INDEX

Sn Content Page No.

A. Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological

Research

1 Variables – Types, Operational definition

2 Designs – Types (one IV and two IV), Sampling, Randomization and

Counterbalancing

3 Hypotheses – Types – Null and Alternative

4 Statistical Analysis – Inferential statistics – t test, F test, statistical significance

5 Scales of Measurement – Introduction and Exercises

6 Report writing – APA format

B. Practice Exercise – Two exercises

1 Experimental Situation given – Effect of Exercise on Immune Functioning

2 Variables given – Consumption of food (Nutritious vs Junk) on aggressive

behaviour in middle childhood

C. Practice Experiment – Anchoring and Adjustment Effect

D. Two Experiment in Cognitive Processes

1 The Automatic Vigilance Experiment

The Automatic Vigilance Experiment- Checklists

2 False memory using the Roediger and McDermott paradigm

False memory using the Roediger and McDermott paradigm - Checklists

E. One Psychological Test

Administration of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and Oxford Happiness

Questionnaire and Calculations of Reliability and Validity Coefficients

 INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS

IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

WHAT IS EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology is a branch of science that deals with how the mind works, what motivates

people and why people behave the way they do. Experimental psychology uses scientific tools

and techniques to study the mind and behaviour experimental psychology. It assists in

performing research studies in the process.

Experimental research enables us to test hypothesis or the tentative explanation. This

type of research has two important characteristics:

i. Manipulation of Independent Variables

ii. Control Over Extraneous Variables

Characteristics of Experimental Psychology

1) Manipulation of Independent Variables

One of the core principles of experimental psychology is the deliberate manipulation of

independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables. The independent variable

is the factor that the experimenter controls or changes, while the dependent variable is the

outcome being measured.

For example, in an experiment testing the effect of sleep on memory, the independent

variable could be the amount of sleep (e.g., 4, 6, or 8 hours), and the dependent variable might
be the number of words recalled from a list. This manipulation allows researchers to infer

causal relationships between variables.

2) Control of External Factors

Experimental psychology emphasizes controlling external or extraneous variables that

could interfere with the experiment’s results. Extraneous variables are any factors outside the

independent variable that might influence the dependent variable, leading to confounding

results.

Researchers achieve this by conducting experiments in controlled environments, such

as laboratories, and using techniques like randomization, counterbalancing, and matching

groups. For instance, when testing the effect of noise on concentration, the temperature,

lighting, and time of day should be consistent across all experimental conditions.
 VARIABLE

Experimental Research requires the understanding of the different types of variables.

The three important types of variables in an Experimental method are:

1) Independent Variable
2) Dependent Variable
3) Control Variable
4) Confounding Variables

1) Independent Variable

This is the variable that the experimenter controls and alters during the experiment.

Here are some key points to remember about the independent variable:

• It is the variable that the experimenter manipulates.

• In any experiment, the independent variable must have at least two levels. While there

can be more than two levels, having a minimum of two levels is essential for conducting

experimental research.

• An experiment can include more than one independent variable.

2) Dependent Variable:

In an experiment, the researcher changes a variable and observes its effect. The variable

that is observed and recorded during the experimental research is known as the Dependent

Variable. It is the variable that is measured in the experiment. Here are some key points about

dependent variables to remember:

• It is the variable that is measured in an experiment.

• An experiment can have multiple dependent variables.

 • An experiment may also include more than one independent variable.

3) Control Variables:

A key aspect of the experimental method is the control of extraneous variables.

Controlling these extraneous variables is crucial because if they are not managed, it can be

challenging to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. There are two main ways to control the

influence of extraneous factors:

• Holding the extraneous variable constant:

This means keeping the variable unchanged so that it does not vary across the different

levels of the independent variable. For example, we might use the same topic for three groups

with different teaching methods to ensure that the topic's difficulty does not affect the learning

outcomes.

• Randomizing their effects:

This involves randomly assigning participants to different conditions. To manage the

influence of participants' intellectual abilities, we can randomly assign them to various groups.

This way, the effects of differing intellectual abilities can be spread out across the groups,

helping to balance them out.

