SURVEYING

Topographic Surveying
Control surveying – consists of determining
the horizontal and vertical or spatial Establishment of Control
positions of arbitrary located points. - Consists of two parts : horizontal
Geodetic surveying – takes into account the control, in which the planimetric
shape of the earth and generally is used for positions of specific control point are
primary control networks of large extent located, and vertical control, in which
and high precision, such as those surveys elevations are established on
established for continents, states, and specified bench marks located
countries. throughout the area to be mapped.
- This control provides the skeleton,
Topographic surveying – is the which later is clothed with the details
determination of the location, both in plan or locations of such objects as roads,
and elevation, of selected ground points houses, and etc..
that are necessary for plotting contour lines
and in planimetric location of features on Horizontal control
the topographic map. - Can be established by GPS survey,
- Can be performed by aerial total station system traverse, aerial
photogrammetric methods, ground photogrammetric methods….
survey methods, or some Frequently, a combination of certain
combination of these two of these methods is used.
procedures. Vertical control
- Purpose is to establish bench marks
Topographic Survey fall roughly into 3 at a convenient intervals over the
classes, according to the map scale area to serve (1) as points of
employed as follows: departure and closure for operations
of topographic parties when locating
Large Scale – 1:1200 (1 in to 100 ft) or details…
larger - Usually accompanied by direct
differential leveling, but for smaller
Intermediate Scale – 1:1200 to 1:12000
areas or in rough country the vertical
Small Scale – 1:1200 or smaller control is frequently established by
trigonometric leveling.
Horizontal and Vertical control by 3D
Planning the Survey
Traverse
1. Intended use of the map – surveys
- A 3D, a total-station traverse can be
for detailed maps should be made by
used for establishing control for
more refined methods than surveys
intermediate and large scale
for maps of a general character.
topographic mapping jobs.
2. Area of the tract – it is more difficult
- Differential GPS surveys
to maintain a desired precision in the
automatically provide the 3rd
relative location of points over a
dimension.
large area than over a small area.
3. Scale of the map – the ratio between Location of Details
field errors and plotting errors should
- The instruments currently most used
be perhaps one to three.
for the location of details are the
4. Contour interval – the smaller the CI,
total station system and GPS
the more refined should be the field
equipment. The engineers optical
methods.
reading theodolite and engineers
 level rapidly are being displaced by lines and a digital elevation model
the previously mentioned electronic (DEM).
systems.  Map Creation: Develop a detailed
topographic map with contours,
Precision
elevation points, and annotations.
- Required in locating such definite  Presentation: Deliver maps and
objects as buildings, bridges, curbs, reports to stakeholders and ensure
and boundary lines should be they meet the project’s objectives.
consistent with precision of plotting,  Archiving: Store raw and
which may be assumed to be a map processed data for future use.
distance of about 0.5 mm or 1/50 in.
such less definite objects as 2. differentiate among geodetic,
shorelines, and streams are located engineering, and topographic control
with a precision corresponding to a surveys
map distance of perhaps 0.9 to
ans - Geodetic surveys cover large
1.3mm or 1/30 or 1/20 in.
areas, accounting for Earth's curvature,
Contours and provide a high-accuracy framework
for mapping and large-scale projects.
- The accuracy with which contour Engineering surveys focus on precise,
lines represent the terrain depends localized measurements to support
on the (1) accuracy and precision of construction and infrastructure
the observations, (2) number of development. Topographic surveys
observations, (3) and the distribution map natural and man-made features
of the points located. with elevation data, covering moderate
- Although ground points are definite, areas for land development and
contour lines must necessarily be planning.
generalized to some extent. The
error of field measurement in a plan
should be consistent with the error in
3. what method of topographic
elevation, which in general should
surveying is used for the largest
not exceed 1/5 of the horizontal
portion of small scale topographic
distance between contours.
mapping
Angles
ans - The photogrammetric
- The precision needed in the field method is the most used for small-
measurements of angles to details scale topographic mapping. It
may be readily determined by involves capturing aerial or satellite
relating it to the required precision of images to map large areas efficiently.
corresponding vertical and horizontal This method is cost-effective,
distances. accurate when combined with control
QUESTIONS points, and ideal for covering vast
terrains with minimal fieldwork.
1. describe the major steps involved in
performing a topographic survey 4. what factors govern the choice of
surveying method used for
ans. -  Preparation: Define topographic surveying
objectives, gather existing data, and
select equipment. Ans - the method depends on project
 Fieldwork: Conduct site needs, area characteristics, available
reconnaissance, establish control resources, and time constraints.
points, and collect measurements of
land features. 5. discuss the various surveying
 Data Processing: Import, adjust, methods appropriate for establishing
and process data to create contour horizontal control for topographic
 mapping and the conditions that  Laser Scanning (LiDAR) is highly
favor each method efficient for detailed 3D mapping of
complex terrain.
1. ans - Triangulation: Measures  Inertial Navigation Systems are
angles between points to form a useful in GPS-challenged
network of triangles. environments, though they may
o Best for: Large, open areas suffer from drift.
with clear sightlines.
2. Traversing: Measures distances and
angles between a series of 8. what factor governs the precision of
connected points. locating horizontal details for
o Best for: Smaller or linear topographic mapping
areas with obstructions.
3. GPS Surveying: Uses satellite 1. ans- surveying Method: Choice
signals to calculate precise positions. of instruments (e.g., GPS, total
o Best for: Open areas with stations) affects accuracy.
minimal obstructions. 2. Instrument Calibration:
4. Photogrammetry: Uses aerial or Ensures accurate measurements.
satellite imagery to extract control 3. Observation Time: Longer
points. observation improves accuracy,
o Best for: Large, inaccessible, especially for GPS.
or rugged terrains. 4. Environmental Conditions:
5. Intersection and Resection: Weather and terrain can affect
Determines positions using angles results.
from known points. 5. Control Points: Quality and
o Best for: Moderate areas with distribution of reference points
visible reference points. impact precision.
Each method is suited to specific 6. Human Error: Surveyor skill
terrain and project needs. influences measurement
accuracy.
6. what methods are used to establish 7. Distance Between Points:
vertical control for topographic Larger distances may increase
mapping? discuss the advantages error.
and disadvantages that favor each These factors collectively determine
method the precision of horizontal
ans -  Levelling is accurate but
9. what are the advantages of acquiring
slow and labor-intensive.
details for topographic mapping by the
 GPS-Based Heighting is fast but
controlling point method?
less accurate for small-scale work.
 Barometric Levelling is quick Ans - the controlling point method provides
but sensitive to weather. high accuracy, reliability, and flexibility,
 Trigonometric Levelling is making it ideal for smaller areas and when
useful for remote areas but requires integrating with other survey data.
precise measurements.

