EE - 465

Industrial Electronics

By
Dr. Rishi Kumar Singh
 SYLLABUS

Review of power devices with driver and protection circuits, Half controlled and fully controlled converters,
Series and shunt Voltage regulators, Switched mode power supply, Online and offline UPS.

Characteristics of AC and DC drives with their speed control & braking, Closed loop control schemes, Static rotor
resistance control and Slip power recovery scheme of induction motor, Self-control of synchronous motor.

Principle and application of induction and dielectric heating with their industrial controller. Resistance welding
and Seam Welding with their industrial controller.

Flasher circuits, Time delay circuits, Fan regulator using Electronic timers and Digital counters.

Static Contactors and circuit breaker, Industrial timers.

 COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, students will be able to

Practical application for power electronics converters in conditioning the power supply, welding and Heating circuit

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Application”, 3rd edition, Pearson
Edu. India, 2014
2. G. M. Chute and R. D. Chute, Electronics in Industry, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill Ltd, 1
Jan 1979
3. F. D. Petruzulla, Industrial Electronics, McGraw Hill, 1st Feb 1995
 Review of power devices

Properties of ideal switch

1. Conduction state, 𝑉𝑂𝑁 = 0, −∞ ≤ 𝐼𝑂𝑁 ≤ ∞
2. Blocking state, 𝐼𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0, −∞ ≤ 𝑉𝑂𝐹𝐹 ≤ ∞,
3. Ideal switch can change its state instantaneously 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 0, 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
4. No power loss while switching.
5. Stable under all operating conditions.
Classification of Switches
➢ Uncontrolled switch (Passive switch)
Switching state cannot be controlled by any control signal E.g. Diode.
➢ Semi controlled switch
Only one switching state can be controlled by control signal E.g. SCR.
➢ Fully controlled switch
If both switching states can be controlled by switchable control signal E.g. BJT, MOSFET.

Other Classification
➢ Unipolar Switch
The switch can block one polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state.
➢ Bipolar Switch
The switch can block both polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state.
➢ Unidirectional Switch
This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state.
➢ Bidirectional Switch
This switch can carry current in both direction when it is in conduction state
 Ideal Characteristics of Power Semiconductor Devices

Device Characteristics
A I
DIODE

K
BJT I
C
B
V
E
MOSFET I
D

G V
S
 Ideal Characteristics of Power Semiconductor Devices

Device Characteristics

I
IGBT C

G V
E

SCR A I

V
G
K
GTO A I

V
G K
 Ideal Characteristics of Power Semiconductor Devices
Device Characteristics

TRIAC MT1 I

V
G MT2

MOSFET with Body Diode

D I

G V
S
 Classification based on charge carrier

In majority carrier device, conduction takes place only due to majority carrier which results in very less turn
on and turn off time along with the large voltage drop across it.(Due to a smaller number of charge carriers)

While in minority carrier device, conduction takes place due to both majority and minority carrier which
result in long turn on and turn off time (extra time for removal of minority carriers) and less voltage drop
during conduction.

Majority Carrier Device Minority Carrier Device

High breakdown Voltage with lightly Doped High breakdown Voltage
High Resistivity Ron is very less (conductivity modulation)
More conduction Losses Less Conduction Losses
Smaller Switching times or high Switching Large Switching times or Low switching frequency
frequency
We cannot use at high voltage due to more We can use at high voltage due to less conduction
conduction loss loss
E.g., MOSFET, Schottky diode E.g., Power diode, BJT
 Power loss in a Switch

➢ The average power loss in a switch is given by

1 𝑇
𝑃 = 𝑇 ‫׬‬0 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡
where v is instantaneous voltage, and I is instantaneous current.

➢ If the device is modelled as resistance, as in case of MOSFET

2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 𝑅 ൗ𝑅𝑜𝑛
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑛 =

➢ If the device is modelled as voltage source

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
A
A
P+
J1
n-
J2
P
G
J3
n+
G
K
K

▪ In forward blocking mode, J1, J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased
▪ In forward conduction mode, J2 breakdown, J1, J3 are forward biased
▪ In reverse blocking mode, J1, J3 are reversed biased and J2 is forward biased

➢ Latching Current (IL)

This is the minimum value of anode current above which SCR remains ON even
if we remove the gate signa. This is related to minimum gate pulse width
requirement for SCR.

➢ Holding Current (IH)

Minimum value of anode current below which SCR turns OFF.
 Device and Circuit turn-off time

• Device turn off time i.e., 𝑡𝑞 = 𝑡𝑟𝑟 + 𝑡𝑔𝑟

𝑡𝑟𝑟 = reverse recovery time
𝑡𝑔𝑟 = gate recovery time
• Circuit turn-off time (tc) is the time period for which commutation circuit applies reverse voltage across SCR after anode
current becomes zero.
• For successful commutation, 𝑡𝑐 > 𝑡𝑞
I ta t b tgr
trr
t
-IRM
 VI Characteristic of SCR

IA

IL Ig2 Ig1 Ig0

VBR IH
VB2 < VB1 <VB0 VAK

Fig. Static VI characteristics of SCR

 Turn-On method of SCR

• Forward Voltage Triggering

If VAK>VB0, Then J2 breakdown and SCR conducts. This can damage the SCR.

