Physical Layer

Some of the crucial points influencing the Physical Layer design in wireless sensor networks are –

– Low power consumption

– Small transmit power and a small transmission range

– Low duty cycle

– Low data rates in the order of tens to hundreds of kilobits per second

– Low implementation complexity and costs

– Low degree of mobility

– Small form factor for the overall node

Transceivers
Energy Usage Profile
Sure, here are the key points about energy usage in wireless sensor networks:

1. WSNs use low transmission power, which means they don't emit much energy when sending
signals, unlike cell phones.

2. Despite low emitted energy, the transceiver itself consumes a significant amount of energy.

3. When using low transmission power, the energy consumption during transmission and reception is
similar.

4. To reduce average power consumption in a low-traffic wireless sensor network, the transceiver
must go into sleep state instead of just idling.

5. During the sleep state, the transceiver can't send or receive data.

6. The third key observation is the relative costs of communications versus computation in a sensor
node.

7. Communication costs depend on factors like Bit Error Rate (BER), communication range, and
transceiver type.

8. Comparing these costs helps understand the overall energy usage profile of sensor nodes in the
network.

Choice of Modulation Scheme

The following factors have to be balanced for the choice of modulation scheme –

1. Required data rate and symbol rate – Implementation complexity

2. Relationship between radiated power and target BER

3. Expected channel characteristics

The higher the data rate offered by a modulation, the smaller the time needed to transmit a given
amount of data and the smaller the energy consumption.

Dynamic modulation
It is a method used to adjust the modulation scheme based on the current conditions of a
communication system. Here's what it involves:

1. Adapting Modulation: Dynamic modulation scaling adjusts the modulation scheme according to
the present circumstances of the communication setup.

2. Model for m-ary QAM: It involves using a model specifically designed for m-ary Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM), with parameters like symbol rate 'B' and the number of levels per
symbol 'm'.

3. Energy and Delay Analysis: This model helps in calculating the energy required per bit and the
delay per bit, considering different levels of modulation.

4. Effect of 'B' and 'm’: Bit delay decreases as 'B' and 'm' increase, while the energy per bit
depends more on 'm' than 'B'.

5. Optimization: By selecting suitable parameters, such as maximizing the symbol rate, both energy
per bit and delay per bit can be minimized.

In essence, dynamic modulation scaling allows for efficient adjustment of modulation schemes based
on energy, delay, and other constraints to optimize communication performance.

Antenna Considerations
1. Size Limitation: Sensor nodes need to be small, which limits the size and number of antennas
that can be used.

2. Antenna Efficiency: If the antenna is much smaller than the wavelength of the signals it's
supposed to transmit or receive, it's hard to make it work efficiently.

3. For good diversity effects, antennas should ideally be spaced apart by at least 40-50% of the
wavelength used.

4. Path-Loss Coefficients: Radio waves emitted from an antenna close to the ground experience
higher path-loss coefficients compared to free-space communication, which affects signal strength.

5. Physical Protection: Depending on the application, antennas shouldn't stick out from the sensor
node's casing to prevent damage.
Introduction to MAC Protocols
The Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is responsible for determining when to send different
types of packets (like data, control, or management packets) to other nodes in a wireless network.
Here's what you need to know about it:

1. **Transmission Control**: MAC protocol decides when to send packets to other nodes, whether
it's to a single node (unicast), a group of nodes (multicast), or to all nodes (broadcast).

2. **Error Control and Flow Control**: The Data Link Layer (DLL), which MAC is a part of, has two
main jobs: error control and flow control. Error control ensures that data is transmitted correctly and
takes action if there are errors. Flow control regulates the rate of data transmission.

3. MAC protocols need to meet several performance requirements, including efficiency, stability,
fairness, low access time, low transmission delay, and low overhead.

4.**Collisions**: Collisions occur when two or more nodes try to send packets simultaneously. This
can happen if the MAC protocol doesn't manage access to the medium properly.

Collisions can lead to the receiver being unable to decode a packet correctly, which may require the
retransition the data.

