VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: You are supplied with the following solutions a) 0.1N H2SO4 b) NaOH c) HCl
Using solution (a), find i) Normality of solution ‘b’ & ii) Normality & g/500ml of solution ‘c

Apparatus required: Burrette, pipette, conical flask, beaker, burette stand, white tile etc.

Theory: This is a acid- base double titration. Acid and base reacts with each other producing
salt and water. Since it is a titration of strong acid v/s strong base, the indicator used is
phenolphthalein. Phenolphthalein is colourless in acidic medium and pink in basic medium.
In the first part NaOH is added slowly from the burrette into the conical flask containing acid
( H2SO4) and phenolphthalein indicator . NaOH added neutralises the acid and gradually all
the acid is neutralised by base ( NaOH). After the neutralisation point, slight excess of NaOH
added from the burrette makes the solution in the conical flask slightly basic and colour of the
indicator changes from colourless to light pink. Since the normality of H 2SO4 is known,
normality equation can be used to find normality of NaOH (N1V1=N2V2)
Similarly in the second part , HCl and NaOH reacts with each other. Normality equation is
used to find normality and strength of HCl as normality of NaOH is obtained from the first
part.

Procedure:

Part I ( 0.1N H2SO4 v/s NaOH )

Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (H 2SO4). Rinse the
burette with the given burette solution (NaOH). Fill the burette with NaOH. Adjust the lower
meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of H2SO4 and transfer it into conical flask. Add 2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator into conical flask and titrate it with the solution in the
burette till the colour of conical flask solution changes from colourless to light pink. This is
the end point. Repeat the experiment to get constant reading.

Part II ( HCl v/s NaOH )

Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (HCl). Fill the burette with NaOH. Adjust the lower
meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of HCl and transfer it into conical flask. Add 2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator into conical flask and titrate it with the solution in the
burette till the colour of conical flask solution changes from colourless to light pink. This is
the end point. Repeat the experiment to get constant reading.

1
Observation: Part I ( 0.1N H2SO4 v/s NaOH )

1) Solution in Burette: NaOH Solution

2) Solution in conical flask: 10 ml of 0.1NH2SO4

3) Indicator: Phenolphthalein

4) End Point: Colourless to light pink

5) Equation: H2SO4 + 2NaOH→ Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

Observation: Part II HCl v/s NaOH )

1) Solution in Burette: NaOH Solution

2) Solution in conical flask:10 ml of HCl

3) Indicator: Phenolphthalein

4) End Point: Colourless to light pink

5) Equation: HCl + NaOH→ NaCl + H2O

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

2
Calculation:

1) Normality of NaOH

(0.1N H2SO4) (NaOH)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.1 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

2) Normality of HCl

(NaOH) ( HCl)
N2V2 = N3V3

x = N3 x 10

N3 = = N

3) Strength of HCl

Normality of HCl X Equivalent weight of HCl X 500

g/500 ml of HCl =
1000

= g/500 ml

Result:

1) Normality of NaOH is N

2) Normality of HCl is N

3) Strength of HCl is g/500 ml

3
 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: You are supplied with the following solutions a) 0.1N H2SO4 b) Na2CO3 c) HCl
Using solution (a), find i) Normality of solution ‘b’ & ii) Normality & g/350ml of solution‘c’

Apparatus required: Burrette, pipette, conical flask, beaker, burette stand, white tile etc.

Theory: This is a acid- base double titration. Acid and base reacts with each other producing
salt and water. Since it is a titration of strong acid v/s weak base, the indicator used is methyl
orange. Methyl orange is reddish pink in acidic medium and straw yellow in basic medium.
In the first part Na2CO3 is added slowly from the burrette into the conical flask containing
acid (H2SO4) and methyl orange indicator. Na2CO3 added neutralises the acid and gradually
all the acid is neutralised by base (Na2CO3). After the neutralisation point, slight excess of
Na2CO3 added from the burrette makes the solution in the conical flask slightly basic and
colour of the indicator changes from reddish pink to straw yellow. Since the normality of
H2SO4 is known, normality equation can be used to find normality of Na 2CO3 (N1V1=N2V2)
Similarly in the second part, HCl and Na2CO3 reacts with each other. Normality equation is
used to find normality and strength of HCl as normality of Na2CO3 is obtained from the first
part.