𝒅𝑽
• Triggering
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶𝐽 𝑑𝑡 , if is high, charging current increases and SCR conducts when IC > IL.
𝑑𝑡

• Light Triggering
If light is incident on J2, charge carriers are generated and J2 starts conducting.

• Thermal Triggering
When temperature is increased then charge carrier are generated and SCR starts to conduct.

• Gate Triggering
By applying gate pulse in SCR, VB0 is lowered, and SCR can easily conduct.
 Firing circuit of SCR

Resistance firing circuit

R1 to limit gate current within maximum value of gate current
LOAD (Igmax)
V0 R1

R2 to limit gate Voltage within maximum value of gate Voltage

R (Vgmax)
Vmsinωt A
G
K
R to change the time of gate signal i.e., by varying R, α can be
Ig
changed.
R2 Vg

Fig Circuit for half wave rectifier Diode prevents negative voltage build- up across gate

𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑅 Limitation
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅 2
Maximum firing angle is limited to 90 degree.
 Firing circuit of SCR

R-C firing circuit

LOAD
R to change the time of gate signal i.e., by varying R, α can be
V0 changed.
D1 D2
R
C to limit gate Voltage within maximum value of gate Voltage
Vin A (Vgmax)
G
D4 D3 Ig K Diode prevents negative voltage build- up across gate
C Vg

Limitation
Maximum firing angle is limited to 180 degree.
 Protection of SCR

1 4
2
FUSE CB
V
A 3
A
R
5 I
Gate Protection S
T
R1 K O
R2 R
C1

Fig. SCR Protection

 Protection of SCR
1. Over Current Protection
For over current protection, we connect fuse or Circuit breaker in series with the SCR.

2. Over Voltage Protection

For over Voltage Protection varistor (Nonlinear resistor- all metal oxide resistors behave as nonlinear R) is connected
across the SCR.

𝒅𝑽
3. 𝒅𝒕
Protection
𝑑𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶𝐽 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑽
At high the SCR is turned ON before the gate signal is given, this is known as false triggering. To prevent this a
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑽
capacitor is connected across the SCR to limit 𝒅𝒕 . A resistor is connected in series with the capacitor, to reduce the
discharge current magnitude. This is called “Snubber Circuit”.

4. di/dt Protection
When (di/dt) > (Spread velocity of charge carrier) the charge accumulation increases cumulatively in a small conduction
area and leads to the formation of hot spots damaging the device.
To prevent this a large inductor is connected in series with the SCR. This is called “Current Snubber”.
 Protection of SCR
5. Thermal Protection
Heat sinks are used for thermal protection.

θJC = Thermal resistance between junction and case C S A

θCS = Thermal resistance between Case and Sink J
θSA = Thermal resistance between Sink and ambient
TJA = Temperature difference between Junction and Ambient.
Unit of θ = ̊ C/W
In electrical Circuit Representation. θJC θCS θSA
𝑇𝐽𝐴 𝑇𝐽𝐶 𝑇𝐽𝑆
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = TJA Pavg
𝜃𝐽𝐶 +𝜃𝐶𝑆 +𝜃𝑆𝐴 𝜃𝐽𝐶 𝜃𝐽𝐶 +𝜃𝐶𝑆

6. Gate Protection
a) Over Current protection
A resistor is connected in series with the gate to limit the gate current within the permissible limit.
b) Over Voltage Protection
Zener diode is connected across gate cathode terminal for overvoltage protection in gate.
c) Protection against noise signal
Noise is an unwanted signal passing through the gate terminal. It will falsely turn-on the SCR; To prevent it a parallel RC
circuit is connected across the gate cathode terminal
 DC Regulated power supplies

A DC regulated power supply should give a constant dc output voltage that is independent of input voltage, output load and
temperature.
Electronically regulated power supplies use the principles of feedback to regulate the output voltage. Voltage regulators can
normally be classified as
(1) Linear Regulators and (2) Switching regulators.

Linear regulators can be of two types : (a) linear series regulator and (b) linear shunt regulator.

The voltage regulator is a part of power supply Shown figure illustrates with the help of a schematic block, the various
components in a DC regulated power supply.

