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POWER PLANTS

Steam Power Plant/Thermal Power Plant

Steam Power Plant Layout

List of Components:
• High pressure boiler
• Prime mover
• Condensers and cooling towers
• Coal handling system
• Ash and dust handling system
• Draught system
• Feed water purification plant
• Pumping system
• Air Pre-heater, Economizer, Super Heater, Feed Heaters.

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Boiler
 A huge boiler acts as a furnace transferring heat from the burning fuel to row upon
row of water tubes that entirely surround the flames.
 Water is kept flowing through the tubes by a pump P1
Drum
 It contains water and steam at high pressure and produces a stream for the turbine.
 It also receives water delivered by boiler-feed pumpP2
Turbine
 Converts thermal energy into mechanical energy by letting the steam expand as it
moves through turbine blades.
 The steam is then passed through a reheater S3 in order to raise the thermal
efficiency and to prevent premature condensation.

Condenser:
 It causes the steam to condense by letting it flow over cooling pipes S4.
 Coldwater from outside sources flowing through pipes carries away the heat. The
temperature of cooling water increases by 5oc to 10oc as it flows through the
condenser tubes. The condensed steam has a temperature of between 27oc and
33oC
 It is condensing steam that creates near-vacuum pressure of 5kPa.
 A condensate pump P2 removes the lukewarm condensed steam and drives it
through reheater (7) toward a feedwater pump (8).


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Reheater
 Heat exchanger receives hot steam, bled off from high-pressure turbine, to raise the
temperature of the feedwater. Thermodynamic studies show that when some steam
is bled off this way, the overall efficiency increases.
Burner
 Burner’s supply and control the amount of gas, oil, or coal injected into boiler.
Coal is pulverized before it is injected. Similarly, heavy bunker oil is preheated and
Generator
 Connected to three turbines converts’ mechanical energy into electrical energy.

let's explore the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of thermal power plants:

Advantages:

 Reliability: Thermal power plants are known for their reliability in providing continuous
power supply, making them suitable for baseload electricity generation.
 Cost-Efficiency: Once the infrastructure is in place, thermal power plants can be cost-
effective to operate, especially when utilizing abundant and inexpensive fuel sources like
coal or natural gas.
 Scalability: Thermal power plants can be easily scaled up or down based on the demand
for electricity, allowing for flexibility in power generation.
 Quick Start-up: Unlike some other forms of power generation, thermal power plants can
be brought online relatively quickly, making them suitable for meeting sudden increases in
demand.
 Grid Stability: Thermal power plants contribute to grid stability by providing a steady and
predictable source of electricity.

Disadvantages:

 Environmental Impact: The combustion of fossil fuels in thermal power plants releases
pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution and climate change.
 Water Consumption: Thermal power plants require large quantities of water for cooling
purposes, which can put pressure on local water resources and ecosystems.
 Thermal Pollution: Discharging heated water back into water bodies can lead to thermal
pollution, adversely affecting aquatic life.
 Dependency on Fuel: Thermal power plants are dependent on fuel sources such as coal,
natural gas, or oil, making them vulnerable to price fluctuations and supply disruptions.
 Land Use: Thermal power plants often require significant land area for infrastructure such
as boilers, turbines, cooling towers, and storage facilities, leading to land use conflicts.

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Applications:

 Electricity Generation: Thermal power plants are widely used for electricity generation,
particularly in areas with reliable access to fuel sources.
 Industrial Processes: The heat generated in thermal power plants can be utilized for
various industrial processes, such as district heating, desalination, and chemical
manufacturing.
 Cogeneration: Some thermal power plants employ cogeneration or combined heat and
power (CHP) systems, where excess heat from electricity generation is used for heating
purposes in residential, commercial, or industrial buildings.
 Remote Areas: Thermal power plants can provide electricity to remote areas where other
forms of power generation may be impractical or unavailable.
 Backup Power: Thermal power plants can serve as backup power sources for critical
infrastructure such as hospitals, data centers, and telecommunications networks.