Procedure:

Part I ( 0.1N H2SO4 v/s Na2CO3 )

Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (H 2SO4). Rinse the
burette with the given burette solution (Na2CO3). Fill the burette with Na2CO3. Adjust the
lower meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of H 2SO4 and transfer it into conical flask.
Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator into conical flask and titrate it with the solution in the
burette till the colour of conical flask solution changes from reddish pink to straw yellow.
This is the end point. Repeat the experiment to get constant reading.

Part II ( HCl v/s Na2CO3 )

Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (HCl). Fill the burette with Na2CO3. Adjust the lower
meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of HCl and transfer it into conical flask. Add 2
drops of methyl orange indicator into conical flask and titrate it with the solution in the
burette till the colour of conical flask solution changes from reddish pink to straw yellow.
This is the end point. Repeat the experiment to get constant reading.

4
Observation: Part I ( 0.1N H2SO4 v/s Na2CO3 )

1) Solution in Burette: Na2CO3 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask: 10 ml of 0.1N H2SO4

3) Indicator: Methyl orange

4) End Point: Reddish pink to straw yellow

5) Equation: H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

Observation: Part II (HCl v/s Na2CO3 )

1) Solution in Burette: Na2CO3 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask:10 ml of HCl

3) Indicator: Methyl orange

4) End Point: Reddish pink to straw yellow

5) Equation: 2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

5
Calculation:

1) Normality of Na2CO3

(0.1N H2SO4) (Na2CO3)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.1 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

2) Normality of HCl

(Na2CO3) (HCl)
N2V2 = N3V3

x = N3 x 10

N3 = = N

3) Strength of HCl

Normality of HCl X Equivalent weight of HCl X 350

g/350 ml of HCl =
1000

= g/350 ml

Result:

4) Normality of Na2CO3 is N

5) Normality of HCl is N

6) Strength of HCl is g/350 ml

6
 REDOX TITRATION

Expt. No. : Date:

Aim: You are supplied with the following solutions

(a)0.1 N FeSO4.7H2O (Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate) (b) KMnO4 (Potassium permanganate)
(c) H2C2O4.2H2O (Oxalic acid dihydrate)
Using solution ‘a’, find (i) Normality of solution ‘b’
(ii) Normality & g/650 ml of solution ‘c’

Apparatus: Burette, pipette, conical flask, burette stand, white tile etc.

Theory: Reaction in which oxidation and reduction reactions occur simultaneously is called
redox reaction. Redox titration includes titration where one reactant is oxidised and the other
reactant is getting reduced. Oxidation is defined as the process of loss of one or more
electrons and reduction is the process of gain of one or more electrons by atoms or ions. The
reagent undergoing reduction is called oxidising agent and the reagent undergoing oxidation
is called reducing agent.

In the redox titration of KMnO4 v/s FeSO4.7H2O, KMnO4 is oxidising agent and
FeSO4.7H2O is reducing agent.
Reduction reaction is: MnO4 - + 8H+ 5e- → Mn+2 (Mn+7 in KMnO4 is reduced to Mn+2 in
MnSO4 by loss of 5 electrons)

Oxidation reaction is Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- (Fe2+ in FeSO4 is oxidised to Fe3+ in Fe2(SO4)3 )

This redox reaction takes place in acidic medium and, KMnO4 is acting as a self indicator.
As KMnO4 (from burette ) will react with FeSO4.7H2O from the conical flask, colour of
KMnO4 will disappear. After all the FeSO4.7H2O has reacted, one drop of KMnO4 added
from the burette will change colour of the solution in the conical flask from colourless to
light pink.

In the 2 nd part, oxalic acid is titrated against KMnO4 (Oxalic acid acts as reducing agent)

Oxidation reaction is C2O4 2- → 2CO2 + 2e-

Procedure:

Part I (0.1N FeSO4.7H2O v/s KMnO4)

Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (FeSO 4.7H2O).
Rinse the burette with the given burette solution (KMnO4). Fill the burette with KMnO4.
Adjust the upper meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of FeSO4.7H2O and transfer it into
conical flask. Add 10 ml of 5N H2SO4 in conical flask, and titrate with the solution in the
burette till the colour of conical flask solution changes from colourless to light pink. This is
the end point. Repeat the experiment to get constant reading.

