IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)

ANCIENT INDIA
PREHISTORIC PERIOD--> It is consisting of 5 period – Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic,
Chalcolithic & Iron Age.
• LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AGE [700,000 BC – 100,000 BC] (Homoeractus)
• Middle paleolithic age [100,000 BC- 40,000BC] (Neanderthal)
• UPPER PALAEOLITHIC AGE [40,000 BC – 10,000 BC] (Homo sapiens)
◦ More refine and light tools. These were backed blades with two cutting edges.
◦ Hunsgi, Hathnora, Suregaon,Renigunta, Bardia, Belan Valley in UP, Kurnool (BBKHHRS)
• MESOLITHIC AGE [10,000 BC – 8000 BC]
◦ First people to use bow and arrow
◦ Microlith tools i.e., tools made of micro-sized stones and were very refined.
◦ Bhimbetaka, Sarai Nahar Rai, Adamgarh etc. (ABS)
• NEOLITHIC AGE [8000 BC – 4000 BC]
◦ 4 functions---> Agriculture, domestication of animals, Manufacturing of pottery,

Polishing of tools
◦ Mehargarh (Pakistan), Burzaom, Maski, Chirand, Brahmagiri, Deojali Hading, Koldihwa,

Sarutaru, Napchik, Piklihal. (MBMCD)

• CHALCOLITHIC AGE [4000 BC – 1500 BC]--> Copper and stone tools
◦ Harappan civilization evolved out of the Chalcolithic Culture.
◦ Ahar, Banawali, Gilund, Jorwe, Savalda culture, Kalibangan, Eran (MP) etc. (ABGJSK)
◦ People were not aware of the art of writing during this period and no specimens

of the pictographic script have been found.

• Megalithic culture (Majorly in south India)-->Adichallannur, Paiyampalli, Kodumanal.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION)

1. Contemporary civilization--> Egypt(Nile), China(Huang ho), Mesopotamia(Tigris).
2. Northern-most site--> Manda (J&K), Southern-most site Daimabad (Maharashtra),

Eastern-most site à Alamgirpur (UP), Western-most site à Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran

border)
3. Afg site--> Shortugai
4. Majority of sites are found in Cholistan region (Ghaggar-Hakra river channel)
5. No site is found in Indus-jelum-chenab doab.
6. Indus Valley people were aware of gold but unaware of iron.
7. Tradition of burying the dead bodies in pits.
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8. Phases of IVC
a. Early Harappan Phasefrom 3300 to 2600 BCE--> Mehargarh
b. Mature Harappan Phasefrom 2600 to 1900 BCE--> Kalibangan
c. Late Harappan Phasefrom 1900 to 1300 BCE--> Lothal
9. Sites of IVC
a. Harappa (Ravi)--> Granaries, Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam and

Yoni, Painted pottery, Mother Goddess

i. Excavations: Mason, Alexander Cunningham, Daharam Sahani, Wheeler, GF Dales.
b. Mohenjodaro (Indus)--> Discovered by R D Banerjee in 1922. Largest site of IVC, Post

cremation burial, Great Granary, Great Bath, Pasupathi seal, Bronze dancing girl.
c. Chanhudaro (Indus)--> Only city without citadel, Terracotta model of bullock cart
d. Lothal (Bhogava)--> Dockyard, Granaries, Rice husk, Double burial (male female

together)
e. Kalibangan (Ghaggar)--> Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, 2phases (Pre and
Proto)
f. Surkotada--> Only site with horse remains
g. Dholavira (Luni)--> Only site divided in 3 parts, Stones were used rather than bricks
h. Rakhigarhi (Ghaggar): Largest Indian site of IVC--> Necropolis (Cemetary)
i. Daimabad (Pravara): Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and

rhinoceros)
j. Banawali--> Main streets were winding rather than straight.
10. Imp features
a. TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES
i. The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
ii. Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar
iii. The city was divided in two parts, the city on raised platform, Known as Upper
citadel & the lower town known as lower citadel (working class quarters)
iv. Banawali--> Main streets were winding rather than straight.
b. WATER MANAGEMENT
i. Large number of stepwells, dams
ii. Underground wastewater drainage system which was covered with stone slabs and

equiped with manhole6

c. ECONOMY
i. Trade importance supported by Granaries, seals and regulated weights and

measures.

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ii. The Cuneiform Inscriptions--> Sumerian texts refer trade relation with Meluha ie.

ancient name given to Indus region & mentions 2 intermediate trading stations-
Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
iii. IMPORT: Gold (Afg), Silver, Copper (Ganeshwar), Tin, Jade, Steatite(RJ), Lapiz Lazuli

(Shortughai)
iv. EXPORTS: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, bead from

Chanhudaro, counch-shell from Lothal, ivory products, copper.

v. AGRICULTURE--> Main crops: Two types of Wheat and Barley.
1. Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal
2. First to produce cotton in the world so Greeks called them Sindon.
3. Used animal drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles.
d. RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
i. Chief Male deity--> Pashupati seal (rhino, elephant, tiger, deer, buffalo)
ii. Chief female deity was mother Goddess. They also worshiped fire.
iii. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees (ex: pipal) and animals

(unicorn, humped bull etc).

iv. Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and therefore, they used amulets

against them.
e. SCRIPT--> Pictographic script and boustrophedon
f. POTTERY--> Painted Black Ware, Most of the potteries are wheel-made. Types-->

Glazed, Polychrome, perforated

g. SEALS--> Most of the seals are square plaque. Every seal has pictographic
engravings.
i. Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes as amulets, as form of

identification, for educational purposes as well.

h. Ornaments--> Made of a large variety of materials like precious metals, gemstones,
bones
i. Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic lipstick.
i. ART
i. BRONZE CASTING: Bronze dancing girl (Mohenjodaro), Bronze bull (Kalibanagan)--

> ‘lost wax’ technique or Cire Perdue.

ii. STONE STATUES: Bearded man (Mohenjodaro)--> Steatite, Nude male torso

(Harappa)--> Red sandstone

iii. TERRACOTTA FIGURES--> Mother Goddess
11. DECLINE

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a. Possible reasons – declined soil fertility, depression in land, Aryans invasion, decline of

trade, Floods, Earthquake etc.

b. Most acceptable reason is ecological imbalance.

HISTORY OF THE VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic period is divided into Early Vedic or Rigvedic (1500 BC-1000 BC) & Later Vedic
(1000 BC- 600 BC)
Theories of origin of Aryans--> Max Muller--> Central Asia, Lokmanya Tilak--> Arctic,
Dayanand Sarswati--> Tibet, Dr. Sampurnanad--> Indigeneous
Boghuz koi inscription--> Treaty between Hittite and Mittani kings in presence of vedic
gods.
Kassite inscriptions (1600 BC) and Mitanni inscriptions (1400 BC) of Iraq-Syria suggest
that a branch of Aryans moved from Iran towards the west in Iraq.
Features of Aryan culture--> Horse and chariot, Animal sacrifice, fire cult, soma cult
(majuvant), cremation, male dominance.

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Compon
Rig vedic phase Later vedic phase
ents

GEOGR region of Saptsindhu rivers--> present

major portion of the Gangetic valley
APHY day Afg, Punjab and Haryana.

Kul--> Gram--> Vis--> Jan

Janas’ evolved to become
Janas’ were headed by a ‘Rajana’ who
‘Janapadas’
was assisted by Purohit, Gramani and
Frequent battles among these
Senani and popular bodies like ‘Sabha’,
‘janapadas’ were fought for territory.
‘Samiti’, ‘Vidhata’.
Rajana’ started various sacrifices like
Sabha--> Assembly of elders/elites,
‘Rajsuya’ (coronation), ‘Ashwamedh’
POLITIC Samiti--> Assembly of people, Vidhat--
(to become ruler of all directions i.e.
AL > Assembly of tribe
‘Chakravarti’) and ‘Vajpeya’ (Chariot
SYSTEM Vidhata was the oldest (Advisory
race within kingdom).
body of men and women)
Dependence on ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’
‘Gaun’ was the place where cattle were
reduced. Women were not allowed to
kept
attend these assemblies. Vidhata
‘Rajana’ had no standing army and
completely disappeared.
bureaucracy was absent.
Battles for territory
Battle for cattles

• Non-aryans were called ‘Dasas’ Visible 4-fold varna system

and ‘Dasyus’. Aryans were soft Untouchability appeared; women’s
towards Dasa & hostile towards position degraded.
Dasyus. Nishad, Chandala and Shabar were
• It was an egalitarian society, the untouchables mentioned.
social differentiats were not sharp. Women like Gargi and Maitreyi
SOCIETY
• Child Marriage and Sati were accomplished in the knowledge
absent and a special widow- arena.
remarriage, called ‘Niyoga’ Sati and Child Marriage were still
(levirate), was prevalent. largely absent.
• Ghosha,Apala, Lopamudra were Institituion of Gotra & practice of
female sages of the time gotra exogamy appeared.