DIESEL POWER PLANT

Components of Diesel Power Plant:

The diesel power plant essentially consists of the following components:
1. Diesel engine
2. Air filter and supercharger
3. Exhaust system

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4. Fuel system
5. Cooling system
6. Lubricating system
7. Starting system
8. Governing system.
#1 Diesel Engine:
This is the most important part of a diesel power plant. The engines are divided into two and
four-stroke categories. In order to develop power, engines are typically directly coupled to the
generator.
In diesel engines, compressed air is introduced into the cylinder. Fuel is injected at the end of the
compression stroke. As the fuel burns, expanding gases from the fire exert force on the piston.
The generator and engine shaft are directly connected. The burned gases are released into the
atmosphere after combustion.
#2 Air Filter and Supercharger:
The function of the air filter is to remove the dust from the air which is taken by the engine.
The use of the supercharger is to increase the pressure of the air provided to the engine to
increase the power of the engine.
#3 Exhaust System:
This includes the silencers and connecting ducts. The temperature of the exhaust gases is
sufficiently high; therefore, the heat of the exhaust gases may be used for heating oil or air
supplied to the engine.
#4 Fuel System:
The storage tank, fuel pump, fuel transfer pump, strainers, and heaters are all components of the
fuel system. The pump draws diesel from the storage tank and delivers it to the small day tank via
the filter. The day tank provides the engine with the fuel it needs each day.
Typically, the day tank is positioned high so that diesel flows to the engine by gravity. The fuel
injection pump filters diesel again before injecting it into the engine.
The fuel injection system is responsible for the following tasks.
 Filter the fuel.
 Measuring the proper amount of fuel to inject.
 Count the number of injections.
 Control the fuel supply.
 Ensure precise atomization of fuel oil.
 Make sure the fuel is evenly distributed throughout the combustion chamber.
Depending on the load on the plant, fuel is supplied to the engine.

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#5 Cooling System:
The temperature of the fuel burning inside the engine cylinder ranges from 1500 to 2000 degrees
Celsius. Water is pumped around the engine to lower this temperature. The water surrounds
(water jackets) the engine and the moving water transfers heat from the cylinder, piston,
combustion chamber, etc.
The heat exchanger is used to transfer the hot water that is leaving the jacket. The raw water that
is circulated through the heat exchanger carries the heat away and cools it in the cooling tower.
#6 Lubricating System:
The lubrication system consists of pipes, coolers, oil pumps, and oil tanks. It is used to lessen
friction between moving parts and to prolong the life of engine components like cylinder walls
and pistons.
Lubricating oil is cooled before being circulated again after becoming heated from the friction of
the moving parts. The oil is pumped into the lubrication system from the lubricating oil tank and
then through the oil cooler, where it is cooled by the cold water that is entering the engine. After
the moving parts have cooled, the hot oil is returned to the lubricating oil tank.
#7 Starting System:
This includes compressed air links. The function of this system is to start the engine from the
cold by supplying compressed air.
#8 Governing System:
This consists of the governor and its function is to maintain the speed of the engine constant
irrespective of load on the plant by controlling the fuel supply to the engine according to the
load.

Working of Diesel Power Plant:

In a diesel engine power plant, the combination of air and fuel serves as the working medium.
During the suction stroke, atmosphere air will enter the combustion chamber under the influence
of the injection pump, and fuel will be injected through the injection pump into the combustion
chamber.
Due to high compression in the engine cylinders, air and fuel are mixed inside the engine, and the
mixture is ignited by the combination of air and fuel.
There are two basic principles that apply to the diesel engine, the first of which is that thermal
energy is converted into mechanical energy, and the second of which is that mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy to produce power by means of a generator or alternator.