10. list three surveying systems or

7. what systems would be most useful instruments that are ideally adapted for
for running a 3D traverse or control topographic surveying by the controlling
network for a topographic survey? point method.
Ans -  GNSS is best for large areas
and remote locations. Ans - Total Station: Measures angles and
 Total Station is ideal for precise distances to determine the position of
control in smaller, accessible areas. points relative to control points, offering
high accuracy in both horizontal and
vertical dimensions.
 GPS/GNSS: Uses satellite signals to 15. discuss the relationship between
establish precise 3D coordinates of control surveys to obtain topographic details and
points, ideal for large or remote areas. digital terrain models (DTM)
 Theodolite: A precision instrument for Ans - Surveys provide the raw data
measuring angles, often used in (elevation points, contours) necessary for
conjunction with leveling equipment to creating DTMs, which are 3D models of the
establish control points. terrain used in various planning, design,
and environmental applications. Accurate
survey data is essential for building precise
11. what is the function of a data collector and reliable DTMs.
when obtaining topographic details for
mapping?
Ans - A data collector efficiently records,
processes, and transfers survey data for
topographic mapping, enhancing accuracy
and speed in the field.

12. when using a data collector to record

data for a topographic survey, should any
hand-recorded notes be kept in a field
book? if so, explain why
Ans - Hand-recorded notes in a field book
serve as a backup, reference, and
documentation, ensuring data integrity and
providing additional details not captured by
the data collector.