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Rigvedic society was pastoral & Agriculture of multiple crops (Wheat,
Agriculture was secondary Barley, Rice, Beans)
occupation. Cattle was main form of Iron (krishna/shyama ayas) was
the wealth. discovered and use of fire for clearing
‘Bali’ was voluntary gift from forest for cultivation increased.
producers to the ‘Rajana’. Surplus produce led to Bali and Bhaga
Gold coin ‘niska’ finds mention but (1/6th or 1/12th).
ECONO
has more ornamental value than Treasurer was called ‘Samgrahitri’ and
MY
currency. Iron was not known to ‘Bhagdukha’ collected the taxes and
them. Vaishya were only taxpayers.
Pottery type--> Ochre coloured Satmana and Krishnala were coins.
pottery, Wealthy person--> Gomat, Pottery type--> Painted Grey ware, No
Search of cows--> Gavisthi evidence of coins has been found, and
Barley--> Yavam, Wheat--> therefore, barter must have been the
Godhuma, Rice--> Vrihi medium of exchange.

Rig Vedic hymns (‘sukti’) are Prajapati--> Creator, Vishnu-->

praises for Gods and Goddesses and Protector, Rudra--> Destroyer
Religiou
the deity is anthropomorphic i.e. in • Rituals, sacrifices and
s
human form. Idol worship was not requirement of supervising
practice
practiced. priest (Purohita) made religious
s
Important gods were Indra, Varuna, life complex. Pushan was god of
Agni, Yama and Soma. shudras.

Vedic literature
1. SHRUTI literature--> The four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads
a. RIG VEDA--> It is a collection of hymns and prayers dedicated to various deities and

natural forces such as Agni, Indra, Mitra, and Varuna

b. SAM VEDA--> Earliest book on music (Sama = Melody; ragas & raginis)
c. YAJUR VEDA--> Sacrifices and rituals, composed both in prose and poetry.
d. ATHARVA VEDA--> Magic, omen, agriculture, industry/craft, cattle rearing, cure for
disease.
e. Brahmanas--> Attached to each vedas--> describe the rules for the performance of

sacrificial ceremonies and explain the hymns of the Vedas

f. Aranyakas-->Related to mysticism,philosophy and oppose sacrifice.
g. Upanishads--> Origin of universe and mysteries of nature

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i. Tattreya (atithi devo bhava), Mahapanishad (vasudhaiv kutumbakam), Mundaka Upanishad
(satyamev jayate)
2. SMRITI literature--> Vedanga (Limbs of vedas--> Comprehension of vedas), shad,
darshan, upveda, epics (MHBRT- Maharshi Vyas, R-Maharshi Valmiki)

AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS (600 BC – 400 BC)

1. Anguttara Nikaya and Mahavastu (Buddhist text) are the sources of information about

mahajanpadas.
2. 2nd phase of urbanisation--> Economic growth led to development of urban centers and
first use of coins is also reported from this period; they were called punch-marked
coins.
a. Large scale use of iron tools, spread of agriculture and North Black Polished
Pottery is also associated with this age.
3. Gana-Sanghas--> Kuru, Vajji, Malla, Panchal were republican states and had a

Ganparishad (assembly of seniors) as the supreme authority in the state.

4. 4 imp mahajanapadas
a. VATSA--> Kaushambi (Yamuna river)--> Udayan--> Annexed by Avanti
b. AVANTI--> Ujjaini (North) / Mahishmati (South)--> King Pradyota--> Annexed by

Magadh
c. KOSHALA--> Ayodhya--> King Prasenjit
d. MAGADHA--> Rajagriha / Girivraja
5. Rise of Magadha
a. REASONS OF THE RISE OF MAGADHA
i. Strategic geography (Rajgir and Patliputra), abundance of resources (iron, alluvial
soil of Gangetic plain).
ii. Meeting point of uttarpath and dakshinpath
iii. Greater use of elephants in wars.
iv. Service of competent, enterprising and ambitious rulers like Bimbisar and Ajatshatru

etc.
b. HARYANKA Dynastry
i. BIMBISARA (542-493 BC):Rajgriha--> Contemporary with both Buddha and

Mahavira
1. Matrimonial alliance with Koshala and Vajji and Aggression towards Anga
ii. AJATASHATRU (492 BC – 460 BC): Organised 1st buddhist council at Rajgriha.
1. Adopted expansionist policy & defeated Koshala and Vaishali.
2. Ajatshatru meeting with Buddha--> Barhut sculpture

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iii. Udayin (460 BC – 444 BC): Moved his capital to Patliputra
iv. The last ruler of Haryanka dynasty, Nagadasaka was over thrown by his Amatya.
c. SHISHUNAGAS
i. Kalashoka hosted the 2nd Buddhist Council in 383 BC at Vaishali.
d. NANDAS
i. Mahapadma Nanada, who was from a ‘shudra’ lineage, laid the foundation
ii. He was the first empire builder of India
iii. Puranas refer to him as “destroyer of all Kshatriyas” i.e., Sarvaksatrantaka and
Ekarat
iv. Hathigumpha inscription--> Conquest of Kalinga
v. Leaning towards Jainism.
vi. He was a contemporary of Alexander of Macedon.
vii. Dhanananda was the last of the Nanda rulers.
6. FOREIGN INVASIONS
a. PERSIAN INVASION IN INDIA
i. Cyrus (Founder of the Achaemenid empire)--> Darius--> Xerxes--> Darius III

(defeated by Alexander)
ii. Ashokan pillars and palaces and introduction of Kharosthi script are products of this

influence, Word for script used by Ashoka is Lipi came from Dipi (Iranian word).
b. ALEXANDER’S INVASION (327 BC – 325 BC)
i. Enter India through Khyabar pass.
ii. Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Takshashila, submitted to Alexander.
iii. Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Porus vs Alexander. Alexander, impressed by Porus’
resistance, reinstated him in power.
iv. Alexander’s army refused to cross river Beas to fight further and thus a clash

between the tired Macedonian mercenaries and the huge army of the Nandas did
not happen.
v. Impacts
1. Direct contact between Indian and Greece (Europe).
2. Greek influences on the Gandhara School of Art and Architecture.
3. New land & sea routes were discovered by Alexander--> Indo-Bactrian and

Parthian States in later Mauryan period

BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

1. 6th century BCE--> Rise of heterodox sects--> Heraclitus(Eoinia island), Socrates(Greece),

Confucious(China), Zoraster(Persia)

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2. CAUSE OF ORIGIN –
a. Religious factor
i. Complex rituals and sacrifices--> too expensive--> Not acceptable to the common

people.
ii. Highly philosophical teachings of Upanishads and Use of Sanskrit language --> not
easily understood by all.
b. Socio-Economic factor
i. Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class
ii. The growth of trade--> Improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas-->

They wanted to enhance their social status

iii. Money-lending was imperative for traders, which was prohibited in Vedas.
iv. Rise of agriculture raised demand for animals which were being sacrificed for

religious ceremonies.
c. Political factors--> Gansanghas--> Malla, Vajji--> Very heterodox and liberal
kingdom
3. GAUTAMA BUDDHA (563 BC-483 BC)
a. Belong to Sakya Clan
b. Father: Siddhodana, Mother: Mayadevi, spouse- Yashodhara, Son-Rahul
c. Kingdoms associated with Buddha are Kosala, Magadha, Vaishali, Rajgir.
d. Teachers: Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra
e. Birth Place (Elephant): Lumbini, capital of Sakya republic
f. Mahabhinishkarma (Horse) at the age of 29 in search of truth
g. Enlightenment (Peepal tree): At age of 35 under Pipal tree at Bodhgaya on banks of
river Niranjana (Falgu).
h. First Sermon: Sarnath on Dharma Chakra Parivarthana (Deer, wheel) to 5 disciples

including Mahakasyapa (first disciple).

i. Mahaparinirvana (Stupa): At Kushinagar at age of 80.
4. Teachings of Buddha
a. 3 JEWELS OF BUDDHISM (TRIRATNA)--> Buddha, Dhamma & Sangha.
b. World is transient or ‘Impermanence’ (anicca).
c. It is also soulless (anatta) with nothing permanent in it.
d. Rejected infalliability of vedas and was Agnostic towards existence of god
e. Believed in karma and transmigration (samsara) but rejects the idea of the eternal

atman (soul).
f. Buddhism believe in the theory of rebirth. According to Buddhism rebirth is governed
by the cumulative results of the karma of a particular life.