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Advantages of Diesel Power Plant:

The following are the advantages of a diesel power plant:

1. Design and installation are very simple.
2. Can respond to varying loads without any difficulty.
3. The standby losses are less.
4. Occupy less space.
5. It can be started and put on load quickly.
6. No problem with ash handling.
7. Requires less quantity of water for cooling purposes.
8. Low capital investment
9. Requires less operating and maintenance staff.
10. More economical lubrication system.
11. It can burn a relatively wide range of fuel.
12. These plants can be located very nearer to the load centers.
13. The cost of the building becomes very low.
14. More efficient than the steam power plant.

Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plant:

The following are the disadvantages of a diesel power plant:

1. High operating cost.
2. High maintenance and lubrication costs.
3. Diesel unit capacity is limited.
4. Noise is a serious problem.
5. It cannot supply overloads continuously.
6. Overload is not possible.
7. Releases unwanted emissions.
8. Life is quite small (7 to 10 years).

Application of Diesel Power Plant

The following are some uses for diesel power plants:
Installation of Plant
The plant is simple to install in a power system network
Peak Load Plant
To meet peak demand, the diesel power plant is combined with thermal and hydroelectric power
plants. It lowers the price of producing one unit of electricity. It is simple to start and stop
depending on demand and load variation.

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Emergency Plant
The diesel engine can serve as an emergency power source. When grid power is unavailable, the
diesel engine serves as a backup plant for emergency situations.
Mobile Plant
The diesel power plant’s small and medium capacity can be mounted on a truck or trailer. This
plant can be transported to areas where grid power is unavailable and used as a mobile power
source. This plant is also utilized in the event of a power outage.
Stand By Unit
This plant can be utilized along with a hydroelectric power plant as a backup. The diesel power
plant runs together with the hydropower plant when the hydropower plant’s water supply is
insufficient to meet the demand for electricity.
Small-scale Industrial Power Plant
This plant can be used to temporarily power a small industry where consistent access to power is
necessary throughout the day.
Nursery Station
The diesel power plant is used as a temporary solution to supply the electricity in some areas
where a grid is not available or any developing area does not have enough load to connect with a
grid.

Nuclear Power Plant:

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Components of Nuclear Reactor:
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission is controlled as a self-stabilizing chain
reaction.
A nuclear reactor consists of the following:
1. Fuel rod
2. Moderator
3. Reflector
4. Coolant
5. Control rods
6. Shielding
7. Reactor vessel.
1. Fuel Rod:
The fuels used in reactors are uranium, plutonium and thorium. Among the three uranium and its
content are naturally available up to 70% to 90% in the uranium ore and the other two are
formed in the nuclear reactor during the fission process.
The fuel rods are used to produce the heat, neutrons and radio-isotopes.
2. Moderator:
Its main function is to absorb the part of the kinetic energy of the neutrons. The neutrons collide
directly with the moderator and thus reduce the kinetic energy of fast neutron to slow neutron.
The light water, heavy water and graphite are the most common moderators used in reactors.
The moderator is also used to increase the probability of reaction.
3. Reflector:
Its main function is to reflect back the escaping neutrons back into the core from the surface of
the core. A reflector is usually placed around the core. The neutrons produced in fission process
can be absorbed by the fuel itself, a moderator, coolant, and some neutrons may escape from the
core without absorption. To reduce the loss of neutrons, the reflector is placed around the core.
4. Coolant:
The main function of coolant is to absorb a large amount of heat produced in the reactor. The
heat carried by the coolant is used for power generation. If water is used as a coolant, it absorbs
the heat and gets converted into steam for power generation.
5. Control Rods:
The control rods are used to:
1. Start the reactor from the cold.
2. For maintaining the chain reaction in a steady-state.
3. To shut down the reactor automatically under emergency condition.
The control is necessary to prevent the melting of fuel rods and destruction of the reactor under
emergency situation. Cadmium, boron or hafnium are commonly used as a control rod.
6. Shielding:
A thermal shielding is provided through steel lining and external shield is be reactor installation
to protect the operating provided with concrete surrounding the reactor installation to pro actor

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walls from radiation damage. personnel from exposure to radiations and reactor walls from
radiation damage.
7. Reactor Vessel:
It encloses the reactor core, reflector and shield. It also provides entrance and exit passage for
coolant. The control rods are passed through a holder from the top of the vessel. The reactor
vessel has to withstand a pressure of about 200 bar or more. The reactor core is placed at the
bottom of the vessel.