Hidden Terminal Scenario

1. If two nodes are out of reach, they cannot hear each other. This gives rise to the hidden-terminal
problems.

2. The hidden-terminal problem occurs for Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocols, where a
node senses the medium before starting to transmit a packet.

–Three nodes A, B, C arranged such that A and B are in mutual range, B and C are in mutual range, but
A and C cannot hear each other. – Now A starts to transmit a packet to B and sometime later node C
also decides to start a packet transmission. – A carrier-sensing operation by C shows an idle medium
since C cannot hear A’s signals. – When C starts its packet, the signals collide at B and both packets are
useless. –Solutions to the hidden-terminal is busy-tone.
Exposed Terminal Scenario
– B transmits a packet to A and some moment later, C wants to transmit a packet to D. – This will be
possible since both A and D will receive their packets without distortions. – The carrier-sense operation
performed by C suppresses C’s transmission and bandwidth is wasted. –Solutions to the hidden-
terminal is RTC/CTS.

Fixed Assignment Protocols:

• The available resources are divided between the nodes such that resource assignment is long term
without the risk of collisions.

• Long term means that the assignment is for durations of minutes, hours, or even longer.

• To account for changes in topology due to nodes dying or new nodes being deployed, signalling
mechanisms are needed in fixed assignment protocols to rectify the assignment of resources to nodes.

• Typical protocols of this class are TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.

Demand Assignment Protocols

• The allocation of resources to nodes is made on a short-term basis, typically the duration of a data
burst.

• This class of protocols can be further divided into centralized and distributed protocols.

• In central control protocols, the nodes send out requests for bandwidth allocation to a central node
that either accepts or rejects the requests.

• In case of successful allocation, a confirmation is transmitted back to the requesting node along with
a description of the allocated resource.

• Typical protocols of this class Polling, Token Passing.

Random Access Protocols

• Random access protocols incorporate a random element by exploiting random packet arrival times,
setting timers to random values and so on.

• Typical random-access protocols are pure ALOHA or slotted ALOHA protocol, developed at the
University of Hawaii.

• In pure ALOHA protocol, a node willing for transmission transmit a new packet it immediately.

• There is no coordination with other nodes and the protocol thus accepts the risk of collisions at the
receiver.

• To detect this, the receiver is required to send an immediate acknowledgment for a properly received
packet.

• If no acknowledgement, the transmitter backs off for a random time and starts the next trial.
• Typical protocols of this class are Aloha, CSMA.

MAC Protocols for WSN

Introduction
The specific requirements and design considerations for MAC protocols in wireless sensor networks
are explained below.

1. Balance of Requirements

2. Energy Problems on MAC Layer

– Collisions

– Overhearing

– Protocol Overhead

– Idle Listening

Balance of Requirements

• The typical performance figures of WSN are –

1. Energy Efficiency – New parameter

2. Fairness – Not important because individual nodes do not compete for bandwidth

3. Transmission delay – Traded against energy conservation

4. Scalability & Robustness – Important against changes in network topology.

Energy Problems on MAC Layer

• A node transceiver consumes a significant share of energy.

• Moreover, a transceiver can be in one of the four main states - transmitting, receiving, idling, or
sleeping.

• The important features are –

– Transmitting & receive costs similar

– Idling cheaper but as expensive as receiving

– Sleeping costs almost nothing but results in a “deaf” node.

S-MAC
The S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) protocol is designed to solve problems like collisions, and overhearing in
wireless sensor networks.

It works by having nodes switch between listening and sleeping at regular intervals.

During the listening periods, nodes can both receive and send data.
S-MAC also tries to sync up the listening schedules of nearby nodes so they're active at the same time.
Each node's listening period is divided into three phases: wakeup, listen, and sleep.

First Phase - Synch Phase

• During this phase, node x accepts SYNCH packets from its neighbours.

• In these packets, the neighbours describe their own schedule and x stores their schedule in a
schedule table.

• Node x’s SYNCH phase is subdivided into time slots according to a CSMA scheme.