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g. Nirvana--> Extinction of desire
5. 4 NOBLE TRUTHS: ‘ARYA SATYAS’
a. World is full of misery
b. Desire is a root cause of sorrow
c. Desire can be conquered
d. Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga (VTSCLEMC)
i. Right view + Right Thought + Right speech + Right conduct + Right livelihood +
Right mindfulness + Right effort + Right concentration
6. PANCHASHIL
a. Code of conduct both for the monastic order--> Violence + Stealing + Sexual
misconduct + Lying + Taking intoxicating substances
7. BUDDHIST SANGHA AND ITS FEATURES:
a. The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents and diseased were not

allowed.
b. There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas which were prohibited.
c. Women were also allowed to join.
8. Buddhist schools
a. There are four principal Buddhist philosophical schools, which are the four pillars of

Buddhist doctrine.
i. Vaibhashikas: Believes that relative truth is that which can be broken down into

parts, whereas ultimate truth is indivisible.

ii. Sautrantikas: Accept the selflessness of persons but not the selflessness of
phenomena.
iii. Cittamatrins: Accept the selflessness of both self and phenomena, but believe in

the true existence of mind.

iv. Madhyamikas: It claims that things appear to be real and substantial but are
actually without inherent true existence
9. BUDDHIST LITERATURE
a. Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha--> Majjhima

Nikaya, Samyutta, Digha, Anguttara, Khuddaka

b. Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic

life--> Suttavibhanga', 'Khandhaka', and 'Parivara' (KSP)

c. Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching

and the scholarly activity of the monks. (Dhammasangami and Kathavatthu)

d. Therigatha--> Songs of elders
e. Sanskrit

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i. ASVAGOSHA- wrote BUDDHACHARITA, Saudaranand, Sariputra Prakaran.
ii. NAGARJUNA – Founded madhyamik school of mahayan buddism--> gave theory
of SUNYAVAD’
iii. BUDDHAGOSH – most important commentator of Theravada (Theravada adheres

to Vibhajjavada (the teaching of analysis), important work is VISUDDIMAGGA.

iv. Vasubandhu--> Yogcharya (It focuses on consciousness & knowledge (idealism),

Abhidhmma Kosh
v. Menander--> Milindpanho under Nagsena
vi. Mahavastu--> Hinayana doctrine
vii. Lalitvistara --> Mahayana book
viii. Kundalakesi--> Nagakuthanaar
ix. Netti Pakarana: It is a Buddhist scripture, sometimes included in the Khuddaka

Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism’s Pali Canon.

f. Imp Facts
i. Upasaka are lay followers of Buddhism who are not monks
ii. Parivrajaka means male renunciant & wanderer. Eg: Buddhist Bhikkhu
iii. Pravrajya: Ceremony to mark a person’s going forth from home into homelessness

and his/her becoming a novice under a preceptor.

iv. Paramita (perfection) in Buddhism is associated with noble qualities that are found

in Buddha-like enlightened beings

v. Uposatha: Ceremony held on full moon and new moon.
vi. Upasampada: Ordination ceremony when the novice becomes a full-fledged
member of the monastic community
10. Buddhist council

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Chairm Patron
Council Venue Outcome
an age

First Rajgrih Mahak Ajatasa Compilation of Suttapitaka by Anand and

483BCE a asyapa tru Vinaya Pitaka by Upali

The main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under

Second Sabbak Kalash the Vinaypitaka.
Vaishali
383 BCE ami oka Divide in Sthaviradins (Orthodox) & Mahasangikas
(Heterodox)

Mogali
Third Patalip
putta Ashoka Compilation of Abhidamapittaka
250BCE utra
Tissa

Division--> Hinayana (Sthaviravadin and

Fourth Kashmi Vasumi Kanish
Mahavibhasa) and Mahayana (Mahasanghika and
98AD r tra ka
sarvastivadins)

10. Bodhisattvas--> In Mahayana, Buddhism Boddhisatva is a person who can reach nirvana
but delays doing so through compassion for suffering beings
a. AMITABHA--> Buddha of Heaven
b. AVLOKITESVARA PADMAPANI--> Manifests Buddha’s compassion.
c. MANJUSHRI--> Wisdom--> Stimulator of understanding and he holds book

describing 10 paramitas
d. VAJRAPANI--> Like Indra holds thunderbolt [depict power]
e. MAITREYA--> Future Buddha & Earliest bodhisattva.
f. SAMANTABHADRA--> Universal Boddhisatva, associated with Meditation.
g. Tara--> Female Bodhisattva in Mahayana, Female Buddha in Vajrayana.
h. Vasudhara--> Associated with wealth, prosperity, and abundance
i. Skanda--> Guardian of Viharas and Buddhist teachings.

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Hinayana Sect Mahayana sect

1. Lesser vehicle 1. Great Vehicle

2. believes in the original teaching of Buddha 2. Heterodox sect
3. Sought individual salvation through self-discipline 3. Group salvation
& meditation 4. Worship Buddha in idol
4. Rejects the deification of Buddha, viewing him as form.
a regular human being, leading to symbol worship 5. Language- Sanskrit.
rather than idol worship 6. Buddha as god
5. Language- Pali language. 7. Believes in Bodhisattva
6. Believes in Arhat 8. Salvation by faith
7. Salvation by work 9. Doctrine of
8. Doctrine of wisdom compassion
9. Most important – Theravadin & Sautantrika. 10. Madhyamik
10. ASEAN, Sri-lanka 11. China, Korea, Japan

JAINISM
1. Basics
a. Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated

the religion.
b. The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.
c. There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabhadev. 2nd

was Ajita. The 23rd was Parshvanatha, last – 24th Tirthkara was Vardhaman
Mahavira.
d. The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
2. VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA (540-468 BC)
a. Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali. Belongs to Gnatrika Clan.
b. Parents – Siddhartha and Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka), Wife- Yasoda and
had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
c. Teachers – Gosala Maskariputra (Head of Ajivika Sect)
d. He attained Kaivalya at the age of 42 under Sal tree. Thus, he is called Mahavir, Jina

Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds).
e. First sermon – At Rajgir
f. Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.

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g. Rishabha--> Bull, Neminath(22nd-->Conch), Parshwanath (23rd)-->Snake, Mahavir-->

Snake.
3. TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
a. Rejected authority of the Vedas, Did not belive in the existance of God.
b. Believed in Karma & Transmission of Soul.
c. Emphasised the equality but did not condemn varna system.
d. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can
be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a
necessary condition of salvation.
e. Women were allowed into the monastic order, but they cannot achieve salvation
directly instead, they can accumulate merit through good deeds and be reborn as men
to pursue salvation
f. Jainism promotes dualism, making the distinction between soul (jiva) and matter
(ajiva). The coming together of jiva and ajiva creates karma (action), which leads to an
endless cycle of birth and rebirth. To free oneself from karma, one has to practice
severe austerities and self-mortification
g. Syadvada+Nayavada= Anekantvada
i. ANEKANTAVADA--> theory of plurality--> Nothing is absolute--> refers to the

simultaneous acceptance of multiple, diverse, even contradictory viewpoints.

h. Close affinity with Samkhya philosophy.
i. Man is the artitect of his destiny
4. THREE JEWELS/ TRIRATNA
a. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
b. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
c. Right Action (Samyakcharita)
5. FIVE DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
a. AHIMSA: Non-injury to a living being
b. SATYA: Do not speak a lie
c. ASTEYA: Do not steal
d. APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
e. BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence (Added by Mahavir)

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6.