13. when a GPS survey is employed to

acquire topographic details, what is a major
disadvantage and how are the effects of
this disadvantages minimized?
Ans- GPS surveys can face accuracy issues
in obstructed environments, but using
methods like DGPS, RTK, and combining
with other techniques can minimize these
effects.

14. what is an a priori requirement for any

topographic survey to acquire details with
SURVEYING PT.2
any system
Ans - A reliable control network with Types of Contours
accurately established control points is
essential for any topographic survey to 1. Index contours – contour is shown by
ensure precise data acquisition across all a heavier lines which are normally
systems. twice the gauge of the standard
contours are called the index
contours. – also serve as a visual
reinforcement in the contour image.
 2. Intermediate contours – four lighter
weight contours found between the
index contours are the intermediate
contours. These lines are not usually
labeled except where the terrain is
relatively flat
3. Supplemental contours
4. Depression contours
5. Approximate contours

Characteristics of Contours
1. All points on any one contour have
the same elevation.
2. Every contour closes on itself, either
within or beyond the limits of the
map.
3. A contour which closes within the
limits of the map indicates either a
summit or depression.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross
one another except where an
overhanging cliff.
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a
uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to
each other on a plane surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough,
rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between
adjacent contours indicates the
steepness of the slope of the ground.
9. Contours cross curbs and a crowned
sloping street in typical u shaped
curves.
10.As a contour approaches a stream,
the contour turns upstream until it
intersects the shore line. Methods of Obtaining Contours
Major classification:
1. Direct method – are those in which
the contours to be plotted are
actually traced out in the field. Ex.
Trace contour method
2. Indirect method – compromise those
in which the points located as
Interpolating of Contours By Template regards position and elevation are
(pg. 128) not necessarily situated on the
contours to be shown, but serve, on
Locating Contour Lines by being plotted , as a basis for the
Interpolation (solving pg. 129-130) interpolation of the required
contours. 4 field methods: (1)
coordinate method, (2) controlling-
point method, (3) cross-profile
 method, (4) and the leveling. Clockwise or
photogrammetric method. counterclockwise movement. Also,
you solve for the azimuth.
Trace Contour Method
Cross Profile Method
- One of the most accurate and direct
procedure of locating contours. The - Used in locating contours along a
method is used advantageously in route or other narrow area of terrain.
rolling country where the slopes are This method is appropriate for
generally gentle. surveys required in the construction
of roadways, railways, canals, and
Coordinate Method
etc.
- Also used where a relatively high -
degree of accuracy is desired, and
hence the map is usually drawn to a
large scale.
- Procedure: (1) on a grid system lay
out the area by establishing corner
and perimeter stakes. (2) at the
intersection of the grid lines
determine the elevations. (3) plot the
points of known elevation to the
desired scale in plan. (4) draw the
contour lines by interpolation.
- Contour map

Photogrammetric Method

- Contours may be plotted from

aerial photographs of the terrain
with a minimum of ground survey
for control.
- Advantages: speed of
compilation. High accuracy of the
locations of planimetric features.
- Disadvantages: the difficulty of
plotting in areas with heavy
ground cover. High cost of
mapping. Necessity for field
editing and field completion.
Expensive cost of equipment.
- US, Europe, Japan, Indonesia, and
the Philippines are now widely
involved in the field of
photogrammetry and its related
application.
- - Machine plot- displays the
planimetry, the homogeneous
Controlling Point Method
surfaces, and also the altimetry of
- Considered to be one with the most the ground which is shown by
universal application. Applicable to contours and spot height.
practically every type of terrain and
condition encountered in topographic Slope
mapping. Similar to differential
- The rate of rise or fall of the
ground surface. Can be described
as steep or gentle but the
question arises as to how steep or
how gentle.
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Map Scale

- Map dist. / ground dist.

- Vertical dist = distance elevation
= Elev B-Elev A
- Interpolating contour lines =
horizontal dist. / Dist. elevation

LAB REPORT (interpolating contour

lines by coordinate method)