Working of Nuclear Power Plant with Layout:

 The simple construction of a nuclear power plant as shown in the figure. It consists of a
nuclear reactor, coolant circulating pump, heat exchanger, feed pump, condenser, turbine
and generator.

 The heat is generated in a reactor by the fission reaction. The coolant in the primary
circuit gets heated by absorbing the heat and enters into the heat exchanger. In a heat
exchanger, the feed water is heated and converted into steam by the hot coolant by means
of heat transfer.

 The steam from the heat exchanger enters the turbine and the turbine is connected to the
generator which generates power. The steam after doing the work enters into the
condenser and converted into the water which is pumped again to the heat exchanger by
the feed pump.

 The hot coolant gets cooled in heat exchanger is recirculated into the reactor by a coolant
circulating pump. This cycle is repeated for continuous generation of power. The
generated power is supplied to the distribution line for consumers as shown in the line
diagram.

Advantages:
1. Less fuel is required.
2. It requires less space than thermal plant.,
3. Compact and simple in maintenance.
4. Less water is required.
5. Transportation cost of the fuel is less.
6. Low cost of erection.
7. Fuel handling is negligible.
Disadvantages:
1. High capital investment.
2. High maintenance cost.

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3. Radioactive wastes should be disposed of carefully.
4. Skilled workers are required.
5. It is not suitable for varying loads.

Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission:

Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are different two types of reactions that release energy due to
the presence of high-strength nuclear bonds between particles found within the nucleus. In
fission, an atomic is split into two or more smaller, lighter atoms. In fusion, two or more smaller
atoms fuse together, creating a large, heavier atom.

Nuclear Fusion:
The nuclear fusion can be defined as the reaction in which the energy is released by means of
combining two or more nuclei and forming a new element with a higher atomic number.
The energy released in fusion is related to,
E = mc2 (Einstein’s energy-mass equation)

Nuclear Fission:
The nuclear fission can be defined as the reaction in which the energy is released by means of
splitting of a massive nucleus into photons in the form of gamma rays, free neutrons and other
subatomic particles.

Difference between Nuclear Fusion and Fission:

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

1. Fission is the splitting of a large atom into 1. Fusion is a fusing of two lighter atoms into a
two or more smaller ones. larger one.

2. This reaction does not normally occur in

2. Fusion occurs in stars, such as Sun.
nature.

3. Fission produces many highly radioactive 3. Few radioactive particles are produced by the
particles. fusion reaction.

4. The critical mass of the substance and high- 4. High density, high-temperature environment
speed neutrons are required. is required.

5. The energy released is 3 to 4 times greater

5. Lower energy is released.
than the energy released by fission.

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6. It is used in nuclear power plants. 6. Used for bomb production.

7. Uranium is the main fuel. 7. Hydrogen isotopes are the main fuel.

Applications:
1. Electricity Generation
2. Desalination
3. Space Exploration
4. Medical Applications
5. Industrial Processes
6. Research and Development
7. Military Applications

Hydro Power Plant:

Hydro Power Plant Definition:

Hydro Power Plant is an electricity-producing plant in which the water is an essential fuel, the
potential energy is being converted into kinetic energy and kinetic energy is further converted into
mechanical and into electrical energy with the help of a turbine and motor.