4) Confounding Variables:

A confounding variable refers to a factor that changes systematically along with the

independent variable, which complicates the ability to determine the specific impact of the

independent variable on the dependent variable. In experimental methods, it's essential to

pinpoint these factors that could act as confounding variables and take steps to manage their

effects. This is important because confounding variables can undermine the internal validity of
the experiment. However, it's often challenging to completely eliminate all potential sources of

confounding in a study.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Effective research requires that the problem or research question is articulated in a way

that allows for testing. This means it needs to be stated with precision. Precision involves

clearly defining the variables and how they will be measured in the study. In the experimental

method, it’s also crucial to specify what the variables represent and how they will be utilized

in the experiment. This clear and detailed description of the variable and its measurement is

known as an operational definition. For example, in our experiment, it’s important to outline

the operational definitions for the different variables. This clarity helps in formulating the

hypothesis more accurately, which can then be tested. For instance, if we want to test the

hypothesis that "there is a difference in learning based on the teaching method," we need to

clearly define what we mean by learning and the teaching method. The meanings of these

variables in our experiment must be explicitly stated. Thus, the operational definition of

learning could include:

• The number of questions related to the content that are answered correctly.

• Ratings provided by the teacher at the end of the lecture regarding the quality of

learning exhibited by the participant.

• Ratings provided by the participant regarding the extent of content they understood.

Among the various methods, it’s important to specify the exact way we will utilize this

in our research. These operational definitions not only assist the researcher in creating

a testable hypothesis but also aid readers of the research in understanding the study and

conducting related research on the same variable.

 DESIGN

Experimental Designs with One Independent variable

In any experiment, there must be at least one independent variable and one dependent

variable. The independent variable is manipulated to see its effect on the dependent variable,

and it needs to have at least two levels. There can be no experiment with less than two levels

of the independent variable, the different: levels of the independent variable may be

manipulated either by using one of the two experimental designs:

1) Random groups design

2) Repeated measures design

1) Random group design with one Independent variable

In a random group design, we assign participants to different groups completely at

random. This means that everyone has an equal chance of being placed in any group, and

different participants will take part in different conditions.

Imagine we want to study the impact of a new study technique on students' exam

performance. We could set up an experiment with two conditions:

1. Students using the new study technique

2. Students using their regular study methods

 For our experiment, we could recruit 20 students. We would randomly assign 10

students to the group that uses the new study technique, where they would learn and practice

this method. The other 10 students would continue with their usual study habits without any

changes. After a few weeks of studying, we would give both groups the same exam to see how

well they perform.

This approach follows the same random measures design, or between-subjects design,

as before. The steps would be:

1. Select a group of students from a larger population.

2. Randomly assign them to either the new study technique group or the regular study

methods group.

3. Allow each group to study using their assigned methods.

4. Compare the exam scores of both groups to see if the new technique made a difference.

By using random assignment, we can be more confident that any differences in exam

performance are due to the study technique itself rather than other factors.

2) Repeated measures design with one Independent variable.

In a repeated measures design, every participant experiences all levels of the

independent variable, enabling a direct comparison of how different conditions affect the same

individuals.
 In the above example about the study technique, the same group of 20 students first use

the new study technique, and then, after practicing the new technique, they give the test. This

setup helps to see how the new study technique affects memory recall.

It's important to keep in mind that while repeated measures designs can provide useful

insights and decrease variability among students, they can also lead to issues like carryover

effects, where the experience of one condition affects performance in another. To address this,

researchers often use a washout period or apply counterbalancing techniques to reduce these

effects.

Both repeated measures designs and random group designs come with their own

advantages and disadvantages, so it's crucial to assess the variables thoroughly before choosing

the most suitable experimental design for your study.

• Experimental Designs with Two Independent Variables:

Up until now, we have been discussing experimental designs that involve a single

independent variable. Now, let's look at research designs for experiments that incorporate two

independent variables.

Before examining the designs with two independent variables, it’s important to

understand how to calculate the total number of conditions in an experiment that has two

independent variables.

When an experiment includes two independent variables, each variable can have

different levels. For example, if we want to study the effect of different diets and exercise

routines on weight loss, we have two independent variables:

• Diet — with two levels ( low carb and low fat)

• Exercise routines — with three levels (Cardio, Strength training, and yoga)
 When there are multiple independent variables in an experiment, we first need to

determine the total number of conditions that the experiment will consist of. This can be done

by multiplying the levels of each independent variable.