7. DIGAMBARA
a. Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity.
b. Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
c. Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
d. Purva literature and Kalpasutras
e. Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
8. SHVETAMBARA
a. Monks wear white clothes.
b. Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
c. Believe women can achieve liberation.
d. Charita--> Anga, Upanga,etc
e. Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
9. Jain Literature
a. Teachings of tirthankara before mahavira was known as PURVA.
b. Kalpsutras--> Bhadrabahu [Jaincharita+Theravali (list of schools)+Samachari (rules for

monks)]--> JST
c. Anga, Upanga, Prakrina, Chedsutras, Malsutras--> Shwetambars.
10. JAIN ARCHITECTURE
a. MANASTAMBHA: Front side of the temple, having religious importance with an

ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four
cardinal directions.
b. BASADIS: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
11. Other Sects of Sramana Tradition
a. Ajivika sect--> Gosala Maskariputra--> Niyativada (Fatalism)
b. Lokayata sect--> Ajitha--> Charvaka philosophy--> Materialism--> Live happily-->
With death, all is annihilated.
c. Ajnanas--> Radical scepticism. According to this school, “Ignorance is Best”.
i. They believed that it is impossible to attain knowledge about nature and even if it is

possible, it is useless for attaining Salvation

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12. Differences Between Jainism and Buddhism
a. Buddhism neither accepted nor denied the existence of God, whereas Jainism does not
believe in a personal God or a creator God
b. Jainism did not condemn the varna system as Buddhism did
c. Buddhism advocated a middle path, i.e., avoidance of extremities of penance and
enjoyment, whereas Jainism advocated extreme penance and asceticism.
d. Jainism believes in the transmigration of the soul, while Buddhism does not

MAURYAN EMPIRE
1. SOURCES
a. LITERARY--> Megasthenes’ ‘Indika’, Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’, Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra
Rakshasa’, Dharmashastra texts, Buddhist Text (Jatak Stories, Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa,
Divyavadan)
i. Arthasastra--> Dr.R.Shamasastry got it in 1905--> Total 15 books
b. ARCHAEOLOGICAL--> Punch marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW),

Ashokan Edicts (14 major Rock eddicts, 7 major pillar edicts, 3 cave edicts)
2. CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 BC – 298 BC)
a. He laid the foundation of Mauryan empire in 322 BC with help of Chanakya

(Kautilya) by defeating Dhanananda

b. Credit of first unification of North India.
c. Chandragupta defeated Seleucas Nikator, the Greek emperor after Alexander. River

Indus is geographical boundary of kingdom.

d. Megasthenes a Greek ambassador was sent by Seleucus in the Chandragupta Maurya

court.
i. Megasthenes mentioned that famine has never visited India, and there has never

been a general scarcity in the supply of nourishing food, even during the war
ii. He states that there were seven castes in Mauryan society
e. Follower of jainism--> Practiced Sallekhana at Sravana Belgola under Bhadrabahu.
3. BINDUSARA (298 BC – 273 BC)
a. Greek called him Amitrochates. Follower of ‘Ajivika’
b. Bindusara maintained good diplomatic relations with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of

Syria. Antiochus sent Deimachus as ambassador to the Bindusara’s court.

c. Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha describes Bindusara as “conqueror of the land
between two seas”
4. ASHOKA THE GREAT (273 BC – 237 BC)
a. Governor of Ujjain

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b. Rock edict 13--> Ashoka fought the horrible Kalinga War in 261 BC. 150000 people

killed.
c. Bhabra insciption--> He became Buddhist under the guidance of Mogaliputta Tissa-

-> Policy of Digvijay to Policy of Dhammavijaya

d. He sent missionaries for propagation of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, south Indian states,
Burma, Central Asia etc.
e. Contemporary Rulers of Ashoka with whom he had Exchanged Missions
i. Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260-246 BC) -> grandson of Selecus Nikator.
ii. Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt (285–247 BC)
iii. Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (276–239 BC)
iv. Magas of Cyrene
v. Alexander of Epirus
5. After Ashoka, division of kingdom--> Western went to Kunala (followed Jainism) and

Eastern went to Dashrath (Follower of Ajivika).

6. Last king was Brihadratha--> Assasinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.
7. MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
a. Central administartion
i. Saptanga theory of Chankya--> King, palace, army, kosh, territory, ally, Amatya.
ii. Mantriparishad to advice to king regarding matters of state
iii. Amatya--> Civil servants--> Their pay scale, service rules were clearly mentioned.
iv. Samharta--> Collection of all revenue, Sannidhata--> Chief treasury officer
v. Military dept--> Senapati--> 5 Committees having 6 members each.
vi. Judicial dept--> Civil court and criminal court--> Dharmadhikarin
vii. Espionage dept under Gudhapurushas
viii. Foreign affairs dept to spread of buddhism
b. Provincial dept
i. Mauryan Empire was divided into 5 provinces -Uttarapatha, Avantipatha, Kalinga,

Dakshinpatha and Magadha.

ii. Viceroy--> Pradeshika--> Rajuka+Yukta--> Gopa and Sthanikas--> Gramini (Rural)

and Nagarika (City)

c. IMPORTANT OFFICERS:
i. Sitadhyaksha – Supervised agriculture
ii. Panyadhyaksha -Superintendent of Commerce
iii. Samsthadhyaksha – Superintendent of market
iv. Pauthavadhyaksha – Superintendent of weight & measure.
v. Karmantika--> Head of Industries and Factories

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d. MAURYAN ECONOMY
i. Land revenue was major source of income (1/4th to 1/6th)
ii. Use of iron tools, diversified agriculture production, immense increase in agriculture

land and irrigation facilities contributed to growth of Mauryan economy.

iii. Punch-marked coins (mostly silver) were used for transactions.
iv. Punch-marked Silver coins (Pana) were the imperial currency which aided tax

collection and payments of officers in cash.

v. There was state monopoly of mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of
arms and metallurgy.
vi. Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale.
e. MAURYAN SOCIETY
i. Society was clearly divided into four-fold Varna system, slavery (dasas) existed in

the society.
ii. Untouchables like Chanadala, Nishad, Shabar etc. existed and were treated
inhumanly.
iii. Women’s position in society deteriorated severly: widow remarriage stopped,

Institution of ‘Ganikas’ (prostitution) expanded.

iv. Reduction in gap of vaishyas and sudras.
f. DHAMMA OF ASHOKA (Rock edict 11 )
i. It was way of life, code of conduct and set of principles that should be adopted and

practiced by all.
ii.

POST MAURYAN INDIA

1. Political condition of India
a. NW--> Indo Greeks--> Scythians--> Parthians--> Kushana
b. Magadh--> Sunga--> Kanwa

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c. Kalinga--> Kharvela, Deccan--> Satavahana, South--> Sangam
2. SHUNGAS (185 BC – 72 BC)
a. Pushyamitra sunga--> Founder--> Ruled from Vidisha
i. Defeated bactrian king De-metrius
ii. Staunch follower of Brahmanism--> Performed 2 Asvamedha sacrifice--> Mention
by Dhanadev in Ayodhya inscription
iii. Destoyed sanchi stupa
iv. Patronised Patanjali who wrote Mahabhashya
b. Agnimitra Sunga--> Repaired Sanchi stupa and tolerance towards buddhism
c. Vasumitra Sunga--> Attempts of Menander penetrating into was countered
successfully.
d. Last ruler was Devbhuti
e. Bhagvata--> Bensagar pillar inscription by Heliodorous who was greek Ambasador

@court of Sunga. (GBH)

f. Importance of Sungas
i. Defended Gangetic valley against external invasion
ii. Revived Brahmanism and Horse sacrifice
iii. New form of art--> Relief sculpture at Bharhut
3. KANVA DYNASTY (72 BC – 27 BC)
a. Vasudeva Kanva killed his king Devabhuti of Shunga and founded Kanva rule with

Vidisha and Patliputra as their capital.

b. The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana king.
4. CHEDI DYNASTY
a. Founder- Mahameghvahana and famous king was Kharvela (3rd king)
b. Hathgumpha inscription of Udaigiri hills--> Achievements of Kharvela
c. Kharvela was a Jaina follower who donated caves to Jaina Monks in Udaigiri Hills.
5. INDO-GREEKS (200 BC – 100 CE)
a. Demetrius--> 1st foreign king after Alexander who carried Greek arms into the

interior of India
b. Appolodotus--> Conquered sindh and Ujjain
c. Menander--> Pataliputra but stopped by Vasumitra--> Converted to Buddhism under

Nagasena and wrote Milindpanho

d. Importance of Indo-Greeks
i. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins bearing inscriptions of images of

Kings and Gods.