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Components of Hydro Power Plant:
1. Head pond or Reservoir
2. Control gate
3. Penstock
4. Turbine
5. Draft Tube
6. Tail Race
7. Transmission Line
8. Generator
9. Transformer
10. Power house

Head pond:
There is one reservoir which is having a large area in which A huge amount of water is being
stored here. so, the energy here is in the form of Potential energy.
Control Gate:
There are having multiple control gates in a single hydro power plant. The work of control gate
is to regulate the flow of water. When the control gate is fully opened the speed of water flowing
is maximum.
Penstock:
The penstock is also called Pipe. The water stored at the dam or head pond is being released by
the control gate, the water starts moving to the turbine. The Head Pond is having high heights
and the Turbine is situated below. So, the speed of water gets increased because of gravitational
force. The material of the penstock is hard steel being used.
Valve and Nozzle:
The valve work is similar to the control gate and Nozzle work is striking water in a specific
direction [Pressure is high] that is a turbine blade.
Surge tank:
Surge tank is an additional and essential component which is used to accumulate the water which
is in pipe when we want to close the turbine working. Or you can say it is used for avoiding the
pipe burst.
Turbine:
Turbine is a device which is used for generation of electricity. Turbine work is, the fluid having
kinetic energy is being converted into rotational energy.
The high kinetic energy water comes through the penstock to the nozzle and strikes the turbine
blades. The turbine blades start rotating. So, the rotational energy can also be called mechanical
energy.
Draft Tube:
Drat tube is mechanical component which is used for enlarging the area of pipe for sending
maximum fluid to the other side.

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Tail Race:
Tailrace carries water away from the plant. Hence the water is sent to the river.
Transmission Line:
The transmission line carries power from the power unit or transformer and transfers or supplies
from one source to another. It is made up of conductor.
Generator:
When the turbine buckets start rotating, the turbine shafts also rotating. the motors are attached
to the turbine shafts which is also rotating and generator is attached to them which generates
electricity.
Transformer:
The transformer is attached to the generator. The electricity generated is now controlled by the
transformer. The work of transformer is to set up or set down the voltage.
Power House:
The name power house means there is a house in which the power is being stored and released to
the transformer and so on.

Hydro Power Plant Working:

In a large amount of water is available or you can say a river. The water is being stored in
the reservoir which is in the form of potential energy. With the use of the control gate, the
water is being released and water starts flowing into the penstock. Here two components
are attached 1. Surge tank, Valve, and Nozzle. [Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy to
Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy]

Initially, the valve is closed. But when the water reaches up to the max level that can create
high pressure then we on the valves.
The water with high pressure starts flowing and strikes to the turbine blades through the
nozzle.
The turbine blades start rotating. So, till now, we observed the water which is having PE is
now converting into KE.
In the turbine blade, an electric motor is attached to the turbine shafts. So, rotation of
turbine blades also rotates the turbine shafts, which also rotates the electric motor. Hence
Kinematic energy into mechanical energy and then further it is converted into electric
energy.
The energy generated is sent to the powerhouse, Transformer, and Transmission line.
The water which is rotating the turbine blades is now sent to the river via a tailrace.
The hydropower plant is constructed to store the water in a large amount. When the
water reaches up to the max level then it is being released this also causes the flood in
some area.

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Advantages:
 Hydro-generation has a unique and significant role to play particularly in the operation of
interconnected power systems.
 The operating cost of the hydroelectric plant including auxiliaries is considerably low
when compared with thermal plants. The annual operating and maintenance cost of a
thermal plant is approximately 5- 6 times that of a hydro plant of equal capacity.
 These are simple in design easy to maintain, pollution-free with zero fueling cost.
 The cost of power generation is less.
 The life expectancy of a hydroelectric power plant is more. The useful life of a thermal
plant is 20-25 years as against 100-125 years for the hydro plants.

Disadvantages:
 The capital cost (cost per kilowatt capacity) of the hydro plant is considerably more than
the thermal plant.
 It takes a considerable long time for its erection compared with thermal plants.
 Power generation by the hydro plant is only dependent on the quantity of water available
which in turn depends on the natural phenomenon of rain. The dry year is more serious
for the hydroelectric project.
 The site of Hydroelectric station is selected on the criterion of water availability at
economical head such sites are usually away from the load center.