7
Observation: Part I (0.1N FeSO4.7H2O v/s KMnO4)

1) Solution in Burette: KMnO4 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask: 10 ml of 0.1N FeSO4.7H2O + 10 ml of 5N H2SO4
3) Indicator: KMnO4 (self indicator)
4) End Point: Colourless to light pink
5) Equation: 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 10FeSO4 → K2SO4+ 8H2O + 2MnSO4 +5Fe2(SO4)3

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

Part II (KMnO4 v/s H2C2O4.2H2O)

Rinse the pipette with pipette solution (H2C2O4.2H2O). Fill the burette with KMnO4.Adjust
the upper meniscus to zero mark. Pipette out 10 ml of H2C2O4.2H2O and transfer it into
conical flask. Add 10 ml of 5N H2SO4 in the conical flask and heat it till steam appears on the
neck of the conical flask. Then titrate with the solution in the burette till the colour of conical
flask solution changes from colourless to light pink. This is the end point. Repeat the
experiment to get constant reading.

Observation: Part II (KMnO4 v/s H2C2O4.2H2O)

1) Solution in Burette: KMnO4 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask:10 ml of H2C2O4.2H2O + 10 ml of 5 N H2SO4 (heat)
3) Indicator: KMnO4 (self indicator)
4) End Point: Colourless to light pink
5) Equation: 2KMnO4 + 5H2C2O4 + 3H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O +10CO2

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

8
Calculation:

1) Normality of KMnO4

(0.1N FeSO4.7H2O) (KMnO4)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.1 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

2) Normality of H2C2O4.2H2O

(KMnO4) ( H2C2O4.2H2O)

N2V2 = N3V3

x = N3 x 10

N3 = = N

3) Strength of H2C2O4.2H2O

(g/650ml of H2C2O4.2H2O )

=
Normality of H2C2O4.2H2O X Equivalent weight of H2C2O4.2H2O X 650
1000

= g/650ml

Result:

1) Normality of KMnO4 = N

2) Normality of H2C2O4.2H2O = N

3) Strength of H2C2O4.2H2O = g/650 ml

9
 DEGREE OF HARDNESS

Expt. No. : Date :

Aim: To determine the degree of hardness of given water sample by EDTA method.

Apparatus required: Burette, Pipette, conical flask, funnel, burette stand, white tile etc.

Chemicals required: 0.01 N ZnSO4 , EDTA , Buffer (pH 10), Eriochrome Black- T
indicator etc.

Theory:

The hard water contains chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
The total hardness of water can be determined by titrating the water sample with EDTA using
Eriochrome Black –T (EBT) as an indicator at pH 10.

The pH for determination of hardness of water is 10 and is adjusted by NH 4OH and NH4Cl
buffer system. When EBT is added to hard water sample at pH 10, it gives wine red coloured
unstable complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of water sample. When this wine red coloured
complex is titrated against EDTA solution of known strength, Ca 2+ and Mg2+ preferentially
complexes with EDTA (since the metal – EDTA complex is more stable than metal- indicator
complex) and liberates free EBT indicator at the end point, thereby producing a sharp colour
change from wine red to blue.

Structure of EDTA

EDTA is Disodium salt of Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid

Procedure:

Part I (0.01N ZnSO4 v/s EDTA)

Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the pipette with ZnSO 4 solution. Rinse the burette
with EDTA solution. Fill the burette with EDTA. Pipette out 10 ml of 0.01N ZnSO4 and
transfer it in the conical flask. Add 4 drops of EBT indicator and 3 ml of buffer solution of
pH10 into conical flask. Titrate the conical flask solution against burette solution (EDTA) till
the colour changes from wine red to blue. This is the end point. Repeat the experiment for
constant readings.

10
Observation: Part I ( 0.01N ZnSO4 v/s EDTA)

1) Solution in Burette: EDTA Solution

2) Solution in conical flask : 10 ml of 0.01N ZnSO4 + 3 ml of Buffer solution of pH 10
3) Indicator: Eriochrome black-T (EBT)
4) End Point: Wine red to blue
5) Equation:
Zn2+ + EBT → [Zn2+-EBT ] + EDTA → [Zn2+-EDTA] + EBT
Wine red complex Stable complex Blue
Observation Table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

Part II ( EDTA v/s water sample)

Rinse the pipette with water. Fill the burette with EDTA. Pipette out 50 ml of water sample
and transfer it in the conical flask. Add 4 drops of EBT indicator and 3 ml of buffer solution
of pH10 into conical flask. Titrate the conical flask solution against burette solution (EDTA)
till the colour of conical flask solution changes from wine red to blue. This is the end
point.Repeat the experiment for constant readings.