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ii. Growth of metallurgy, medicine, astronomy, stone-cutting, perfume-making

are evidences of technical advancements under Indo-Greeks.

iii. Gandhara School of Art
iv. Science of Astronomy--> The names of the zodiac and planets in Aryabhatta and in

Varahmihira--> Greek origin

e. SCYTHIANS (100 BC – 150 CE)
i. Kingdom was extended in 5 branches--> Afg, Punjab (Maues), Mathura
(Azes1), Western India (Rudradaman), Avanti.
ii. The first Saka ruler in India was Maues (20 BC to 22 AD). He occupied Gandhara, but

it was his successor, Azes, who finally destroyed the Indo-Greek kingdoms and
extended Saka rule as far as Mathura.
iii. The Shakas did not meet effective resistance from the rulers and the masses of

India. The king of Ujjain (around 58 BCE), effectively fought and succeeded in
throwing the Shakas out. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called Vikram-
Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Shakas in 58 BCE
iv. Western Kshtraps--> Bhumak and Nahapana
v. Kardamakas
1. Rudradaman--> Ruled from Ujjain--> Junagarh Rock Inscription--> ARS.

Rudradaman got the lake Sudarshan repaired for better irrigation. He was the
first to issue a long inscription in Sanskrit, indicating his fondness for the
language. Sudarshana lake constructed by Chandragupta Maurya.
vi. Sakas, along with the Parthians, introduced the Satrap system of government,
which was similar to that of the Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran.
f. PARTHIANS
i. In the reign of Gondophernes, St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the

propagation of Christianity.
g. KUSHANAS (50 CE – 230 CE)
i. Kushanas (Yueh-Chi tribe) too were from China, they ruled in North-West India with

Purushpur (Peshawar) as their capital.

ii. Founder--> Kadphises 1--> Kadphises-2--> Kanishka--> Last king was

Vasudeva.
iii. Rabatak inscription was related to Kushanas.
iv. Kanishka--> Started Saka era in 78 AD--> Organised 4th Buddhist council at 78 AD

in Kashmir
v. Ruling over the regions of Silk route, Kushanas greatly benefitted from it.
vi. They issued purest form of gold coins till that time.

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vii. Patronage
1. Ashvagosha--> Buddhacharita, first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana,
Saundarananda.
2. Charaka--> Father of Aryuveda--> Charaksamhita
3. Vasumitra--> Buddhist philosophy--> Mahavibhasa
4. Nagarjuna--> Madhyamic darshana (Nagarjuna also discussed the idea of

relativity and hence, is sometimes called as Einstein of India)

viii. Greater use saddle in horse riding, armour, helmets, long coats and better cavalry
are Kushana’s contributions.
ix. Introduced Satrap system – Empire was divided into Satrapies under the Satrap.
h. SATVAHANAS
i. Satvahana are referred as “Andhras” in the Puranas. Simuka--> Kanha--> Sri-

Satkarni-->------> Hala (17th King)

ii. Pratishthana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra) on Godavari river & second
Capital was Amravati.
iii. Gautamiputra Satkarni (106-130AD)--> Achievements in Nasik inscription. He (also

known as Ekabrahmana) defeated Sakas, Greeks, Parthians and Nahapana

iv. Vasishtiputra Puluvami 1--> Special type of coins "Ship with double mast" found in
coromondal coast.
v. Vasisthiputra Sri Satkarni--> Married with daughter of Rudradaman--> Mentioned
in Junagarh inscription
vi. Yajna Sri Satkarni--> Pulamayi IV (last king), they were replaced by Vakataka
Dynasty who also were Brahmins.
vii. While exhibiting matrilineal elements, the Satavahana ruling family had a patriarchal
succession to the throne
viii. Kataka and Skandhavara denoted military camps and settlements.
ix. Empire--> Janpad--> Ahara--> Gama
x. ECONOMY
1. Land revenue was major income of state.
2. They were first native rulers to issue own coins with the portraits of the

rulers.
3. Ptolemy--> Trade with Malaya and Indo-China
4. Merchant guilds flourished in this era.
5. Potin coins are famous (Potin is a base metal alloy used in coins)
a. Gandhikas or the perfumers were repeatedly mentioned as donors. At a later
stage, the term Gandhika denoted all kinds of shopkeepers

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xi. SOCIETY AND RELIGION
1. Satvahana revived Brahmanism. Supported Mahayana buddhism
2. Society divided into 4 classes--> King and its minsters, Amatyas, Skilled

workforce and unskilled workforce.

xii. LITERATURE--> Prakrit Language
1. Satvahana ruler Hala, himself great scholar, composed Gathasaptasati.
xiii. Decline--> The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3rd century AD and was
replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed by the Pallavas in Andhra and the Kadambas in
northern Karnataka.
i.
SANGAM AGE
i. Sources--> Foreign Accounts include The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Pliny the Elder’s
Natural History, Ptolemy’s Geography, Vienna Papyrus and a Roman Map called
Peutingerian Table.
ii. Sangam was a assemblies of Tamil poets held under royal patronage of Pandya

kings.
1. 1st and 3rd- Madurai and 2nd Sangam- Kapatpuram--> Tolkapiyam
iii. Sangam literarure
1. Sangam Literature is broadly divided into 2 groups – Narrative & Didactic.
2. Narrative texts are called Melkannaku/Eighteen major works consisting of
Ettuthogai– Collection of 8 anthologies & Pattupattu– Collection of 10 Idylls.
3. Tolkappiyam – written by Tolkappiyar--> Tamil grammar & poetics (Aham

and Puram)
4. Pathinekilkanakku--> Morals and ethics
5. Silappadikaram – written by Ilango Adigal. It is about love affair of Kovalan,

Kanaggi and Madhavi. Later, a Kannagi Cult developed in South India.

6. Manimekhalai – Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of

Silappadikaram in next generation in which Manimekhalai is the daughter of

Madhavi and Kovalan.
7. Sivaga Sindamani--> Jainism
8. Tirrukural – Bible of Tamil Land--> Deals with philosophy and wise maxims &

was written by Tiruvallur

iv. Political history of Sangam
1. CHERAS: Capital at Vanji--> Emblem – Bow and Arrow--> Tondi and Muchiri

port

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 IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)
a. Cheran Senguttuvan (Illango Adigal was his brother) was most important

ruler. He established the Kannagi or Pattini Cult; Kannagi became object of

worship.
b. He was the first King from South India to send an ambassador to China.
c. Temple of Roman emperor Augustus was constructed here.
2. CHOLAS: Capitals at Kaverippattanam (Puhar) and Uraiyur--> Emblem – Tiger
a. Karikala was the greatest king. He founded Puhar & constructed dam across
Cauvery River (Killanai dam)
b. Battle of Venni--> Chola Defeat combined army of Cheras and Pandyas
3. PANDYAS:Capital at Madurai--> Emblem – Carp (fish)--> Port (Korkai)
a. They were first mentioned by Megasthanese. Noteworthy Pandya ruler-->
Nedunjelian
4. ADMINISTRATION
a. Kingdom was divided into Mandalam, Nadu (province), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small
village), perur (Big Village)
b. Amaichar (ministers), anthanar (priests), Dutar (envoys), senapatiyar

(military commanders) and orrar (spies) were the 5 important officers that
assisted the King.
c. REVENUE ADMINISTRATION: Karai – land tax, Ulgu – custom duties, Iravu –

Forced gift/extra demand, Irai – tribute paid by feudatories, Variyar – Tax

collector
d. Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal
(coastal) and Palai (desert) are the five types of the lands mentioned in the
Tolkappiyam.
5. ECONOMY
a. Rice cultivation
b. ITEMS OF EXPORT: Maslin, glass beeds, pearls, sandalwood, perfumes, black

pepper (Yavanapriya), tortoise shell, medicines, animals and birds.

c. ITEMS OF IMPORTS: Gold, Silver, Munga, wine, olive oil dry fruits, raw glass,

ivory, copper, tin, medicine and slaves.