• That is each neighbour y wishing to transmit a SYNCH packet picks one of the time slots randomly
and starts to transmit.

• In the other case, y goes back into sleep mode and waits for x’s next wakeup.

• In the other direction, since x knows a neighbour y’s schedule, x can wake at appropriate times and
send its own SYNCH packet to y.

Second Phase - RTS Phase

• In the second phase (RTS phase), x listens for RTS packets from neighbouring nodes.

• In S-MAC, the RTS/CTS handshake is used to reduce collisions of data packets due to hidden-
terminal situations.

Third Phase – CTS Phase

• In the third phase (CTS phase), node x transmits a CTS packet if an RTS packet was received in the
previous phase.

• In general, when competing for the medium, the nodes use the RTS/CTS handshake whereby a
node maintains a NAV variable.

• The NAV mechanism can be used to switch off the node during ongoing transmissions to avoid
overhearing.
Virtual Cluster Approach
• The S-MAC protocol allows neighbouring nodes to agree on the same schedule and to create
virtual clusters.

• The clustering structure refers to the exchange of schedules and the transfer of data packets is not
influenced by virtual clustering.

• The S-MAC protocol proceeds as follows to form the virtual clusters –

1. A node x listens for a time at least the synchronization period.

2. If x receives any SYNCH packet from a neighbour, it adopts the announced schedule and
broadcasts in one of the neighbours’ next listen periods.

3. In the other case, node x picks a schedule and broadcasts it.

4. If x receives another node’s schedule during the broadcast packet’s contention period, it drops its
own schedule and follows the other one.

5. If node x already knows about the existence of neighbours who adopted its own schedule, it keeps
its schedule.

Message Passing Approach

• S-MAC also adopts a message-passing approach. In wireless media, it is advisable to break a longer
packet into several shorter ones.

S-MAC includes a fragmentation scheme working as follows.

– A series of fragments is transmitted with only one RTS/CTS exchange between the transmitting
node A and receiving node B.

– After each fragment, B has to answer with an acknowledgment packet. All the packets have a
duration field and a neighbouring node C is required to set its NAV field accordingly.
IEEE 802.15.4. Standard
• The standard covers the physical layer and the MAC layer of a low-rate Wireless Personal Area
Network (WPAN).

• The targeted applications for IEEE 802.15.4 are in the area of wireless sensor networks, home
automation, home networking, connect devices to PC etc.

• Most of these applications require only low-to-medium bitrates, moderate delays and minimum
energy consumption

• There are a total of 27 channels available, but the MAC protocol uses only one of these channels at
a time.

Network Architecture
• The standard distinguishes on the MAC layer two types of nodes:

1. A Full Function Device (FFD) can operate in three different roles - a PAN coordinator, a simple
coordinator and a device.
2. A Reduced Function Device (RFD) can operate only as a device.

• A coordinator handles the following tasks:

– It manages a list of associated devices.

– It allocates short addresses to its devices

– In the beaconed mode, it transmits regularly frame beacon packets announcing the PAN identifier,
a list of outstanding frames and other parameters.

– It exchanges data packets with devices and with peer coordinators.

Super Frame Structure

• The coordinator of a star network operating in the beaconed mode organizes data transmission
with the help of a super-frame structure.

•The various components of the following superframe are as follows-

1. The super-frame is subdivided into an active period and an inactive period. During the
inactive period, all nodes including the coordinator can switch off their transceivers and go
into sleep state.
2. The active period is subdivided into 16 time slots.
 1. The first time slot is occupied by the beacon frame and the remaining time slots are
partitioned into a Contention Access Period (CAP) followed by a number of contiguous
Guaranteed Time Slots (GTSs).
2. The coordinator is active during the entire active period.
3. The associated devices are active in the GTS phase only in their allocated time slots.

Data Transfer Procedures

• Case 1: Device transmits data packet to coordinator
1. If the device has an allocated transmit GTS, it wakes up and sends its packet immediately.
2. However, the device can do the full transaction only if allocated time slots are available.
3. When the device does not have any allocated slots, it sends its data packet during the CAP
using a slotted CSMA protocol.
4. The coordinator sends an immediate acknowledgment for the data packet.