Observation: Part II (EDTA v/s water samle )

1)Solution in Burette: EDTA Solution

2)Solution in conical flask : 50 ml of water sample + 3 ml of buffer solution of pH 10
3)Indicator: Erichrome Black-T (EBT)
4)End Point: Wine red to blue
5)Equation: M2+ + EBT → [M2+-EBT ] + EDTA → [M2+-EDTA] + EBT
Wine red complex Stable complex Blue
{ M+2 = (Ca+2, Mg+2)}
Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

11
Calculation:

1) Normality Of EDTA

(0.01 N ZnSO4) (EDTA)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.01 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

2) 1000 ml Of 1N EDTA = 50 g equivalent of CaCO3 hardness

ml of N EDTA = X g of equivalent of CaCO3 hardness

X x 1000 x 1 = 50 x x

X =

X= g equivalent of CaCO3 hardness

3) 50 ml of water sample = g equivalent of CaCO3 hardness

1000 ml of water sample = Y g equivalent of CaCO3 hardness

Y =

Y = g/L

Y = mg/L

Y = ppm

Result : The Degree of hardness of given water sample is ppm

12
 CHLORIDE CONTENT OF WATER

Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: To determine the chloride content in the given sample of water by Mohr’s method
(Argentometric method)

Apparatus required: Burette, pipette, conical flask, burette stand, white tile etc.

Theory: Chlorides are resent in water usually as NaCl, MgCl2 and CaCl2. Chlorides in
the form of CaCl2 and MgCl2 cause permanent hardness. Chlorides are not harmful as
such but impart a peculiar taste to water thus rendering the water unacceptable for
drinking purpose.

By Argentometric method ( Mohr’s method) chloride ions in water sample can be

determined by titrating it against silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution using potassium
chromate as an indicator. Silver nitrate solution is taken in the burette and solution
containing chloride ions is taken in conical flask.

Ag+ reacts with Cl- and CrO42- when AgNO3 solution is released from the burette to
solution containing Cl- ions.
Ag+ + Cl- →. AgCl ↓( yellowish white ppt)

2Ag+ + CrO42- → Ag2CrO4↓ ( brick red ppt)

Brick red colour formed because of formation of silver chromate disappears as solution
contains more concentration of Cl- than CrO42- ions
Ag2CrO4 + 2Cl- → 2Ag Cl + CrO4 2-

As AgNO3 is added, Ag+ react with Cl- ions and brick red colour due to Ag2CrO4 will
disappear on shaking. Gradually a stage is reached when all the chloride ions are used up
in the reaction with AgNO3 forming AgCl. One extra drop of AgNO3 added at this point
reacts with K2CrO4 and brick reddish coloured silver Chromate (Ag2CrO4) is formed
which Marks the end point of reaction.

2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4 ↓ + 2KNO3

Procedure:

Part I (0.01N NaCl v/s AgNO3)

Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the burette with burette solution (AgNO 3). Rinse
the pipette with pipette solution (0.01 N NaCl).Fill the burette with AgNO 3. Pipette out 10
ml of 0.01 N NaCl and transfer it in the conical flask. Add two drops of 5 % K2CrO4
(Potassium chromate) indicator in the flask.Titrate the solution in the flask with burette
solution till the colour changes from yellowish white to brick red. This is the end point.
Repeat the experiment for constant reading.

13
 Observation: Part I (AgNO3 v/s 0.01N NaCl)

1) Solution in Burette: AgNO3 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask : 10 ml of 0.01N NaCl
3) Indicator: Potassium chromate (K2CrO4)
4) End Point: Yellowish white to brick red
5) Equation: AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓(Yellowish white ppt) + NaNO3

2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4↓ (Brick red ppt) + 2KNO3

Observation Table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

Part II ( AgNO3 v/s water sample)

Rinse the pipette with water. Fill the burette with AgNO3. Pipette out 50 ml of water
sample and transfer it in the conical flask. Add 2 drops of 5 % K2CrO4 ( Potassium chromate)
in the flask. Titrate the solution in the conical flask with burette solution till the colour
changes from yellowish white to brick red. Repeat the experiment for constant reading.