6. SOCIETY
a. Social classes – Arasars (Ruling Class), Kadasiyar (lower classes people)

Aanthanars (priests), Vanigar (involved with trade and commerce) , Vellalar

(Agriculturists).

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 IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)
b. Large landowners were known as Vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known

as Uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as

Kadaisiyar and Adimai
c. Love marriage was accepted in Sangam society but Sati was prevalent.
d. Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar were the women poets who
enriched the Tamil literature.
e. RELIGION--> Murugan was the most important deity of the Sangam age
and Nadu Kal (Hero Stone) was also commonly worshiped remembering the
bravery of soldiers.
7. 3 levels of rulers
a. Kizhar--> They were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known
as nadu
b. Vendar--> Kings who controlled larger and fertile territories.
c. Velir--> They controlled mainly hilly and forest areas which were located
between the Muvendar’s fertile territories.
d. Vattakirutal: A king who was defeated in a battle committed ritual suicide by

starving himself to death

AGE OF KALABHRAS
1. The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava Pandya era (approximately 300 AD

to 600 AD)
2. Recent interpretations view this era as a transition period, with the emergence of larger
state societies under the Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south.

GUPTA DYNASTY
1. Sources--> Devichandraguptam, Kamandaka's Nitisara (Arthashastra like book), Kalidasa's

work, Vajjika's Kaumudimahotsav (C-I), Sudraka's Mrichchhakatika

2. It is mostly believed that Guptas were of Vaisya origin.
3. Founder--> Sri-Gupta (240-280 AD)--> Ghatotkacha (280-319AD)--> C1-->
Samudragupta--> C2--> Kumargupta--> Skandgupta--> Vishnugupta (last ruler).
4. CHANDRAGUPTA-I (319 CE – 335 CE)--> Title of ‘Maharajadhiraj’.
a. Chandragupta-I married the Licchavi princess Kumardevi and increased his influence in
the North Bihar region (Nepal).
b. Gold Coins bearing the figures of Kumardevi and Chandragupta 1 known as

Kumardevi Coins were issued.

c. His accession in about AD 319-20 marks the beginning of the Gupta Samvat (era).
5. SAMUDRAGUPTA (336 CE – 376 CE)

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 IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)
a. Sources--> Nalanda Cu plate inscription, Eran stone inscription, Allahabd Pillar

inscription (Harishena in Sanskrit)

b. Samudragupta conquered: Eight kings of gangetic plain (Achyut and Nagadatta)
c. Samudragupta captured and then liberated and reinstated 12 kings of Dakshinapatha

(South India).
d. Nine Republics in Rajasthan, including the Malavas and Yaudheyas, were forced to

accept Gupta’s suzerainty under his reign.

e. Then again came in Northern part and lost tribal chieftains
f. Meghavarman (ruler of Sri Lanka) sent a missionary to Samudragupta for permission

to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.

g. Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedh sacrifice post these achievements.
h. He issued Ashwamedh coins, Veena-Coin in which he is displayed playing the Veena.
i. Samudragupta was not only a conqueror but also a great poet, musician and patron
of learning.
j. Patronage to Vasubandhu (Buddhist scholar--> Book Yogcharya) and Harishena
6. CHANDRAGUPTA-II (376 CE – 416 CE)--> Title of ‘Vikramaditya
a. Matrimonial alliance with Naga Family and Vakataka kingdom
b. Defeated Vanga dynasty
c. He defeated and killed the last ruler of Saka satrap and assumed the title ‘Sakari’

(meaning the destroyer of sakas).

d. Chandragupta-II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins bearing lion figure
e. Mehrauli iron pillar inscription (Qutub-minar complex) of Chandragupta-II
f. Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-hien visited his court. (Travelogue titled Fo-Kwo-Ki)
i. Came via land route and went via sea route.
ii. Did not mention the name of C-II
iii. Liberal administration--> Not heavy taxes
iv. Law and order maintained--> No decoity on road.
v. Mentioned about Chandela who lived outside villages
g. Navratnas (ADGKKSVVV)
i. Amarsimha (Amarkosha), Dhanvantri (Ayurveda), Ghatakarapara (Sculpture),

Kalidasa, Kshapanka (Astrology), Sanku (Shilpashstra), Varahmihir, Vitthal Bhat

(Music), Vararuchi (Vyakrana)
7. KUMARGUPTA I (414 CE – 455 CE)--> Protected kingdom from Hunas.
a. Bilsad (Etah) inscription also mentions Kumargupta I
b. During his reign Nalanda University was established.
8. SKANDAGUPTA (455 CE – 467 CE)

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 IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)
a. Bravely fought and defeated Hunas on the North-Western frontier.
b. Bhitari monolithic pillar inscription gives an account of Skandagupta’s reign.
c. Got the Sudarshan Lake repaired (Junagadh inscription).
9. DECLINE--> Decline of foreign trade, invasions of Huna, weak successors
a. Huna (Toraman and Mihirkula)--> Capital (Sialkot)--> Invaded from Gandhara and
went upto Malwa. Indus river was border between Huna and Gupta.
10. ADMINISTRATION
a. Bhukti (Uparika)--> Vishaya (Vishayapati)--> Vithi & grama
b. Bureaucracy was not elaborated as that of Maurya.
c. Sandhi–Vigrahika– Minister of Peace and War
d. Ranabhandagrika– In charge of stores
e. Akshapataladhikrita– Superintendent of Records and Accounts.
f. Saulkika--> Collector of customs and tolls
11. Economy
a. Agriculture, trade, commerce and art and crafts all flourished under Guptas.
b. 2 distinctive types of traders called Sresti and Sarthavaha existed. Sresti - settled at a

particular place. Sarthavaha - caravan trader who carried his goods to different places
c. Issued less pure gold coins than Kushana.
d.

e. The King’s administration facilitated irrigation, ensured measurement and

categorization of land.
f. Land classification--> Kshetra(Cultivable land), Khila (Wasteland), Aprahata (Forest),

Vasti (pasture land), Gapata Saraha (Grassland)

g. Land grants--> Agrahra grants to Brahmins

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 IFS_Vyankatesh (AIR113)
12.