220V
Rectifier Filter Voltage
AC Load
Circuit Circuit Regulation
Supply
 Series Regulator

Vin Control Vout

Circuit
Sampling
Circuit
Refernce Error
Voltage Detector

Fig. Basic Series Regulator

The control circuit is in series with the load between the input and output. The sampling circuit
determines if a change in output voltage has taken place. The Error detector (Comparator)
compares the output of the sampling circuit with a reference voltage source and sends a signal
to the control circuit to compensate for any change in output voltage.
 Series Regulator

Vin Q IL Vout

R RL

Fig. Simple Series Regulator

The Zener diode provides the reference voltage, and the n-p-n transistor Q is the series control transistor. The voltage
regulator operates as follows.
(a) If the voltage output increases from its nominal value, the base-to-emitter voltage of Q decreases. A decrease in the
base-emitter voltage means that the transistor conducts less. This tends to reduce the output voltage thus keeping the
output voltage constant.
(b) Alternatively, if the voltage output decreases from its nominal value, the base to emitter voltage of increases. An
increase in the base-emitter voltage means that the transistor conducts more. This tends to increase the output voltage
- thereby keeping the voltage output.
 Series Regulator

Vin Q Vout
R
R1 The output voltage is given by
𝑅
EZ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑧 1 + 𝑅1
2

Z
R2

Fig. OP-amp Series Regulator

In above Fig. the circuit of an OP AMP series pass regulator is displayed.

The operational amplifier compares the feedback voltage obtained from point a (the junction of the sensing resistors R1
and R2) with the reference voltage source Ez of the Zener diode.
If the output voltage changes, the series pass element Q is controlled in such a direction so as to maintain the output
voltage constant.
If the output voltage increases, for example, the voltage at point 'a' increases,. the OP AMP output changes such that the
transistor conducts less. This tends to reduce the output voltage, thus maintaining the output voltage constant. Similarly, if
the output voltage decreases, the series pass element conducts more so as to maintain the output voltage constant.
 Shunt Regulator
Vo ut
Vin

Control Error Sampling

Circuit Detector Circuit

Refernce
Voltage

Fig. Basic Series Regulator

In the shunt regulator circuit, the control element (transistor) is in shunt (parallel) with the load.

The input voltage provides current to the output load circuit. Some of the input current is drawn by the control element in shunt so
as to maintain a constant output volage across the load.

If the output voltage Vout tends to decrease, for example, the sampling circuit provides a feedback signal to the error detector
circuit, The error detector circuit, in turn, provides an output signal to the control element so as to draw less shunt current,
implying more load current, thereby keeping the regulated voltage from falling.

Similarly, if the output voltage tends to increase. the output of the error detector is such that the control element draws more shunt
current, decreasing the load current, and prevents the regulated voltage from rising.
 Shunt Regulator

Vin
IS RS IC IL Vout
Z
Q

Fig. Simple Shunt Regulator

Voltage drop across RS is dependent on IL. The voltage Vout is in this case by the Zener diode Voltage (VZ) and base to emitter
voltage VBE of transistor Q. Thus
Vout = VZ + VBE
If the value of RL increases, an increased current to the base of Q, flows. The transistor draws more collector current. The load
current is thus smaller. thereby maintaining the regulated voltage across the load. If the value of RL decreases, the transistor draws
less collector current so as to keep the output voltage constant.
 Shunt Regulator

Error RS Control IL
R Detector Element
R1
Q RL

Z
R2

Fig. OP-amp Shunt Regulator

A shunt voltage regulator using an OP AMP is shown in above fig. The Zener voltage Vz is compared to the feedback voltage
obtained from the voltage divider R1 and R2 to provide the control drive current to the shunt transistor Q.

The current through resistor RS is thus controlled so as to keep the output voltage constant.
 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The major advantage of switching regulator over linear regulator are as

1. The switching devices (power transistors, thyristor or MOSFETs) operate as switches. A switch is either ON or OFF.
Since the switches do not operate in the active region, power loss that would have occurred had they operated in the
active region is substantially reduced. This means a good energy efficiency (a value of the order of 75% to 95%) is
achieved. Besides the power handling capacity of a transistor is substantially higher in the switching (ON/OFF) mode
compared to the linear mode.

2. The second important point in switching mode power supplies are that high frequency isolation transformer is needed.
Thus, the size and weight of the transformer is much smaller compared to 50 Hz/60 Hz transformer.

3. One disadvantage of the switching mode power supplies is that proper steps arc to be taken to prevent electromagnetic
interference. An EMI filter may be used to prevent the conducted EMI.

Switch Mode Power Supply can be employed by 2 methods:

A. SMPS using DC/DC converter.

B. SMPS using Resonant type converter
 (SMPS) Using DC/DC Converter

Voltage
220V
EMI Rectifier Filter Regulation
AC Load
Filter Circuit Circuit (DC/DC
Supply
Converter)

Fig. Schematics for switching mode power supply

The SMPS DC/DC converters are discussed

1. Flyback Converter
2. Forward Converter
3. Push-Pull Converter
 Flyback Converter
➢ A flyback converter is a type of isolated DC-DC converter that uses a transformer to provide electrical isolation between the
input and output. It is widely used in low to moderate power applications and is known for its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
The name "flyback" is derived from the way the energy is stored and released during the operation of the converter.