Applications:
1. Electricity Generation
2. Baseload Power
3. Peak Load Power
4. Load Following
5. Irrigation:
6. Flood Control
7. Recreation

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MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION

In mechanical power transmission we study about Belt Drives, Chain Drives, Rope Drives and
Gear Drives.

Belt Drives:

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most
often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track
relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and
the shafts need not be parallel.

The amount of Power transmitted depends on the following factors:

 The velocity of the belt.
 The tension under which the belt is applied to the pulleys.
 Arc of contact between the belt and small pulley.
 Conditions under which belts are used.

1. Open Belt Drive:

The open belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the same direction. In
that case, the driver pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to the other side.
Thus, the tension in the lower side belt will be higher than in the upper side belt. The lower side
belt is known as the tight side belt while the upper side belt is known as the slack side belt.

When the shafts are too far apart, the bottom of the belt should be the tight side and the upper
side should be the slack side. This is so that when the upper side becomes the dull side, it will
relax due to its weight and thus increase the arc of contact.

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2. Closed (or) Crossed Belt Drive:
Cross or twisted belt drives are used with rotating shafts in parallel and opposite directions. In
this case, the driver pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to the other side.
Thus, the tension at the Bottom Side of the belt will be higher than at the upper side of the belt.
The belt is known as the tight side due to high tension, while the belt due to low tension is
known as the slack side.

This type of belt drive employs a belt when two parallel shafts have to rotate in the opposite
direction. At the junction where the belt crosses, it rubs against itself and wears off. To avoid
excessive wear, the shafts should be kept at a maximum distance from each other and operated at
very low speeds.
A little consideration will show that at a point where the belt crosses, it rubs against each other
and there will be excessive wear and tear. To avoid this, the shaft must be placed at a maximum
distance of 20 B, where B is the width of the belt and the belt speed must be less than 15 m/s.

The Material Used for Belts:

There are five main materials that conveyor belts are made out of:
 Leather belts
 Cotton belts or Fabric belts
 Rubber belts
 Balata belts
 Plastics belts

Types of Belts:

There are four different types of belts:

 Round belts. Round belts are generally made of rubber.

 V belts. V belts are arguably the most widely used belts in the industry.
 Flat belts. Flat belts are also used to transmit power from one shaft to another.
 Timing/toothed belts.

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Selection Of a Belt Drive:

The following are the various important factors on which the selection of belt drive depends:
 Speed of driving and driven shafts,
 Speed reduction ratio,
 The power to be transmitted,
 Center distance between shafts,
 positive drive requirements,
 Shaft layout,
 Location available, and
 Service Terms.

Applications Of Belt-Drive:

Belt drives are used in various places:

 A belt drive is used for power transfer.
 Drive to the rotor on the rotor-spinning machine.
 The belt drive is used in Conveyor.
 Drive to drafting rollers and other rolling elements on a single delivery drawing machine.
 Drives to opening rollers, friction drums, and take-off rollers on friction spinning
machine.

Advantages Of a Belt Drive:

The advantages of a belt drive include:

 It is cost-effective and simple to use.
 New belt-drive efficiency can be up to 95-98 percent.
 Belt drive requires a low maintenance cost.
 Belt drives do not require a parallel shaft.
 They come with overload and jam protection
 Speeds Differences can be obtained by using a step or tapered pulleys.

Disadvantages Of Belt Drive:

However, belt technology also comes with certain disadvantages of belt drive. These are:
 A belt drive is not suitable for small distances.
 There is a loss of performance due to high levels of slip and creep.
 A constant velocity ratio cannot achieve between the drive and the driven pulley.
 It produces high noise.
 it has low mechanical efficiency.

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Chain Drives:
Chain drives are suitable for small center distances and can be used generally up to 3 meters but
in special cases even up to 8 meters. Chain drives transmit power up to 100kw and operating
peripheral velocity up to 15m/s. The velocity ratio can be as high as 8:1.

The main disadvantage of the belt drives and the rope drives is that the velocity ratio does not
remain constant, but varies on account of slip. Since chain drives are positive drives there is no
slip, hence the velocity ratio will remain constant.