13. SOCIETY AND RELIGION

a. Society became clearly feudalistic, Brahmins (Brahmadiyas & Agraharas)and feudal
chiefs received land grants.
b. Sati and Child marriage too existed.
c. Eran inscription of Bhanugupta provides the first evidence of sati.
d. Vishti was forced labour to serve royal army & officials.
14.
Literature
a. Kalidasa--> Abhijnanshakuntalam (drama), Kumārasambhava, Malavikagnimitra,

Meghadootam, Ritusamhara(Lyrics), Raghuvansham (epics), Vikramorvasiyam (plays)

b. Kamandaka--> Nitisara (Same like Arthashastra)
c. Varahamihir--> Panchasiddhantika (5 books, Brihatsamhita most notable)
d. Susrut--> Susrutsamhita on surgery
e. Bhasa--> Svapanavasaydattam
f. Brahmagupta--> Brahmasphutasiddhanta
g. Aryabhatt--> Aryabhattiyam, Suryasidhanta--> Father of Algebra, First to discover
that earth rotates on its axis, reasons behind eclipse, Value of Pi, Basis of trignometry.
h. Vagbhata--> Astanga Samgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
i. Palakapya--> Hastayurveda or the veterinary science
j. Dandin--> Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharitha
k. Devichandraguptam is the story of Gupta King Ramagupta who decides to surrender
his queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka invader but his younger brother Chandragupta
enters the enemy camp disguised as queen and kills the enemy. In the climax of the
play, Chandragupta dethrones Ramagupta and marries Dhruvadevi.
l. Sudraka--> Mrichhakatikam (love story of Charudatta and Vasantsena)
m. Vishnuvarman--> Panchtantra

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n. Bhaskaracharya was the leading mathematician of the 12th Century. He is famous for

his book Siddhanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic),
Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere), Grahaganit (mathematics of planets).
15.
Vakatakas
a. Founder--> Vindhyashakti and capital at Purika--> Continued Brahmanism of

satvahanas
b. Pravarsena (270-330 CE)--> Title of Samrat--> Expanded empire to Vidarbha-->

Aswamedha sacrifice
c. Recent excavation at Nagardhan (Nagpur)
d. Patron of art and culture--> Ajanta caves (16,17,19), Temples @ NachnaKuthara, MP

POST GUPTA PERIODS

1. After the decline of Gupta empire, a number of Kingdoms appeared in the North India:

Maukhari Dynasty in Kannauj--> Founder was Harivarma.

•
• Pushyabhutis in Thaneswar (Panipat-Topara).
• Maitrakas (Valabhi)--> 2nd Buddhist council--> Hieun Tsang and Itsing visted the

kingdom
2. Gauda in Bengal, Varman in Assam, Kalchuri in central India, Chalukya in KN, Pallava in
Kanchi
3. PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY
a. Madhuban inscriptions records chronology of Harsha. Banshekhra inscriptions has a

signature of Harsha.
b. Founder--> Prabhakarvardhana
c. HARSHAVARDHAN (606 CE – 647 CE)--> Title of Siladitya
i. Harshavardhana attacked Shashank of Gauda Kingdom and established his control

over regions of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha and befriended Bhashkarvarman of

Kamrup (Assam).
ii. Hostilities between Harsha and the Maitrakas ended in the marriage of

Dhruvabhatta with the daughter of Harsha. Thus, Valabhi became a subordinate ally
of Harsha.
iii. While marching southwards, Harsha conquered regions of Malawa and after

crossing Narmada he was defeated by Pulkeshin II in the Battle of Narmada. (Aihole

inscription)
iv. Shiva follower--> Hinayana--> Mahayana under Hieun Tsang
d. ADMINISTRATION

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i. Harsha governed his empire on the same lines of Gupta.
ii.

iii. ‘Sreshti’ (Chief Banker or Merchant), ‘Sarthavaha’ (Leader of Merchant Caravans),

‘prathamakulika’ (Chief Craftsman), and the ‘kayashthas’ (head of the scribes)
were other important officers of Harsha’s administration.
iv. In the army
1. Chatas and Bhatas were ordinary soldiers.
2. Brihadisvaras were Cavalry officers.
3. Baladhikritas and Mahabaladhikritas were the infantry officers.
e. ECONOMY
i. Land revenue (1/6th of produce), but Overall, the trade and commerce are said to
have declined during this phase.
ii. Land grants to brahmins
iii. Taxes--> Udranga, Uparikara, Sarva- vishti (Forced labour)
f. ART AND CULTURE
i. Harshavardhan patronized the Banabhatta (Harshacharita, Kadambari),

Mayura.
ii. Harsha was a poet and composed three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali, and
Priyadarsika.
iii. Brick temple of Laxamana at Sirpur was built during Harsha rule.
g. Kannauj Assembly--> To honour Hieun Tsang
h. Prayag Assembly--> 5 years--> donation ceremony to Scholars and Religion.
i. Nalanda--> Land grants of 200 villages
4. Hieun Tsang (Came and went via land routes)--> “prince of pilgrims--> Si-Yu-Ki
a. Sravasti and Kapilvastu lost significance
b. Good law and order in Harsha's administration
c. But outside Harsha's territory, got looted by dacoits
d. Benevolent administration --> Tax at 1/6th of land revenue
e. Rigidity in varna system
5. I T Sing (671-695 CE)--> Came and went via water--> Stayed at Nalanda for 10 years.

Interest in Madhyamic darshan

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PALLAVAS OF KANCHI
1. Pallavas ruled from Kanchi and Mahabalipuram/Mamallapuram as their capital.
2. They were a pastoral local tribe who established their authority in the land of creepers

called Tondaimandalam (the land between the north Pennar and north Vellar rivers),
comprising southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at
Kanchi.
3. Simhavishnu was the founder. Defeated Ikshavakus and Kalabhras.
4. MAHENDRAVARMAN I (600 CE – 630 CE)--> Titles like Chettakari (temple-maker)
Chitrakarapuli (painter), Vichitrachitta
a. Mandagapathu inscriptions mentions beginning of rock cut temples constructions.
5. NARSHIMHAVARMAN I (630 CE -668 CE)--> Narshimhavarman I defeated the
Chalukya King Pulkeshin II at the battle of Manimangalam--> he assumed the title of
‘Vatapikonda’.
a. Assuming the title of Mamalla (great wrestler), he founded the great city of

Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram.
b. Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.
6. NARSIMHAVARMAN II --> Rajsimha
a. Dandin- Sanskrit scholar lived in his court--> Dasakumarcharita, Avantisundari,
Kavyadarsan (DAK)
b. He Sent embassies to China.
7. Aparajita (880−893 AD)--> He died in a battle against Chola king Aditya I, who invaded

Tondaimandalam. This sealed the fate of the Pallavas.

8. ADMINISTRATION
a. State was divided into Kottams.
b. Pallavas promoted agriculture and sea-trade and collected huge wealth
c. Land grants to Brahmans (Brahmadeya) and to temples Devadhana and were

exempted from taxation.

d. Ur and Sabha at village level--> Nadu--> Nagram--> Mandalams
9. SOCIETY & RELIGION
a. Four–fold caste system became rigid & Brahmana occupied dominant position as

Pallava were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus.

b. Pallava period witnessed rise of Saivism & Vaishnavism and decline of Jainism &
Buddhism
c. Promotion to Bhakti movement--> Alvars and Nayanmars

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d. In Urrukkattukottam, near Puducherry, 11 plates held together by a copper ring and

stamped with a Pallava royal seal (bull and a lingam) were discovered. It records a
grant of a village made by King Nandivarman (753 AD).
e. Eripatti, or tank land, was a unique category of land found exclusively in South India. It

was donated by individuals, and the revenue generated from this land was reserved for
maintaining the village tank.
10. LITERATURE
a. Kanchi developed as a great centre of education, culture and trade. The Ghatika
(centres of learning) at Kanchi was very popular.
b. Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit
c. Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi
d. Tamil language and literature along with Sanskrit flourished under Pallavas.
e. Nalayir-Divya-Prabandham: Bool of Alwars
f. Sittannavasal paintings

CHALUKYAS (535 CE – 1190 CE)

1. Founded by Pulakesin I by declaring independence from the Kadambas
2. Kirtivarman (566-597 AD)--> Founded the capital, Badami.
3. Royal insignia: The wild boar (Varaha avatar of Vishnu).
4. PULAKESIN II (608 CE – 642 CE)
a. Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhan--> Mentioned in Aihole inscription

composed by Ravi kirti

b. He also defeated Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established

his suzerainty.
c. Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to the court of Persian King Khusrau.
d. Hieun Tsang visited his kingdom.
5. KIRTIVARMAN II: He was the last ruler of the Chalukyas. Jain temple in Annigere was

built.Dantidurga defeated him to establish rule of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

6. ADMINISTRATION
a. Chalukyas was highly centralised unlike Chola and pallava. Units (villages) were in

direct control of central authorities.

b. Chalukyas maintained great naval force and small but well organised standing army

that too was contributed by feudal chiefs.

7. ECONOMY
a. Rocky and infertile land limited the income from land for Chalukyas.

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b. Overall decline of trade and commerce in India during this period, therefore the

Chalukyas conducted invasions and plunder of the neighbouring regions.