N1 : N2 t on t off
VLm

V0 ILm
VLm VP
Vin VS

Sw
IC
ID − I0
−I0
t on + t off = T D=
ton
= Duty Cycle ID
T
t on = DT t off = (1 − D)T Iin
Assumed to be working in continuous DT T t
conduction mode (CCM)
 N1 : N2
Vp = Vin = VLm (By KVL)
ILm IP IC I0 di
Iin VLm = Lm dtLm = Vin = VP
on
V0
VLm VP VS ILm = VLm Lon
t
increasing linearly with time
Vin m

IS
Isw
Sw dΦ1
VP = dt = Vin
on

Φ1 = VP t on = Vin t on increasing linearly with time

Switch (Sw) is ON Diode D is OFF
0 < t < DT
VP N1
IC = −I0
= (turns ratio)
VS N2 ID = 0
N
VP = N1 VS Iin = ILm + IP (KCL)
2
 N1 : N 2 N
VS = −V0 = − N2 VP (By KVL on secondary)
1

ILm IP ID IC I0 N
VS = −V0 = − N2 VLm
1
V0 N1
VLm VP VS VLm = −V0
N2
Vin t
ILm = VLm Loff = −(V0 N1) Loff
N t
decreasing linearly with time
IS m 2 m

Sw
IC = ID − I0
N1
ID = IS = IP
N2

Switch (Sw) is OFF Diode D is ON N1 toff

ILm = IP = −(V0 )
𝐷𝑇 < t < T N2 Lm
2 t
VLm = VP (By KVL) ID = −
N1 off
V0 decreasing linearly with time
N2 Lm
diLm
VLm = Lm = VP
dt
➢ Average output voltage (V0)
By Volt-Sec balance
‫ ׬‬VLm dt = 0
N1
Vin t on + −V0 t off = 0
N2

Vin DT + −V0
N1
1−D T=0 ➢ Ripple in inductor current
N2
ΔiLm
N D Lm = Vin
V0 = Vin N2 (Isolated Buck-Boost) DT
1 1−D
𝐷Vin
Polarity of output is same as input. ΔiLm = 𝑓𝐿𝑚
N
Gain of the converter can be increased by term N2.
1

IL
By Ampere-Sec balance on Capacitor C ΔIL
IL avg
‫ 𝐶𝐼 ׬‬dt = 0
t
−𝐼0 𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼0 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0
−𝐼0 𝐷𝑇 + 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼0 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 0
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐷 (1 − 𝐷)
 Applications
1. Power Supplies for Consumer Electronics:
• LED Drivers: Flyback converters are often used in LED drivers for backlighting in LCD TVs, computer monitors, and other
display devices.
• Chargers: Flyback converters are employed in battery chargers for various electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, and
laptops.
2. Isolated Power Supplies:
• Low-Power Isolation: Flyback converters are suitable for providing isolated low-power outputs, making them useful in
applications where galvanic isolation is required, such as in medical devices, industrial sensors, and communication systems.
3. Auxiliary Power Supplies:
• Standby Power Supplies: Flyback converters are commonly used in standby power supplies for electronic devices, ensuring a
continuous and efficient power source even when the main power is off.
4. Power over Ethernet (PoE) Applications:
• PoE Injectors: Flyback converters are employed in PoE injectors to deliver power and data over Ethernet cables, allowing for
the simultaneous transmission of power and information in applications like IP cameras, wireless access points, and network
switches.
5. Renewable Energy Systems:
• Solar Inverters: Flyback converters can be used in solar inverters to convert the DC power generated by solar panels into AC
power for use in residential or commercial electrical systems.
 Applications
6. Medical Devices:
• Patient Monitoring Systems: Flyback converters are used in power supplies for various medical devices, including patient
monitoring systems and diagnostic equipment.
7. Automotive Electronics:
• LED Lighting Systems: Flyback converters find applications in automotive LED lighting systems, providing efficient power
conversion for headlights, taillights, and interior lighting.
8. HVAC Systems:
• Thermostats and Controls: Flyback converters can be employed in power supplies for HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) control systems, ensuring reliable and efficient operation.
9. Industrial Automation:
• Sensors and Actuators: Flyback converters are used in industrial automation applications to power sensors, actuators, and other
electronic components.
10. Power Factor Correction (PFC):
• PFC Boost Converter: Flyback converters can be part of a power factor correction circuit, helping to improve the power factor
of a system and comply with regulatory standards.
 Forward Converter
The forward converter is a kind of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) that is based on transformers. It is frequently utilized
in many different electrical applications and is intended to convert power from a DC input to a DC output.

Forward converter is isolated buck converter, which works in discontinuous mode, where auxiliary winding is connected in
series with primary winding, to make current zero or demagnetise the core during off time.