Observation: Part II (AgNO3 v/s water samle )

1) Solution in Burette: AgNO3 Solution

2) Solution in conical flask : 50 ml of water sample
3) Indicator: Potassium chromate (K2CrO4)
4) End Point: Yellowish white to brick red
5) Equation: AgNO3 + Cl- → AgCl↓ + NO3-

2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4↓ + 2KNO3

Observation table:

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading
Final

Initial

Difference

14
Calculation:

1) Normality Of AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate)

(0.01 N NaCl) (AgNO3)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.01 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

2) 1000 ml Of 1N AgNO3 = 35.5 g of chloride (Cl-)

ml of N AgNO3 = Xg of chloride (Cl-)

X x 1000 x 1 = 35.5 x x

X =

X = _ g of chloride

3) 50 ml of water sample = g of chloride (Cl-)

1000 ml of water sample = Y g of chloride (Cl-)

Y =

Y = g/L

Y = mg/L

Y = mg/L

Y = ppm

Result : The chloride content in the given sample of water is ppm

15
 ALKALINITY OF WATER
Expt. No.: Date:

Aim : To determine the alkalinity of given water sample

Apparatus required: Burette, pipette, conical flask, burette stand, white tile etc.

Chemicals required: 0.02 N HCl, phenolphthalein indicator, methyl orange indicator

Theory: The alkalinity of water is due to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH -), carbonate
ions (CO3 2-) and bicarbonate ions ( HCO3-) . These ions can be estimated separately by
titration against standard acid ( 0.02 N HCl) using phenolphthalein and methyl orange as
indicator. The chemical reactions involved can be shown by equations given below
(i) OH- + H+ → H2O
(ii) CO32- + H+ → HCO3-
(iii) HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3
.

The titration of water sapmle against standard acid upto phenolphthalein end point shows the
completion of reactions (i) and (ii) only. This amount of acid used thus corresponds to
hydroxide plus one half of normal carbonate present. The titration of sample against
standard acid upto methyl orange end point marks the completion of reaction (i), (ii) & (iii).
Hence amount of acid ( HCl) used till phenolphthalein end point corresponds to all the
hydroxide plus one half of normal carbonate while the total amount of acid used till methyl
orange end point represents the total alkalinity ( due to OH-, CO3 2-& HCO3 -).
The possible combinations of ions causing alkalinity in water are
(i) OH- only, CO3 2- only, HCO3 - only or
(ii) OH- & CO3 2- , CO3 2- & HCO3-
The possibility of OH- & HCO3- ions together is not possible due to the reaction
HCO3- + OH- → H2O + CO32-

Procedure: Wash all the apparatus with water. Rinse the burette with 0.02 N HCl. Fill the
burette with 0.02 N HCl ( adjust the lower meniscus to zero mark) Pipette out 10 ml of water
sample into conical flask and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If pink colour
develops titrate this against 0.02 N HCl until the pink colour just disappears. Note down the
burette reading.
Now add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator in the same flask. If yellow colour develops then
titrate this with 0.02 N HCl until the light yellow colour changes to reddish pink. Note down
the burette reading.
Repeat the experiment till constant readings are obtained.

16
Observation:

1) Solution in burette : 0.02 N HCl

2) Solution in conical flask : 10 ml of water sample

3) Indicator used: a)Phenolphthalein

b)Methyl orange

4) End point: a) Pink to colourless

b) Light yellow to orange (or reddish pink )

5) Equation:
(i) OH- + H+ → H2O
(ii) CO32- + H+ → HCO3-
(iii) HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3

Phenolphthalein End point

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading

Final

Initial

Difference

Methyl orange end point

Burette Pilot (ml) I (ml) II (ml) III(ml) Constant

Reading

Final

Initial

Difference

17
Calculations:
1) Normality of Water sample
(Water sample) (0.02 N HCl)
N1V1 = N2V2

N1 x 10 = 0.02 x

N1 = = N

1) Strength of water sample in terms of CaCO3 ( or Phenolphthalein alkalinity)

= N1 x equivalent weight of CaCO3

= x 50 x 1000 mg / L

= ppm

3) Normality of Water sample

(water sample) (0.02 N HCl)
N3V3 = N2V2
N3 x 10 = 0.02 x

N3 = = N

4) Strength of water sample in terms of CaCO3 (Methy orange alkalinity)

= N3 x equivalent weight of CaCO3

= x 50 x 1000 mg / L

= ppm

5) Total alkalinity = Phenolphthalein alkalinity + Methyl orange alkalinity

= ppm

Result: The total alkalinity of given water sample is ppm

18
 pH TITRATION

Expt.No. : Date:

Aim: To titrate strong acid (HCl) against strong base (NaOH) using pH-meter.