• Case 2: Coordinator sends data packer to Device.

1. If the device has allocated receive GTS and when the packet/acknowledgment fits into these,
the coordinator simply transmits the packet in the allocated time slot.
2. The device has to acknowledge the data packet.
3. When the coordinator is not able to use a receive GTS, the handshake between device and
coordinator will happen.

Non-Beaconed Mode
1. The coordinator does not send beacon frames nor any GTS mechanism. No time
synchronization exists.
2. All packets from devices are transmitted without using time slots because of lack of time
synchronization.
3. Coordinators must be switched on constantly but devices can follow their own sleep
schedule.
Routing Protocols
• Routing strategies are required for transferring data between the sensor nodes and the base
station.

• Routing in WSN is different than traditional IP network routing because it exhibits a number of
unique characteristics to build a global addressing scheme for a large number of sensor nodes.

Energy Efficient Routing

• Energy efficiency of a network is a significant concern in wireless sensor network.

• These days networks are becoming large, information gathered is becoming larger, which all
consume a great amount of energy resulting in an early death of a node.

1. LEACH – Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy

It consists of two phases:

1. Setup Phase: In this phase, the clusters are ordered and then Cluster Head (CH) has been
selected. The task of CH is to cumulate, wrapping, and forward the information to the base
station (Sink).

2. Study State Phase: In this phase, the data is communicated to the base station (Sink). Each
node in the network, contacts with the cluster head, and transfer the data to it. Then CH will
develop the schedule to transfer the data of each node to base station.

2. PEGASIS [Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems]

1. It is a “chain-basis protocol” and an upgrading of the “LEACH”.
2. In “PEGASIS” every node transfer only with a close neighbour to direct and obtain
information.
3. A chain should be developed, which can be completed by the sensor nodes along with using
an algorithm.
4. On the other hand, the BS can compute this chain and transmit it to all the sensor nodes.
5. To develop the chain, all nodes have universal information of the system and a greedy
algorithm is engaged.

3. Threshold sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol

1. The TEEN is a hierarchical protocol designed for the conditions like sudden changes in the
sensed attributes such as temperature.
2. TEEN is well applicable for time important problems and quite efficient in terms of saving
energy and response time.
3. It also allows the user to manage the power utilization and accurateness to suit the
application.
4. Adaptive Threshold sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network •
1. The “APTEEN” is an expansion of “TEEN.
2. As soon as the BS formulates the clusters, the CH transmits the features and schedule of
transmission to all nodes.
3. After that, CH performs information accumulation in order to preserve power.
4. The main advantage of “APTEEN” in contrast to “TEEN”, is that nodes utilize a smaller
amount of power.
5. The primary disadvantages of APTEEN are the complications involved.

5. Directed Diffusion
1. Directed diffusion is data-centric routing protocol for collecting and publishing the
information in WSNs.
2. It has been developed to address the requirement of data flowing from the sink toward the
sensors. Its main objective is extending the network life time by realizing essential energy
saving.
3. A localized interaction that provides multipath delivery is a unique feature of this protocol.

6. Energy Efficient Sensor Routing

1. EESR is a flat routing algorithm proposed to decrease the power utilization, data latency and
to give scalability in the WSN.
2. It consists of Gateway, Base Station, Manager Nodes, and Sensor Nodes.
3. Their duties are-
• Gateway Delivers messages from Manager Nodes to the Base Station,
• It sends and receives messages to/from Gateway.
• Manager Nodes and Sensor Nodes collect data from the environment and send it to
each other in 1-Hop distance till the Base Station.

The following are the important parameters of Energy efficient routing.

1. Minimize Energy per packet.

2. Maximize network lifetime.
3. Routing considering available battery energy.
4. Maximum Total Available Battery Capacity.
5. Minimum Battery Cost Routing (MBCR).

1. The minimum energy route is A-B-E-H which requires 3 units of energy only.
2. The minimum hop count route would be A-D-H which requires 6 units of energy.