D3
V3
IL1
D1 L1 ILm
V0
Lm V1 V2 D2 C
Vin I1 Iin

Sw
I3
t on + t off = T VD2
ton
D= T Vsw
t on = DT
DT t0 T t
t off = (1 − D)T
Transformer Equations
V1 N1
= (turns ratio)
V2 N2
N2
V2 = V1
N1

N1 = no of turns on primary side

V1 N1
= N2 = no of turns on Secondary side
V3 N3
N3
V3 = V1 N3 = no of turns on Auxiliary winding
N1

N1
I2 = I
N2 1
N1
I3 = I
N3 1
 VD3 I3
di
V3 VL1 = L1 dtL1 = V2 − V0 (By KVL on secondary side)
IL1 on

Iin D1 VL1 IC I0 N2
ILm I1 I2 VL1 = Vin − V0
N1
D2 V0
VLm V1 V2 C
Vin

Sw IC = IL1 − I0 (By KCL on secondary side)

N2 ton
IL1 = Vin − V0 (Increasing linearly with time)
N1 L1
Mode 1
IL1 = I2 = ID1
Switch (Sw) is ON Diode D is OFF
ID2 = ID3 = 0
0 < t < t on

V1 = Vin = VLm (By KVL on primary side

di Iin = ILm + I1 (By KCL on primary side)
VLm = Lm dtLm = Vin = VP
on t
ILm = Vin Lon (Increasing linearly with time)
VD3 = −(Vin + V3 ) (By KVL on primary side) m

Diode D3 is reversed biased.

 VD3 I3

V3
IL1
Iin D1 VL1 IC I0
ILm I1 I2
D2 V0
VLm V1 V2 C
Vin
IC = IL1 − I0 (By KCL on secondary side)
Sw
t
IL1 = −V0 Loff Decreasing linearly with time
m

Mode 2
Switch (Sw) is OFF Diode D is ON
t on < t < T t t
ILm = −I1 = VLm Loff = V1 Loff
m m

t N1 t
VLm = V1 (By KVL on primary side) ILm = V1 Loff = V3 Loff
m N3 m
di N1 toff
VLm = Lm dtLm = VP ILm = − Vin (Decreasing linearly with time)
off N3 Lm
V3 = − Vin (By KVL on primary side)
VL1 = −V0 (By KVL on secondary side)
 ➢ Ripple in inductor current (IL1)
ΔiLm N
L1 = N2 Vin − V0
DT 1

𝐷 N
ΔiL1 = 𝑓𝐿 (N2 Vin − V0 )
➢ Average output voltage (V0) 1 1

By Volt-Sec balance on L1
‫ ׬‬V1 dt = 0 IL
ΔIL
N2
Vin − V0 t on + −V0 t off = 0
IL avg
N1
t
N2
Vin − V0 DT + −V0 1−D T=0
N1
N2
V0 = Vin 𝐷 (isolated buck converter) ➢ Ripple in output voltage
N1
N can be calculated same as Buck converter because secondary
Gain of the converter can be decreased by term N2.
1 side circuit is as same as buck converter
𝛥𝑉𝐶 = 𝛥𝐼𝐿ൗ8𝑓𝐶
(NN2 Vin − V0)𝐷
𝛥𝑉𝐶 = 1 ൘
8𝐿1 𝐶𝑓2
 Applications
1. Power Supplies: Forward converters are widely used in power supplies for various electronic devices, including computers,
televisions, audio equipment, and industrial machinery. They provide stable and regulated output voltages necessary for proper
operation of these devices.
2. Telecommunications: Forward converters are used in telecommunications equipment such as base stations, routers, and
switches. These applications often require high power levels and strict voltage regulation, making forward converters an ideal
choice due to their efficiency and reliability.
3. Industrial Applications: Forward converters are used in industrial equipment such as motor drives, automation systems,
and control systems. They provide the necessary power conversion with high efficiency, which is crucial for industrial
applications where energy efficiency and reliability are paramount.
4. Renewable Energy Systems: Forward converters are utilized in renewable energy systems such as solar inverters and wind
turbine converters. They play a crucial role in converting the variable DC output from renewable energy sources into stable AC
power for grid connection or local consumption.
5. Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Forward converters are employed in the power
electronics systems of electric and hybrid vehicles for efficient conversion and management of power between the battery,
motor, and other components of the vehicle.
 Applications
6. Medical Equipment: Forward converters are used in various medical devices such as MRI machines, CT scanners, and
ultrasound equipment, where reliable and efficient power conversion is essential for accurate and uninterrupted operation.
7. Aerospace and Defence: Forward converters find applications in aerospace and defense systems such as radar systems,
avionics, and missile guidance systems, where they provide high-efficiency power conversion in harsh environmental
conditions.
8. Data Centres: Forward converters are used in power distribution units (PDUs) and uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS) in data centres to efficiently manage and distribute power to servers and networking equipment while ensuring high
reliability and minimal energy losses.
9. LED Lighting: Forward converters are employed in LED lighting systems for converting AC mains power to the DC
voltage required to drive LEDs efficiently. They provide power factor correction and efficient voltage regulation,
improving the overall performance and longevity of LED lighting fixtures.
10.Consumer Electronics: Forward converters are used in various consumer electronic devices such as TVs, gaming
consoles, and home appliances, where they provide efficient power conversion for reliable operation and energy savings.
 Push-Pull Converter
A push-pull converter is another type of switching power supply topology commonly used for voltage conversion and power
regulation. It operates by alternately driving two active switches to control the energy flow from the input to the output.
Same as forward converter an additional switch is provided and is replace with diode on the primary side. Special type of
transformer is used i.e., center tap on both the sides. Operates in 3 modes.
DT DT DT DT
S1 S2 S1 S2
N1 : N 2 Vx
T/2 T
D1 L Φ
V1 V2
VP2 VS1 V0
C P1 P2
IL