In this example, we have (two X three) since the first independent variable (Diet) has

two levels (low carb and low fat) and the second independent variable (Exercise routines) has

three levels (Cardio, Strength training, and yoga)

Thus, (two X three = six), meaning this experiment will have six conditions, which are

as follows:

Cardio Strength training Yoga

Low Carb Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3

Cardio with low carb Strength training Yoga with low carb

diet. with low carb diet. diet.

Low Fat Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3

Cardio with low fat Strength training Yoga with low fat

diet. with low fat diet. diet.

Let's consider another example. Imagine an experimenter wants to investigate the

impact of the individual's Mood (Happy vs. Sad) and the Type of Music (Classical vs. Rock)

on their concentration levels.

In this experiment, there are two independent variables, each with two levels:

• Mood — Happy and Sad

• Type of Music — Classical and Rock

 To find the total number of conditions in this experiment, we multiply the levels of each

independent variable:

= two × two = four.

 Therefore, this experiment will consist of four conditions, which will be as follows:

Classical music Rock music

Happy Condition 1 Condition 2

Classical music when happy. Rock music when happy

Sad Condition 3 Condition 4

Classical music when sad Rock music when sad

When conducting an experiment with two independent variables, the following designs

can be utilized:

• Completely Randomized Design:

In this design, different participants take part in all the various conditions of the

experiment. Referring to the earlier example with six conditions, if we implement a completely

randomized design, participants will be randomly assigned to any of the six conditions. This

means that the experiment will consist of six groups of participants, with each group

experiencing one of the six conditions.

In the second example, since there are a total of four conditions, using a completely

randomized design would also result in four groups of participants, with each group being

exposed to one of the four conditions.

● Completely Repeated Measures Design:

In this design, the same participant experiences all the different conditions of the

experiment. For instance, in the earlier example with six conditions, the same group of
participants will go through all six conditions, ensuring that the content presented in each

condition is of the same difficulty level.

Similarly, in the second example, where there are a total of four conditions, if the

experimenter goes for a completely repeated measures design, the same participant will be

exposed to all the conditions of the experiment.

In addition to these two designs, there are other designs that can be utilized when an

experiment involves two independent variables, such as mixed design and factorial design.
 SAMPLING

In research, it's often not possible to include everyone from a population, so we focus

on a smaller group called a sample. This sample helps us gather information and draw

conclusions without needing to survey everyone. When we use a random sample, the results

tend to be more accurate and reliable. Random sampling means that every person in the

population has the same chance of being included in the study, which helps eliminate bias.

By randomly selecting participants, we increase the likelihood that our findings reflect

the entire population, making it easier to generalize the results. This is important because it

allows researchers to make broader conclusions based on a smaller group. Now, let's take a

closer look at the different types of sampling techniques that researchers can use to ensure their

studies are effective and meaningful.

• Simple random sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling

where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample

and each one of the possible samples.An example of simple random sampling could be

pulling names from a hat. Imagine a teacher wants to select a few students for a project. They

could write each student's name on a separate piece of paper, mix them up in a hat, and then

randomly draw names. Each student has an equal chance of being chosen, which is the

essence of simple random sampling. This method is known as simple random sampling.

• Stratified sampling

In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping

subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items

selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling .For

example, a study on student performance in a school. If the researchers want to include

students from different grades, they might divide the students into groups based on their

grade levels, like 1st grade, 2nd grade, and 3rd grade. Then, they would randomly select a

certain number of students from each grade group to ensure that all grades are represented in

the study. This way, the researchers can get a more accurate picture of student performance

across different grades. This approach is known as stratified sampling.

• Proportionate sampling

Proportionate sampling involves including all segments of society in the study, but in

proportion to their representation in the overall population. For instance, a survey conducted in

a city with a population where 60% are adults, 30% are teenagers, and 10% are children. If

researchers want to use proportionate sampling, they would ensure that their sample includes

60% adults, 30% teenagers, and 10% children to accurately represent the city's demographics.

This method is known as proportionate sampling.

• Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is a method used in research involving large populations, where it’s

beneficial to include participants from various geographical locations or relevant categories in

the study.