Apparatus: pH-meter, electrode, burette, pipette, beaker, burette stand, glass rod etc.

Theory:
pH of solution can be defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
pH = -log [H+] = log 1
[𝐻+]
Measurement of pH can be used to monitor the acid-base titrations. The pH values of the
solution at different stages of acid- base titration are determined and are plotted against the
volume of base added. On adding base (NaOH) to acid (HCl), pH rises slowly in the initial
stages as the concentration of H+ ions is decreasing due to the reaction

H+Cl- + Na+OH- → NaCl + H2O

As the end point (neutralisation point) of acid- base titration is reached, on further addition of
base (NaOH), pH changes rapidly as the solution becomes basic. The end point of acid – base
titration can be detected where the pH changes most rapidly. The end point (neutralisation
point) is found from graph of pH v/s volume of NaOH

Procedure:

Take 10 ml of strong acid (HCl) in 100 ml beaker. Fill the burette with strong base (NaOH).
Place the electrode in the beaker containing strong acid (HCl) and put water into beaker till
the electrode is properly dipped into the solution.

Connect the electrode to the pH-meter. Stir the solution with a glass rod and note the reading
on pH-meter. Now add 1ml burette solution (NaOH) in the beaker and stir it. Note down
the reading on pH-meter. Similarly repeat the procedure and continue taking readings each
time by adding 1 ml of NaOH till abrupt increase in pH is observed.

Take 10 more readings after sudden increase in pH is observed. Plot a graph of pH v/s
volume of NaOH

19
Observation
1) Solution in the burette: NaOH solution.
2) Solution in the beaker: 10 ml of 0.1 N HCl
Observation Table

Sr. Volume of pH Sr. Volume of pH

No. NaOH added No. NaOH added
‘ml’ ‘ml’
1 21

2 22

3 23

4 24

5 25

6 26

7 27

8 28

9 29

10 30

11 31

12 32

13 33

14 34

15 35

16 36

17 37

18 38

19 39

20 40

20
 Calculation:

Normality of NaOH

From the graph of pH v/s volume of NaOH, volume of NaOH required to neutralise 10 ml
of 0.1 N HCl is ml

(0.1N HCL) (NaOH)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.1 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

Result:

Normality of strong base (NaOH) is N

21
 CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION

Expt. No. : Date:

Aim: To titrate strong acid (HCl) against strong base (NaOH) using conductometer.

Apparatus: Conductometer, burette, pipette, 100 ml beaker, glass rod, burette stand,
electrode etc.

Theory: Conductance of strong acid like HCl is high because the solution contains H+ ions
which are obtained due to complete dissociation of HCl
HCl → H+ + Cl –
The H+ ions have maximum mobility, therefore the resistance offered by the solution will be
minimum giving maximum conductance.
When a strong base is added it gives Na+ and OH- , giving the reaction,
H+ + Cl – + Na+ OH- → Na+ + Cl- + H2O
The H+ ions present in the solution combines with the OH- ions obtained from the NaOH
giving undissociated water molecule. The H+ ions are replaced by Na+ ions which are much
heavier. They move slowly because the solution offers more resistance giving less
conductance. Therefore after continuous addition of NaOH, H + ions are successively replaced
by Na+ ions giving decreased conductance. The conductance reaches the minimum value
where all H+ ions are replaced by Na+ ions and then starts increasing. The increase in
conductance is due to OH- ions obtained from NaOH, which have high mobility as compared
to Na+ ions. As more & more NaOH is added, the conductance increases progressively.
When a graph of conductance against the volume of NaOH added is plotted, the point of
intersection in the graph gives the end point of titration. The volume corresponding to this
point is the volume of base (NaOH) required for neutralisation of acid (HCl).

Procedure:

1) Rinse and fill the burette with NaOH solution.

2) Rinse the pipette with 0.1N HCl solution. Pipette out 10 ml of 0.1 N HCl in the 100
ml beaker, place the conductivity cell in this beaker and add sufficient quantity of
water.

3) Connect the cell to the conductometer and find out initial conductance of the solution.