ID1 IL IL IL IL IL
VP1 VS2
Vin 2 2 2
ID2
S2 S1 D2
VS1 Vin
2Vin
T t
T/2
➢ Transformer Equations Vp1 N1ൗ
2
= N2ൗ (turns ratio)
VS1 2
No of turns in primary winding P1 is equal to No of
turns in primary winding P2 i.e., center tap on primary N
VS1 = N2 VP1
1
side.
N1ൗ
VP2 2
𝑁1 =
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = VS2 N2ൗ
2
2
N
VS2 = N2 VP2
1
No of turns in Secondary winding S1 is equal to No of
turns in Secondary winding S2 i.e., center tap on
N
primary side. IS1 = N1 IP1
2
𝑁2
𝑆1 = 𝑆2 = N
2 IS2 = N1 IP2
3
 N1 : N 2 IL
Vx is the node voltage,
IS1 D1 V L IC I 0
Vx Vx = VS1 (By KVL on secondary side)
VP2 VS1 V0 VL = Vx − V0
C (By KVL on secondary side)
IP1 VL = VS1 − V0
Iin N2
VL = VP1 − V0
VP1 VS2 N1
Vin VL =
N2
Vin − V0
N1

S2 S1 D2 IC = IL − I0 (By KCL on secondary side)

N2 ton
IL = Vin − V0 (Increasing linearly with time)
N1 L
Mode 1 IL = IS1 = ID1
Switch (S1) is ON, Diode (D1) is ON
Iin = IP1 (By KCL on primary side)
Switch (S2) is OFF, Diode (D2) is OFF
N
IS1 = N1 IP1
2
VP1 = Vin (By KVL on primary side) N
Iin = N2 IS1
di 1
VP1 = LP dtP1 = Vin
on N2 N2 ton
Iin = N1 N1
Vin − V0 L1
(Increasing linearly with time)
 N1 : N 2 IL Vx is the node voltage,
IP2 IC Vx = VS2 (By KVL on secondary side)
D1 VL
Vx V0 VL = Vx − V0 (By KVL on secondary side)
VP2 VS1 C VL = VS2 − V0
N2
IS2 VL = VP2 − V0
N1
N2
VP1 VS2 VL = Vin − V0
Vin N1

I C = IL − I0 (By KCL on secondary side)

S2 S1 D2 N2 ton
IL = Vin − V0 (Increasing linearly with time)
N1 L

Mode 2 IL = IS2 = ID2

Switch (S2) is ON, Diode (D2) is ON Iin = IP2 (By KCL on primary side)
Switch (S1) is OFF, Diode (D1) is OFF N
IS2 = N1 IP2
2

N
VP2 = Vin (By KVL on primary side) Iin = N2 IS2
1

di
VP2 = LP dtP2 = Vin Iin =
N2 N2
Vin − V0
ton
(Increasing linearly with time)
on N1 N1 L1
 N1 : N 2 IL
IS1 D1 V L IC I 0
Vx V0
VP2 VS1 C
IS2
VP1 VS2
Vin
S2 S1 D2
Mode 3
Switch (S2) is OFF, Diode (D2) is ON
𝑉𝑆1 + 𝑉𝑆2 = 0 (By KVL on secondary side)
Switch (S1) is OFF, Diode (D1) is ON
𝑉𝑆1 = −𝑉𝑆2
Vx = VS1 + VS2 (By KVL on secondary side)
ID1 = ID2 (By KCL on secondary side) Vx = 0
IL
ID1 = ID2 = VL = −V0 (By KVL on secondary side)
2
 ➢ Ripple in inductor current (IL1)
➢ Average output voltage (V0)
ΔiLm N
L1 = N2 VP1 − V0
By Volt-Sec balance on L DT 1

𝐷 N2
‫ ׬‬V1 dt = 0 ΔiL1 = 𝑓𝐿 Vin − V0
1 N1
N2
Vin − V0 t on + −V0 t off = 0
N1
N2 IL
N1
Vin − V0 DT + −V0 1−D T=0 ΔIL
IL avg
N2
V0 = Vin 𝐷 t
N1

But the frequency of Inductor (L) is double of

Switching frequency.
➢ Ripple in output voltage
Therefore, effective Duty ratio of VL is given by,
can be calculated same as Buck converter because secondary
DT
Duty cycle VL = TΤ = 2D side circuit is as same as buck converter.
2