For example, if a researcher wants to study the health behaviors of high school students

across a country, they might divide the country into different regions or clusters, such as North,

South, East, and West. Instead of sampling students from every school, they could randomly

select a few schools from each region and include all the students from those selected schools

in their study. This way, they can gather data that represents different geographical areas

without needing to sample every individual student across the entire country.
 • Randomization

Randomization is crucial for ensuring that the sample studied accurately represents the

general population. As mentioned earlier, when conducting experiments, it's essential to select

participants randomly so that each individual has an equal chance of being included in the

study. This approach helps make the sample more reflective of the overall population.

Additionally, when utilizing a random group design where different participants are

assigned to various conditions, it's important to randomly assign participants to each condition.

This random assignment further ensures that the results are not biased and that the findings can

be generalized to a broader context. For instance, In a clinical trial testing a new medication,

researchers want to compare its effectiveness against a disease. They randomly assign

participants to two groups: one group receives the medication, while the other group receives

the new medication. By randomly assigning participants, the researchers ensure that any

differences in outcomes can be attributed to the medication rather than other factors.

• Counterbalancing

Counterbalancing is a technique used in repeated measures designs, where the same

participant takes part in multiple conditions of an experiment. This can lead to various

carryover effects, such as fatigue, practice effects, habituation, or sensitization.

For instance, In an experiment testing the effects of two types of music (Classical and

Rock) on concentration, participants might experience carryover effects. To counterbalance,

one group listens to Classical first and then Rock, while another group listens to Rock first and
then Classical. This balances any order effects, allowing for a clearer assessment of each music

type's impact on concentration.

HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis plays a crucial role in an experiment. Before starting the experiment, the

researcher suggests a potential relationship between the independent variable and the

dependent variable. This suggested relationship is known as a hypothesis.

In research, hypotheses are typically presented in two forms:

• Null Hypothesis

• Alternative Hypothesis.

1. Null Hypotheses

The null hypothesis asserts that there is no relationship between the two variables.

2. Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between the independent

variable and the dependent variable, indicating that the independent variable affects the

dependent variable.

An experimental hypothesis can be classified as either non-directional or directional.

Let’s explore both types of hypotheses now.

 Directional Hypothesis: This is a one-tailed hypothesis that clearly predicts the

direction or nature of the effect that the independent variable will have on the dependent

variable. In this case, the experimenter explicitly states the expected direction of the difference.

Non-Directional Hypothesis: This is a two-tailed hypothesis that predicts that the

independent variable will have an effect, but it does not specify the direction in which this

effect will occur.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

After the experiment is carefully designed and planned with a systematic approach, it

is carried out to gather data. For example, we want to study effects of different diets and

exercise routines on weight loss, the experimenter conducts the experiment after the design

phase to collect the necessary data. Once the data has been collected, it must be organized,

summarized, and described before any conclusions can be drawn.

This can be achieved by coding the information and applying various statistical

methods. While summarizing and describing the data occurs after collection, it is crucial for

the experimenter to plan how to effectively summarize, describe, and determine the methods

for drawing conclusions during the planning stage itself. The statistical methods used can be

divided into two categories: Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics.

• Descriptive Statistics:

This encompasses various statistical methods that allow us to describe the collected

data. Commonly used procedures include graphical representations, measures of central

tendency (such as Mean, Median, and Mode), and measures of variability, all of which help in

effectively describing the data.

 For example, suppose you conducted an experiment to test the effectiveness of different

diets and exercise routines to lose weight by the participant’s performance score . After

collecting the data, you might summarize it using descriptive statistics.

You could calculate the mean score the participants who used the low carb diet and of

those who used the low fat diet, which would give you an average score. Additionally, you

might find the median score to understand the middle point of the data, and the mode to see

which score occurred most frequently.

Mean scores of participants with low carb diet and of those who used low fat diet

Low carb diet Low fat diet

Mean score 5.2 8.4

You could also create a graphical representation, such as a bar chart or histogram, to

visually display the distribution of scores. Measures of variability, like the range or standard

deviation, would help you understand how spread out the scores are. This comprehensive

summary would provide a clear overview of the data collected in your experiment.