Types of Chain Drives:

1. Power Transmission Chain Drives:

The purpose of this type of chain drive is to transfer power between two shafts. The majority of
devices that generate power—such as pumps with associated motors—are unable to use it
simultaneously.

2. Conveyor Chain Drive:

Chain drives are utilized by conveyors; these drives are specifically designed to move materials.
They have characteristics like strong temperature and chemical resistance, reduced friction, and
hundreds of various designs.

3. Hoisting and Hauling Chain Drive:

The most popular piece of equipment for raising and lowering machines is a chain
hoist. Pulleys allow them to raise large amounts of weight with little effort.

Types of Chains:
From an industry standpoint, the major types of chains are as follows:

1. Roller Chain (Bush Roller Chain):

This type of chains is most commonly used for the transmission of mechanical power on many
kinds of domestic, industrial, and agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire- and tube-
drawing machines, printing presses, cars, motorcycles, and bicycles.
Roller chain consists of a series of short cylindrical rollers held together by side links. It is driven
by a toothed wheel called a sprocket. It is simple, reliable, and efficient for power transmission.

2. Silent Chain:
The silent chain also called inverted tooth chain, consists of a series of toothed link plates
assembled on joint components in a way that allows free flexing between each pitch.

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“Silent chains” are made up of stacked rows of flat link plates with gear-type contours designed
to engage sprocket teeth like the way a rack engages a gear as shown in the figure. The links are
held together at each chain joint by one or more pins, which also allow the chain to flex.

3. Leaf Chain:
Leaf chains are designed for lifting rather than power transmission. Tensions are very high, but
speeds are slow. Normally the chains work intermittently. The main considerations in the design
of the leaf chains are tensile loads, joint wear, and link plate and sheave wear.

4. Flat-top Chain:
Flat-top chains are widely used on conveyors, most basically used on the special type of slat
conveyor.
The Flat-top chain consists of.
 A series of steel top plates with hinge-like barrels curled on each side.
 Pins are inserted through the barrels to make a joint. These act as both beams and
bearings.
 Pins are retained by press fits or heading in the barrels of one top plate and are free to
articulate in the barrels of the next link.
5. Engineering Steel Chain:
Engineering steel chains were first developed in the 1880s and were designed for difficult
conveying applications. Most engineering steel chains are used in conveyors, bucket elevators, and
tension linkages.

The Chain Used in Bicycle:

Most bicycle chains are made from plain carbon or alloy steel, but some are nickel-plated to
prevent rust or simply for stylish.

Chain drive was the main feature that modified the safety bicycle introduced in 1885, with its
two equal-sized wheels, from the “high wheeler” type of bicycle. The popularity of chain-driven
safety is still a basic feature of bicycle design today.
A bicycle chain has a very high efficiency because it moves the point of pressure farther away
from the axle, putting less stress on the bearings, and thus reducing friction in the inner wheel.
The higher chain tension was found to be more efficient.

Advantages:
1. They are positive non-sail drives.
2. Efficiency is very high (up to 99%).
3. It can be employed for the shaft which is small as well as large center distances up to 3m.
4. They permit a high-velocity ratio of up to 8:1 in one step.
5. They can transmit higher power than belt drives.

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6. Because the sprockets are lighter than the pulleys, they produce less stress on the shafts
compared to the belt drives.
7. Unlike belt drives, they can operate under adverse temperatures and atmospheric
conditions.
8. They occupy less space and are more compact than belt drives.
9. Maintenance is low.
Disadvantages:
1. The driving and driven shaft should be accurately aligned so that their axes are exactly
parallel.
2. Requires more lubrication.
3. High initial cost.
4. Stretching of the chin makes it impossible for the operation to have periodic reversals.
5. Velocity fluctuations are more.
Difference Between Belt Drive and Chain Drive:
A comparison between belt drive and chain drive is shown in the table below.
Features Belt Drive Chain Drive

A belt drive is continuous and

Transmission Chain drives are discontinuous and rigid.
flexible.