𝐍 ΔVC = ΔILൗ8(2f)C
𝐕𝟎 = 𝐕𝐢𝐧 𝐍𝟐 𝟐 𝑫
𝟏 N2
Vin − V0 𝐷
ΔVC = N1 ൘
8L1 C(2f2 )
 Applications
Power Supplies: Push-pull converters are widely used in power supply applications, particularly in
situations where high efficiency and galvanic isolation are required. They are often employed in
applications such as telecommunications equipment, industrial machinery, and consumer electronics.
LED Lighting: With the increasing use of LED lighting due to its energy efficiency and longevity, push-
pull converters find applications in LED drivers. These converters efficiently step-down voltage while
providing the necessary current regulation for driving LED arrays.
Renewable Energy Systems: Push-pull converters are utilized in renewable energy systems such as
solar and wind power inverters. These converters efficiently convert the DC power generated by solar
panels or wind turbines into AC power suitable for use in homes or the grid.
Battery Charging: Push-pull converters can be employed in battery charging systems, providing
efficient voltage regulation and current control for charging various types of batteries, including lead-
acid, lithium-ion, and nickel-metal hydride batteries.
Motor Drives: Push-pull converters are utilized in motor drive applications for controlling the speed and
direction of motors. These converters efficiently convert DC power to AC power, allowing precise control
over motor operation.
 Applications
Automotive Electronics: Push-pull converters find applications in automotive electronics, such as
inverter systems for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), as well as in onboard
battery charging systems.
Telecommunications: Push-pull converters are commonly used in telecommunications infrastructure for
power supply and voltage regulation in networking equipment, base stations, and communication systems.
Medical Devices: Push-pull converters are employed in various medical devices, including patient
monitoring systems, diagnostic equipment, and imaging devices, where efficient and reliable power
conversion is essential.
Industrial Automation: Push-pull converters are utilized in industrial automation systems for powering
control circuits, sensors, actuators, and other components requiring stable and efficient power supplies.
Military and Aerospace: Push-pull converters are used in military and aerospace applications for
powering avionics, communication systems, radar systems, and other critical electronic equipment, where
reliability and efficiency are paramount.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Uninterrupted Power Supply:

Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a type of power supply system that provide interrupts ( Power outage, power blackout,
Brownout, surge, spike, sag ) free power supply to the load. An Uninterruptible Power Supply system generally offers multiple
outlets, allowing to maintain battery back-up power to more than one device and will also include additional outlets for surge
protection.

Important Interrupts
i. Surges:- Oversupply of voltage from the electrical supply voltage (or current or both) for a very short period (less than a
second) from power grids.
ii. Spike:- Electrical spike is increase in the electrical supply voltage (or current or both) for a very short period (less than a
second),. Another name for an electrical spike is an electrical surge.
iii. Power outage:- (also called a power cut, a power blackout, power failure or a Brownout) is a short-term or a long-term
loss of the electric power to a particular area. There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network. Blackouts
is due caused by bad weather. Brownouts is due to an overloaded power grid.
iv. Voltage Sag:- A voltage sag is a short duration reduction in R.M.S. voltage which can be caused by a short circuit,
overload or starting of electric motors
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

There are two types of UPS

i. Offline UPS
ii. Online UPS

1. Offline UPS:
Offline UPS are those UPS which passes the AC Mains Supply directly to the output load if the AC Mains Supply is present.
Only in the case of power failure, it switches to inverter within few milliseconds to give power to load until mains supply
returns. The offline UPS is also called as standby Uninterruptible Power.

a) EMI Filter: It is made using inductors and capacitor. The main function of this EMI filter circuit is to reduce or filter the
electromagnetic interferences.
b) Rectifier Circuit: The rectifier circuit is used to convert AC to DC. As the UPS has the battery inside it, and the battery can
store only DC that is why we need to convert input AC supply into DC.
c) DC Filter Circuit: The DC filter circuit is used to filter the impure DC comes from the rectifier circuit. The DC output from
the rectifier has some AC component. So, the filter circuit is used to remove those AC components from the DC supply.
d) Battery: The battery is connected with the output of the DC filter circuit. When the UPS is connected to the power supply
the battery will charge.
 Offline (UPS)

Static
AC EMI Rectifier DC
Switch
Supply Filter Circuit Filter
1

Usually ON

Battery load

Usually OFF
Voltage
Static
Regulation AC
Inverter Switch
(DC/DC Filter
2
Converter)

Fig. Schematics for Offline UPS

 Offline (UPS)

e) DC/DC Converter: Step-up or step-down dc voltage according to Load requirement.

f) Inverter: Now we have DC supply but, we need AC supply as output to drive the load. So, the inverter circuit is used to
convert the DC to AC. The inverter Circuit is made high-speed solid-state switches such as MOSFET, SCR, etc. If your
load required DC supply, then the Inverter Circuit is not required.
g) AC Filter Circuit: The AC filter circuit is used to filter the impure AC coming from the inverter circuit.
h) Static Switch: A static switch 2 is connected between the AC filter Circuit and the Critical Load. Which allow or disallow
the power flow from the UPS to load according to the given condition. Another static switch 1 is connected between the
critical load and the main power supply after the EMI filter Supply. This switch allows or disallows the power flow from
the main supply to the load.