Statistical methods like these are categorized as Descriptive Statistics. However, this is

not adequate for drawing conclusions. Even if the mean recall score is higher for the for low

fat diet compared to the low carb diet, we cannot conclude that "the low fat diet is more

effective for weight loss. " To make conclusions, the researcher needs to apply Inferential

Statistics.

• Inferential statistics
 Inferential statistics helps us determine how reliable our findings are. Descriptive

statistics do not allow us to evaluate the reliability of our data, which is why inferential statistics

is necessary. When conducting an experiment, it is often impractical to test the entire

population, so we select a sample from that population to conduct our experiment. Inferential

statistics enables us to understand how much we can generalize the results obtained from our

sample to the entire population. For instance, in our experiment aimed at examining the

effectiveness of the diets for weight loss, we conducted the study with only 20 participants.

These 20 participants make up our sample. However, a researcher is not just interested in the

outcomes for these 20 individuals; we want to draw conclusions about the entire population.

We need to determine the probability that the two means from the two conditions (the low carb

diet and the low fat diet.) were obtained purely by chance.

The statistical methods that allow us to make these inferences are referred to as

inferential statistics. There are various types of inferential statistical techniques, which can be

categorized into two groups: Parametric Statistics and Non-parametric Statistics.

Parametric statistics are methods that involve making specific assumptions about the

sample. These methods are particularly useful when the sample follows a normal distribution.

If the data is not normally distributed, we are unable to use parametric tests. Instead,

we can employ non-parametric tests, which do not involve any assumptions about the sample.

Some key parametric tests include the t-test and F-test. On the other hand, some non-

parametric tests that can be utilized are inferential statistical methods like the Chi-square test

and the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, among others.

1. T-test

This is an inferential statistical test that is applied when the experiment consists of only

two levels of the independent variable , which allows for the comparison of two means. In the
experiment investigating the effect of diet on weight loss, there are two levels of a single

independent variable. This means we have two means to compare: the mean score of the low

carb condition versus the mean score of the low fat condition.

Even if we observe that the mean recall scores are higher in the group using the low fat

diet compared to the low carb diet group, we cannot conclude anything based solely on the

means. There are different types of t-tests that should be used depending on the design of the

experiment.

Repeated measures t-test is utilized when comparing two means, and the dependent

variable is measured on an interval or ratio scale. This test is applicable when the experimental

design is a repeated measures design.

On the other hand, the independent measures t-test is used for comparing two means as

well, but it applies when the dependent variable is also on an interval or ratio scale and the

experimental design follows a random measures approach.

• The steps to follow when using a t-test are as follows:

1. Calculate the degrees of freedom (Number of scores that are free to vary). When we use

Repeated measures t-test, degrees of freedom is calculated as (N-1) where N is the total number

of participants in the experiment and for Random measures t-test it is (N-2)

2. Then the formula for t-test is applied, which gives us a score (t-value)

3. We find the critical value for the calculated degrees of freedom

4. The statistical table for t-value is referred to find out the critical value for the desired alpha

level.

5. If the obtained t-value (In step 2) is greater or equal to the critical value in the table, it means

that the difference between the two means is statistically significant.

 2. F-score / ANOVA

Another inferential statistic that is applicable when the dependent variable is measured

on an interval or ratio scale is the F-test, also known as ANOVA (Analysis of Variance). This

test is used when there are more than two levels of the independent variable and multiple means

to compare.

For example, in an experiment aimed at studying the effects weight loss there are three

different weight loss techniques —such as the yoga, Strength training, and cardio—there

would be three means that need to be compared. In this case, a t-test would not be appropriate.

Instead, the suitable inferential statistic is the F-test. The F-test allows us to compare more than

two means. The type of ANOVA used depends on the number of independent variables and the

experimental design.

When there is only one independent variable, the appropriate inferential statistic is

called One-factor or One-way ANOVA. In contrast, if there are two independent variables, the

appropriate statistic is referred to as Two-Factor or Two-way ANOVA.

Based on the design of the experiment, you will need to use either repeated measures

or randomized measures ANOVA.

Here are the steps to follow when using ANOVA:

1. Calculate the F-ratio using the appropriate formula.

2. Calculate the degrees of freedom for the numerator and the denominator

3. Using the two degrees of freedom, the critical value for the required alpha value will be

identified.
4. Check whether the calculated F-value (In step 1) is equal to or greater than the critical value.