4) Add 1ml of NaOH solution from the burette into the beaker. Stir the solution with
glass rod. Note down the conductance.

5) Repeat step No. 4 until the conductance starts increasing, each time by adding 1mlof
NaOH. Take 5 more readings after increase in conductance is observed

6) Plot the graph of conductance v/s volume of NaOH added.

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Observation:

1) Solution in the burette: NaOH solution.

2) Solution in the beaker: 10 ml of 0.1 N HCl
Observation Table

Sr. Volume Conductance Sr. Volume of Conductance

No. of NaOH (Ohm-) No. NaOH (Ohm-)
added added ‘ml’
‘ml’
1 21

2 22

3 23

4 24

5 25

6 26

7 27

8 28

9 29

10 30

11 31

12 32

13 33

14 34

15 35

16 36

17 37

18 38

19 39

20 40

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 Calculation:

1) Normality of NaOH

From the graph of conductance v/s volume of NaOH, volume of NaOH required to
neutralise 10 ml of 0.1 N HCl is ml

(0.1N HCL) NaOH)

N1V1 = N2V2

0.1 x 10 = N2 x

N2 = = N

Result:

Normality of strong base (NaOH) is N

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 CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER

Expt. No. : Date:

Aim: To find the conductivity of water from different sources using a conductometer.

Apparatus: 100 ml beakers, conductometer, conductivity cell, glass rod etc.

Theory: Conductivity of solution is measure of its ability to carry electric current.

Solutions of electrolyte conduct electric current due to migration of ions produced by
ionisation of electrolyte. Conductivity of water is due to dissolved salts (electrolyte)
present in it. Water sample with more concentration of salts will give higher
conductance value.
Knowing the cell constant of conductivity cell and conductance of water sample,
specific conductance for each water sample can be calculated by formula,

Specific conductance = Cell constant x observed conductance

Procedure: Connect the conductivity cell to the conductometer and dip the other end
of conductivity cell in beaker containing water sample whose conductivity is to be
found out. Switch on the instrument and note down the conductance. Then empty the
beaker and wash it. Rinse the beaker with another sample of water. Now pour the
same sample of water in the beaker and find its conductance.

Repeat the procedure for different water samples.

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 Observation:
o
1) Specific conductance of 0.02N KCl at c = ohm- cm-
o
2) Observed conductance of 0.02 N KCl at c= ohm-

3) specific condictance of 0.02 N KCl

Cell constant = =
Observed conductance of 0.02 N KCl

= cm-

Sr. Water Sample Observed Specific conductance

No. conductance (ohm- cm-)
( ohm- )

Calculation:

Specific conductance = Cell constant x observed conductance

( ) =

Conclusion:

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 CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM

Expt. No. Date:

Aim: To compare the corrosion susceptibility of Aluminium to acid, base and salt.

Apparatus: Beakers (100 ml), aluminium plates, weighing balance, measuring cylinder, etc.

Chemicals required: 0.1N HCl, 0.1 N NaOH, 0.1 N NaCl.

Theory:

Process of destruction and consequent loss of solid metallic material through unwanted
chemical or electrochemical attack by its environment starting at the surface of metallic
structure is called corrosion. Corrosion is basically oxidation of metal when metal is exposed
to various environmental conditions ( such as dry gases, moisture, liquids etc.) The most
familiar example of corrosion is rusting of iron.

Aluminium is corrosion resistant due to the formation of oxide layer which is non porous and
highly protective in nature. But aluminium and its oxide layer is unstable in basic medium
and is destroyed.

Procedure:

1) Take four 100 ml beakers. Take 80 ml of tap water in one beaker, 80 ml of 0.1 N HCl
in second beaker, 0.1 N NaOH in third beaker, 0.1 N NaCl in fourth beaker. Label the
beaker with the solutions kept in it.

2) Take the weights of four Aluminium plates and note it down.

3) Put one aluminium plate in each of the above four labelled beakers and keep it
undisturbed for two days.

4) After two days take the Aluminium plates out from the solutions and allow them to
dry ( keep it sunlight

5) Weigh all the four Aluminium plates again after drying. Note the difference in weight
in each case.

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Observation table:

Difference in
Sr. No. Solution Initial Weight Final weight weight
( in gm) ( in gm) (in (in
gm) mg)
1. 0.1 N HCl

2. 0.1 N NaOH

3. 0.1 N NaCl

4. Water

Conclusion:

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