route using steel scrap
only, more scrap is required as input to the system than is recovered at end of life. In BF-BOF
Module D
production route only, a large amount of net scrap is generated over the life cycle as the iron
ore is a virgin source and there is a high end of life recycling rate for reinforcing steel products.
As both billets from iron ore and from steel scrap routes are used in the production of rebars,
the net effect of the weighted average of the used quantities is that module D mainly models
the credits associated with the scrap output.

The resulting scrap credit/burden is calculated based on the global “value of scrap” approach
(worldsteel 2017).
Recycled Content kg 423

Re-used Content kg 0
 Scenarios and additional technical information

Scenario Parameter Units Results

Recovered for recycling kg 920

Module D Recovered for re-use kg 0

Recovered for energy kg 0

Summary, comments and additional information

Interpretation
Iron Ore and Scrap based reinforcing steel product of Shiu Wing Steel Ltd (member of CARES) is made via the Blast
Furnace and EAF routes. The bulk of the environmental impacts and primary energy demand is attributed to the
manufacturing phase, covered by information modules A1-A3 of EN 15804+A2.
The interpretation of the results has been carried out considering the methodology- and data-related assumptions and
limitations declared in the EPD. This interpretation section focuses on the environmental impact categories as well as the
primary energy demand indicators only.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

The majority of the life cycle GWP impact occurs in the production phase (A1-A3). A1-A3 impacts account for 87.76%
overall life cycle impacts for this category. The most significant contributions to production phase impacts are: the
upstream production of raw materials used in the steelmaking process, generation/supply of electricity and the
production/use of fuels on site. Fabrication, installation and the end-of-life processes covered in C1-C4 make a minimal
contribution to GWP. For overall climate change impacts, carbon dioxide emissions account for the majority of impacts
with methane being the second most significant contributor.

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)

The majority of impacts are associated with the production phase (A1-3). Significant contributions to production phase
impact come from the emission of ozone depleting substances during the upstream production of raw materials/pre-
products as well as those arising from electricity production. Module D shows a very small credit even though scrap
burdens are being assessed in this phase. This is explained because ODP emissions are linked to grid electricity
production used.

Acidification Potential (AP)

Acidification potential is generally driven by the production of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides through the combustion
of fossil fuels, particularly coal and crude oil products. The majority of the lifecycle AP impact occurs in the production
phase (A1-A3), similar to GWP. The major contributors to production phase AP impacts comes from energy resources
used in the production of the raw materials and pre-products for the steelmaking process and from transportation.
Fabrication, installation and the end-of-life processes classed under C1-C4 make minimal contributions.

Eutrophication Potential (EP)

Eutrophication is driven by nitrogen and phosphorus containing emissions and as with GWP and AP is often strongly
linked with the use of fossil fuels. The major eutrophication impacts occur in the production phase (A1-A3). Significant
contributions to production phase impact comes from the production of raw materials and transport. Fabrication,
installation and the end-of-life processes classed under C1-C4 again make minimal contributions.

Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP)

POCP tends to be driven by emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide and NMVOCs. The
production phase is the dominant phase of the lifecycle with regards to POCP impacts. Again, these are all emissions
commonly associated with the combustion of fuels. Significant contributors to POCP are the upstream production of raw
materials/pre-products and transport, directly linked to fossil fuel combustion. It should be noted that the impacts for steel
recycling in module D is almost of the same magnitude as the production phase impacts.

POCP

EP (terrestrial)

EP (marine)

EP (freshwater)

AP

ODP

GWP - Total

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
GWP - Total ODP AP EP (freshwater) EP (marine) EP (terrestrial) POCP
A1-3 87.76% 87.75% 88.74% 78.78% 81.51% 85.01% 87.00%
A4 0.89% 0.08% 0.45% 3.79% 1.58% 1.31% 0.78%
A5 9.44% 11.88% 9.33% 9.20% 11.67% 9.39% 9.35%
C1 0.09% 0.00% 0.08% 0.01% 0.22% 0.18% 0.15%
C2 1.77% 0.17% 1.34% 8.10% 4.90% 4.02% 2.63%
C3 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
C4 0.05% 0.13% 0.06% 0.12% 0.12% 0.10% 0.09%

Figure 1 - shows the relative contribution of each life cycle stage to different environmental indicators for the carbon steel
reinforcing bars manufactured by the BF-BOF and secondary (scrap based) production routes
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