5. If the calculate F-value is greater than or equal to the critical value, we conclude that the

means are significantly different.

6. However with F-ratio being statistically significant it only tells us that there is a significant

difference in the means, but it fails to tell us where among the possible comparisons the reliable

differences occur. For example, in the experiment regarding the 3 methods of teaching, if we

find that the F-ratio is statistically significant, we do not know between which pairs of means

(Lecture method Vs. Discussion method), (Discussion method Vs. Self-study method) and

(Discussion method Vs. Self-study method) there exists reliable differences.

7. To isolate which means differ significantly, comparisons should be made between the

different pairs of means. This may either involve a planned comparison or an unplanned

comparison.

8. Planned comparisons are made if we have some specific hypothesis about some pairs of

means. In case of no specific hypothesis, the unplanned comparisons are made where all the

possible comparisons are undertaken using Post-hoc tests.

To determine where the reliable differences lie among these pairs, you would need to

conduct tests, Some of the frequently used post-hoc tests include the Scheffe test, Dunnett test,

Tukey's HSD test, Duncan test, and Fisher test. These tests help identify specific group

differences following the ANOVA analysis.

 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANT

Inferential statistical tests are crucial because they allow us to assess the likelihood that

our data was obtained purely by chance. If the probability of obtaining the data due to chance

is high, we regard the data as not statistically significant. Conversely, if the probability of the

data being due to chance is low, we consider it statistically significant. This probability is

represented by the symbol alpha. So, if alpha is 0.05, it means that the probability of the data

being obtained due to chance is 5 times in 100 cases.

This indicates a high likelihood that the data is not a result of any chance factor.

Similarly, if alpha is 0.01, it means that the probability of the data being obtained due to chance

is 1 out of 100. Data at this level is statistically even more significant than when alpha is at

0.05. To find out whether the data is statistically significant, we need to refer to the significance

tables for the specific inferential statistics being used. These tables provide information about
the necessary statistical values for determining significance. There are different tables for t-

tests, F-tests, and other types of inferential statistics.

 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement involves assigning numbers or symbols to the attributes of individuals

or objects based on specific guidelines. Various variables are measured differently based on

their characteristics. Some variables are continuous, meaning their values can be further

subdivided; for instance, height. Others are discrete, typically involving categories; for

example, Male and Female. Discrete variables lack continuity, meaning they cannot be

further subdivided.

The scales of measurement describe how these variables or numbers are defined and

classified. Each scale possesses unique characteristics that set it apart from the others. There

are four primary scales of measurement, which can be remembered using the acronym

‘NOIR.’ Each letter in NOIR represents a different scale, arranged from the least to the most

rigorous: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.

• Nominal scale

The nominal scale represents the most basic type of measurement. It focuses on the

classification or categorization of variables into distinct groups that do not overlap. Examples

of variables measured on the nominal scale include types of fruits or car brands.

• Ordinal scale

Ordinal scales go a step further by not only categorizing the variables but also

arranging these categories in a specific order. This means that variables measured on the

ordinal scale can be compared based on their rank. An example of this would be the ranking

of students in a competition.

• Interval scale
 Interval scales indicate that there are equal distances between consecutive values of

the variable being measured. For instance, in the case of time measured in hours, the

difference between 2 hours and 3 hours is the same as the difference between 5 hours and 6

hours.

• Ratio scale

Ratio scales provide the highest level of information. Variables measured on a ratio

scale possess an absolute zero, indicating that the complete absence of the variable is

possible. A common example would be weight, where a weight of zero kilograms represents

the absence of mass, and we can say that 80 kilograms is four times heavier than 20

kilograms.