8. RELIGION--> Chalukyas of Badami practiced Brahmanism but respected other sects of

religion too.
MINOR DYNASTY
1. IKSHAVAKU (225-350 AD)
2. Kadambas--> Emerged prominent around Talagunda (modern Shimoga district) in
north-western Karnataka around 345 AD.

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (750- 1000 CE)

1. Gurjara-Pratihara (Western India), Palas (Eastern India) and Rashtrakutas (Deccan)
for control over Kannauj area
2. GURJARA-PRATIHARA EMPIRE (WESTERN INDIA): 730-1036
a. Dynasty was founded by Harischandra, in and around jodhpur.
b. Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist Rajasekhara (Kavyamimansa) lived in the court of

Mahipala– grandson of Mihirbhoja.

c. Foreign traveller Al-Masudi had visited Pratihara empire.
d. Considered Laxman as their hero.
e. IMPORTANT RULERS:
i. Nagabhatta I (730-760)--> known for containing Arab armies. Defeated by
Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
ii. Vatsaraja (780-800)--> Vatsraja defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and

Dantidurga for control of Kannauj.

iii. Nagabhata II (805–833)--> He rebuilt the Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat,

which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh. Dharmapala sought
assistance from Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III (794-813 AD) which led to the defeat
of Nagabhatta II.
iv. Mihir Bhoja (836-885)--> Devotee of Vishnu, adopted title ‘Adivaraha’.
f. Chalukyas, Chandellas, Chahmanas (Chauhan), Gahadawalas, Paramaras, Kalachuris

(Tripuri), Guhilas, all of whom were the feudatory of Gurjara-Pratiharas in different

regions.

THE PALAS OF BENGAL: 750-1150

1. In 750 AD, Gopala founded Pala dynasty--> Elected leader--> Capital: Muddagiri/

Munger (Bihar)
2. Vajrayana school of Buddhism originated during rule of Palas.
3. Also known as the “Kingdom of Dharma’’ by the Arabs

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4. Sailendra dynasty (Buddhist) which ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra sent embassies to

the Pala court.

5. Pala period is considered as golden period in history of Bengal.
6. Pala armies were famous for its vast war elephant cavalry.
7. Arab merchant Sulaiman had visited Pala kingdom.
8. The Palas power were destroyed by the Sena dynasty under Vijyasena.
9. IMPORTANT RULERS:
a. Gopala (around 750 CE)--> Built famous Odantpuri monastery at Bihar, 2nd largest
after Nalanda university.
b. Dharampala (770-810)--> Founded the Vikramshila University near Bhagalpur,
Bihar and built Somapuri monastery (paharpur, Bihar).
i. Patron to great buddhist scholar Haribhadra
ii. Khalimpur copper plate inscription mentions the extent of his kingdom covering

Bengal, Bihar, parts of Orissa, Nepal, Assam, and Kannauj.

c. Devapala (810-850)--> Expanded empire in the east included Assam. He defeated the

Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha.

d. Mahipala I (988-1038 AD) checked the invasion of Rajendra Chola beyond the Ganges.

Mahipala I constructed and repaired several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda

and Bodh Gaya.
e.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS (DECCAN) (752-973)

1. Feudatory of the Chalukyas--> Capital: Manyakheta or Malkhed near Solapur.

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2. Rashtrakuta fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Pallavas of

Kanchi and Pandya of Madurai

3. Arab accounts by Al-Masudi, offer a lavish description of the Rashtrakuta kingdom’s

grandeur.
4. IMPORTANT RULERS:
a. Dantidurga (753-756)--> Founded Rashtrakutas kingdom in 753 CE. Victory over

Malwa by performing Hiranyagarbhadana

b. Krishna I (756- 774)--> Gave final blow to Pallavas. The rock-cut Kailasanath (Shiva)
temple at Ellora caves was built during his reign.
c. Dhruv (779-793 AD) marked the dynasty’s northern expedition, defeating prominent
rulers like Vatsaraja (Pratihara king) and Dharmapala (Pala king). He incorporated the
symbols of the Ganga and Yamuna into the Rashtrakuta emblem.
d. Govinda III (793-814 AD) revitalised Rashtrakuta’s influence, defeating Nagabhatta II

of the Pratiharas.
e. Amoghavarsha I (814-878)--> Called as “Ashoka of the South” (Highly tolerant).
i. Title of Viranarayana
ii. He wrote Kavirajamarga (Kannadda) and the Prashnottara Ratnamalika (Sanskrit).
iii. He was follower of Jainism.
iv. The great Apbhramsha poet Svayambhu lived in Rashtrakuta court.
v. Gave permission for Arab traders to build mosque.
vi. He ended his life by taking jal-samadhi in the Tungabhadra river.
f. Krishna III was the last great ruler of Rashtrakutas seized regions like Kanchi and
Tanjore, even overcoming the Cholas and erecting a victory pillar at Rameshwaram. He
patronized 3 gems of Kannada literature Pampa, Ponna, Ranna.
5. Literature--> Trivikrama--> Nalachampu, Halayudha--> Kavirahasya, Pampa-->

Vikramasenavijaya, Ponna--> Santipurana, Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the

Jains.
6. ADMINISTRATION:
a. The directly administered territories were divided into: Rashtra (province) and Visaya

(Districts) and Bhukti.

b. The head of Rashtra was Rashtrapati, and had similar functions as the Uparaika

performed in Pala and Pratihara.

IMPERIAL CHOLAS (850 – 1279 AD)

1. The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya who was at first a feudatory of Pallavas.

He built the city of Thanjavur.

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2. The use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) also facilitated the already established smooth

irrigation networks of tanks, canals, wells.

3. Rajaraja I (984- 1014 AD):
a. He defeated Chera, Pandya & conquered Maldives Islands.
b. Naval expedition against the Sri Vijaya. Captured North Ceylon
c. Expanded trade with china.
d. In 1010 CE, constructed the Brihadeshvara temple, dedicated to shiva at Thanjavur.
e. He also assisted the king of Java in constructing a Buddhist Vihara in Java
f. He took titles – Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara.
4. Rajendra I (1014- 1044 AD)--> Title of “Gangaikonda after defaeting Mahipala
a. conquered whole Sri Lanka.
b. His naval operation was directed against Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern Sumatra
c. Made Chola navy strongest in the area and ‘Bay of Bengal’ was converted into a

‘Chola Lake’.
d. built a city-“Gangaikondacholapuram” and Nataraj temple at Chidambaram.
e. The irrigation work done by Rajendra Chola I at Gangaikonda Cholapuram was an

embankment of solid masonry. He described it as his Jalamayam Jayasthambham,

meaning “pillar of victory in water”. He built an irrigation tank called Cholagangam
near the capital called Jala-stambha (water-pillar). It became the coronation centre,
which was a Chola landmarks.
5. Rajendra III was the last king
6. ADMINISTRATION
a.

b. For the purposes of assessing tax, the Cholas undertook extensive land surveys under

Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I (1086) and Kulotunga III (1226)

c. Anjuvannattar were maritime traders, Manigramattar were traders in the

hinterland.

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d. Empire was divided into:Mandalams –Royal princes--> Valanadus – Perinattar-->

Nadus (district) – Nattar--> Autonomous Villages – 30 wards (members selected by

lottery type)
e. Uttiramerur Inscriptions (Vaikunth perimal temple of Parantaka) gives detailed

account of the village administration.

f. Ur was general assembly of village & Sabha was gathering of adult men in the

Brahmana village – Agrahara (rent free villages with autonomy).

7. CHOLA SOCIETY
a. Divided on caste lines: Periyar (Untouchbles), Vellallas (Farming groups).
b. Emergence of supra caste dichotomy:
i. Idangai (left hand caste groupings): Consisted mainly of artisanal and trading
groups.
ii. Valangai (right hand groupings): Consisted mainly of agricultural groups.
8. ART AND ARCHITECTURE
a. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. The best example
of this can be seen in Dancing figure of Nataraja.
b. Bharatanatyam & kathakali are two types of dances performed during the Chola

period.
c. Music--> Ammanaivari--> To praise chola kings
9. Literature
a. Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam by Sekkilar are the two

master-pieces of this age.

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