Working
In the case of Offline UPS, the upper static switch 1 is normally ON, and lower static switch 2 is normally OFF.
So, in normal condition, the power directly flows from the main supply to the load. At the same time, the battery will charge.
When the main power supply is not available, the upper static switch1 will be OFF, and the lower static switch 2 will be ON.
So, the load takes power from the battery.
This kind of UPS system offers a small size, high degree of efficiency, & pretty low costs, making of this UPS is easy
 Offline (UPS)

Advantages of Off-Line UPS:

i. Offline UPS has high efficiencies, since charger is not continuously on.
ii. The power handling capacity of charger is reduced.
iii. Cost of Offline UPS is low..
iv. Internal control is simpler in offline UPS.
v. Operation of Off-Line UPS is Silent when in standby mode.

Disadvantages of Off-Line UPS:

i. Since offline UPS provides mains supply when it is present, the output contains voltage spikes, brownouts, blackouts.
ii. There is finite transfer time from mains to inverter when mains supply fails.
iii. Output of offline Uninterruptible Power Supply is not perfectly reliable.
iv. Minimal power protection - only protects against a small percentage of problems.
v. Output voltage regulation is poor- sags and surges will be passed straight to the load.

Applications of Off-Line UPS:

i. Off-Line UPS are used in Computers, printers, scanners etc.
ii. Off-Line UPS are used in Emergency power supplies, EPABX (Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange).
 Online (UPS)

Static
AC EMI Rectifier DC
Switch
Supply Filter Circuit Filter
1

Usually OFF

Battery load

Usually ON
Voltage
Static
Regulation AC
Inverter Switch
(DC/DC Filter
2
Converter)

Fig. Schematics for Online UPS

 Online (UPS)
1. Online UPS:
On-Line UPS are those UPS which supplies power to load via the inverter Even if the mains supply fails, there is no
interruption to the output load at all and always charges battery from incoming AC mains supply.
In this UPS, the total load power flow through both the inverter and the battery charger, resulting in reduced efficiency with
its associated increased heat generation.

a) EMI Filter: It is made using inductors and capacitor. The main function of this EMI filter circuit is to reduce or filter the
electromagnetic interferences.
b) Rectifier Circuit: The rectifier circuit is used to convert AC to DC. As the UPS has the battery inside it, and the battery
can store only DC that is why we need to convert input AC supply into DC.
c) DC Filter Circuit: The DC filter circuit is used to filter the impure DC comes from the rectifier circuit. The DC output
from the rectifier has some AC component. So, the filter circuit is used to remove those AC components from the DC
supply.
d) Battery: The battery is connected with the output of the DC filter circuit. When the UPS is connected to the power
supply the battery will charge.
e) DC/DC Converter: Step-up or step-down dc voltage according to Load requirement.
f) Inverter: Now we have DC supply but, we need AC supply as output to drive the load. So, the inverter circuit is used to
convert the DC to AC. The inverter Circuit is made high-speed solid-state switches such as MOSFET, SCR, etc. If your
load required DC supply, then the Inverter Circuit is not required.
 Online (UPS)

g) AC Filter Circuit: The AC filter circuit is used to filter the impure AC coming from the inverter circuit.
h) Static Switch: A static switch 2 is connected between the AC filter Circuit and the Critical Load. Which allow or
disallow the power flow from the UPS to load according to the given condition. Another static switch 1 is
connected between the critical load and the main power supply after the EMI filter Supply. This switch allows or
disallows the power flow from the main supply to the load.

Working
In the case of Online UPS, the lower static switch 2 is normally ON, and the upper static 1 is normally OFF. So, in
normal condition the power flow from the main supply to the load through the total UPS circuitry. When the main
power supply is not available, then the load takes power from the battery. If the UPS is unable to deliver power to the
load, then the upper static switch 1 will be ON and the lower Switch 2 will be OFF. So, in this case, the power will
directly flow from the main supply to the load.

Online UPSs provide full protection from major power problems, such as surges, spikes, sags, blackouts and
brownouts.
 Online (UPS)

Advantages of Online UPS:

i. It provides isolation between main supply and load.
ii. Since inverter is always ON, the quality of load voltage is free from distortion.
iii. All the disturbances of supply such as blackout, brownouts, spikes etc, are absent in the output.
iv. Voltage regulation of On-Line UPS is better.
v. Transfer time is practically zero since inverter is always ON.

Disadvantages of Online UPS:

i. Overall efficiency of UPS is reduced since inverter is always ON.
ii. The wattage of the rectifier is increased since it has to supply power to inverter as well as charge battery.
iii. Online UPS is costlier than other Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems.

Applications of Online UPS:

i. Online UPS are used in Induction motor drives and similar other motor control applications.
ii. Online UPS are used in Intensive care units, medical equipment's.
iii. Online UPS are used in Computers, Data Centre's, Server rooms, Search Data Centre.
iv. Online UPS are used in Network Operation Centre.
v. Online UPS are used in Process Industries.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Table. Comparison between Online and Offline UPS

Sr. Parameter Online UPS Offline UPS

No
1 Inverter Always ON Turned On when AC supply is not
available
2 Rectifier/Charger Supplies power to inverter and Charges only Battery
charges battery
3 Output Waveform Sine wave Quasi Square wave
4 Harmonic Distortion Low High
5 Efficiency Low High
6 Load Isolated from supply Not isolated from supply
7 Cost High Low