Practice exercise-

Sr. Blood Food IO Income Socio Time Marks Grades

no. group preference (per economic taken
month) class to
solve a
puzzle
(in
secs)
1 O +ve Vegetarian 110 16,000 Lower 398 45 D
2 B +ve Vegan 125 30,000 Middle 423 82 O
3 A -ve Non-vegetarian 98 45,500 Upper 632 60 A
4 O +ve Vegetarian 100 12,500 Lower 524 73 O
5 A +ve Non-vegetarian 105 43,000 Upper 523 55 C
6 A -ve Non-vegetarian 110 28,000 Middle 453 65 A
7 B +ve Vegetarian 80 55,500 Upper 621 48 D
8 O +ve Non-vegetarian 95 37,500 Middle 348 67 A
9 O +ve Vegetarian 86 17,000 Lower 564 53 C
10 B +ve Non-vegetarian 107 28,000 Middle 537 62 A
11 A +ve Non-vegetarian 118 50,000 Upper 600 90 O
12 O +ve Vegetarian 126 9,500 Lower 486 55 B
13 B +ve Non-vegetarian 107 30,500 Middle 384 70 O
14 A +ve Vegetarian 110 20,000 Lower 547 58 B
15 O +ve Vegan 93 25,000 Middle 435 92 O
 In every experiment or study, a variable is measured, which is typically the dependent

variable. The type of descriptive and inferential analysis conducted on this variable is

determined by how it is measured. The different methods of measuring variables are known

as scales of measurement. Each scale has specific features that influence the types of analysis

that can be performed.

Scale of Graphical Measures of central Inferential statistics

measurement representation tendency
Nominal Pie chart, bar graph Mode Chi square
Ordinal Bar graph Median Chi square
Interval Histogram, bar Mean, Median, T test, ANOVA
graphs, line graphs Mode
Ratio Histogram, bar Mean, Median, T test, ANOVA
graphs, line graphs Mode
Calculations- (sample data tables)

Nominal data:

Blood group Frequency Food preference Frequency

O +ve Vegetarian

B +ve Non- vegetarian

A +ve Vegan

A -ve

Ordinal data:

Socio economic class- 1= Upper, 2= Middle, 3= Lower

Grades- 1= O, 2= A, 3= B, 4= C, 5= D
 Variable Data Median rank

Socio economic class

Grades

Interval scale:

Sr no. IQ Scores Marks

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Total
Mean
Median
Mode
Range
SD
Variance
Ratio scale-

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 REPORT WRITING – APA FORMAT

Some important points from Manual of the American Psychological Association – 5th

Edition APA –

Title:

1) It should not be more than 12 words.

2) It should be boldfaced. All the major words and the words longer than 4 letters should

be capitalized (The first letter should be capital).

3) The title should be at the center of the page.

4) Avoid abbreviations – STM, ASPD, avoid using colon.

5) Avoid unnecessary words (like a study of, an experiment on). The title should be

focused, concise and has to identify major variables used in the study.

Abstract:

1) Should not be more than 120 words.

2) It should mention Problem, participants, gender, method, procedure, tools, findings,

significance, conclusion and implications.

Capitalize:
 1) First word after full stop and Colon.

2) Do not capitalize laws and theories, for e.g. ‘law of effect’.

3) Capitalize Test/Scale names. Do not capitalize if used in generic terms – for e.g.

stroop test was used

4) In references, only the first word is capital, all others are small

Italics:

1) Titles of books, periodicals, microfilms.

2) Species and their varieties.

3) New, technical key terms (only first time).

4) Periodical’s volume number in references.

Numbers:

1) All numbers from zero to nine should be written in words, for e.g., two, six

2) All numbers from 10 and above should be written numerically, for e.g., 12, 200

3) When comparison is stated, for e.g., in 5th & 10th trial, and for time, date, ratio,

percentiles – use number, even when it is between o and 9.

 PRACTICE EXPERIMENT

1. A sample Experimental Situation

An experiment was conducted to study the effect of exercise on improvement of

immune functioning. The immune functioning was measured using a five-point rating scale,

in terms of health complaints – constant feeling of fatigue, frequent cold, body aches and

pain, health complaints. One group practiced various Yoga postures, five days a week for 40

minutes, for three months, under the guidance of a teacher. The other group was no exercise

group. The participants were equated on few important variables as age, gender,

socioeconomic level and pretest immune functioning. The pre and post-test measures of

immune function on rating scale were compared.

EFFECT OF EXECISE ON IMMUNE

TITLE: Sample experimental situation

PROBLEM

To study the effect of exercise on the importance of immune functioning

HYPOTHESIS

Alternative Hypothesis

The exercise (Yoga) is expected to enhance immune function, resulting in a notable

difference between the groups regarding health complaints, as assessed by the rating scale,

following the intervention.

H₁: The Yoga group will show a significant improvement in immune function

compared to the No exercise group after the intervention.

Null Hypothesis

The exercise (Yoga) will not impact immune function, indicating that there will be no

significant difference in immune function (as assessed by the five-point rating scale) between

the Yoga group and the No exercise group after the intervention.

H₀: There is no significant difference in immune function before and after the

intervention between the two groups (Yoga vs. No exercise group).

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE VARIABLES

1.Independent Variable : Type of Exercise

Yoga Exercise Group

Participants in this group will engage in various Yoga postures for 40 minutes, five

times a week, over the course of three months, under the supervision of a certified instructor.

The Yoga program will incorporate breathing exercises, physical postures, and relaxation

techniques, aimed at enhancing both physical and mental well-being.

No Exercise Group (Control Group)

This group will not take part in any organized physical exercise throughout the three-

month duration. While they may carry on with their usual daily activities, there will be no

structured intervention for them.

2. Dependent Variable : Immune Functioning

Immune functioning will be evaluated using a five-point rating scale that addresses

common health complaints, which can reflect the overall condition of immune health.

Participants will provide ratings on this scale both before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the
intervention period. The scale will cover typical health complaints, with ratings based on the

frequency and severity of symptoms. The specific health complaints may include:

1) Constant Feeling of Fatigue: A scale from one (no fatigue) to five (constant and

debilitating fatigue).

2) Frequent Cold: The number of colds experienced, rated from one (no colds) to five

(frequent colds, occurring three or more times during the period).

3) Body Aches and Pain: The level of aches and pain felt in the body, rated from one (no

aches) to five (severe, chronic body aches).

4) General Health Complaints: An overall rating that summarizes the health complaints

based on symptoms reported during the study period, rated from one (no complaints)

to five (severe and persistent complaints).

Participants will self-report these ratings at the beginning (pre-test) and after the

intervention (post-test), and these ratings will be utilized to assess changes in immune

functioning.

3.Control Variables

These are the factors that must be managed to prevent them from affecting the

outcomes. They include:

1) 1.Age: Participants will be organized or matched to ensure that both groups have

comparable age distributions.

2) Gender: Both groups will have an equal representation of genders to eliminate any

potential gender-related biases in immune functioning.

3) Socioeconomic Status : Participants will be matched or selected based on their

socioeconomic status, as socioeconomic status can influence health and immune

responses.
 4) Pretest Immune Functioning: A baseline measurement of immune functioning

(utilizing the five-point health complaint scale) will be collected from all participants

prior to the intervention, ensuring that the groups are comparable.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Given that this study uses a between-subjects design involving two groups (Yoga vs.

No exercise), the suitable statistical methods would include a t-test or ANOVA if there are

several levels of grouping (for example, multiple pre-test/post-test comparisons or additional

variables). The choice of analysis will depend on the following:

• Paired t-test: This would be used for comparisons within the same group, such as pre-

test versus post-test scores.

• Independent samples t-test: This method would be applied to compare the post-test

scores between the Yoga group and the No exercise group.

• Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA): This analysis is appropriate if you want to

account for baseline immune functioning (pretest scores) when comparing post-test

outcomes between groups. ANCOVA is particularly useful as it adjusts for pretest

scores, leading to a more precise comparison between the groups.

DESIGN

Experimental design with one independent variable having two levels

ETHICAL ISSUES

Here are some ethical concerns listed below:

• Confidentiality: The personal data of participants, including their immune functioning

scores, must remain confidential. It’s important to securely handle this data and

anonymize it whenever feasible.

• Debriefing: Once the study is concluded, participants should be informed about the

findings and the study's purpose, particularly those in the control group who may not

have been aware of any potential advantages of exercising.

• Non-coercion: Participation must be completely voluntary, ensuring that no

participant feels pressured or obligated to join the study.

• Potential Harm: Although yoga is generally safe, the researcher must adapt exercises

to suit each participant's abilities to minimize the risk of injury. Furthermore,

individuals in the No exercise group should not miss out on any beneficial treatments

for their health.

• Informed Consent: Participants should be adequately informed about the study's

objectives, procedures, and any possible risks (like discomfort during yoga or effects

on health issues). It is essential to obtain consent from all individuals involved.