The belt is composed of rubber or

Construction The chain is constructed of metal.
synthetic materials.

It is generally more efficient due to It generally has poor efficiency because of

Efficiency
decreased friction. higher friction.

It requires regular maintenance and

Maintenance It requires minimal maintenance.
tension adjustment.

They can be louder, particularly at high

Noise Level These are quieter to operate.
speeds.

Belt drives have limited use in high- Chain drives can handle a wide range of
Speed Range
speed applications. speeds.

Belt drives offer a lower load- Chain drives are more capable of
Load Capacity
carrying capacity. handling heavy loads.

Belt drives are typically less Chain drives might be more expensive to
Cost
expensive to produce. produce.

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Features Belt Drive Chain Drive

It generally results in a longer belt Chains may need to be replaced since

Durability
life. they have a shorter lifespan.

Heavy weights may cause belt drives Chain drives are less likely to slip under
Slip
to slip. strong loads.

Rope Drives:

The rope drive is widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one
pulley to another, over a considerable distance. Rope drives use a number of circular
section ropes, rather than a single flat or vee belt.
It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the transmission of moderate power from
one pulley to another when the two pulleys is not more than 8 meters apart.
Types of Ropes:
The rope drive uses the following two types of ropes:
1. Fibre Ropes
2. Wire ropes.
The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 meters apart, while the wire
ropes are used when the pulleys are up to 150 meters apart.
Fibre Ropes:
The ropes for transmitting power are usually made from fibrous, materials such as hemp, manila
and cotton. Since the hemp and manila fibres are rough, therefore the ropes made from these
fibres are not very flexible and possesses poor mechanical properties.

The hemp ropes have less strength as compared to manila ropes. When the hemp and manila
ropes are bent over the sheave (or pulley), there is some sliding of fibres, causing the rope to wear.
In order to minimize this defect, the rope fibres are lubricated. The lubrication also makes the
rope Moisture proof.
The fibre ropes are usually circular in cross-section. The groove angle of the pulley for rope
drives is usually 45°. The grooves in the pulley are made narrow at the bottom and the rope is
pinched between the edges of the v-groove to increase the holding power of the rope on the
pulley.

Wire Ropes:
When a large amount of power is to be transmitted over long distances from one pulley to
another (i.e. when the pulleys are up to 150 meters apart), then wire ropes are used.

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The wire ropes are widely used in elevators, mine hoists, cranes, conveyors, hauling devices and
suspension bridges. The wise ropes run on grooved pulleys but they rest on the bottom of the
grooves and are not wedged between the sides of the grooves.

Advantages of Rope Drive:

 Appreciable power transmission.
 Used for long-distance power transitions.
 Strong and flexible ropes.
 Smooth and noise resistant.
 Runs in any direction.
 Low-cost and economical.
 Precise alignment of the shaft is not needed.
Disadvantage of Rope Drive:
 Failure of rope does not have any sign, so it often gets unnoticed.
 Wire rope gets corroded.

Applications:
1. Industrial Machinery
2. Agricultural Equipment
3. Mining Equipment
4. Material Handling
5. Automotive Industry
6. Printing and Textile Machinery
7. Woodworking Equipment
8. Fitness Equipment
Gear Drives:
Gear drives, sometimes referred to as gear trains and gearboxes, are mechanisms consisting of an
assembly of gears, shafts, and other machine elements for mounting the rotating parts. They form
a mechanical system used for transmitting shaft power from a driver such as an engine, turbine, or
motor to a driven piece of machinery. Gear drives can alter the transmitted power by using
different configurations of gears.

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Nomenclature of Gear Drives:

Drive gears have a wide range of unique terminology known as gear nomenclature.
i. Pitch Circle:
In every pair of gears in mesh, when teeth size becomes too small, the gears as two smooth
cylinders in contact have the same speed as gears and do not slip. Such imaginary cylinders are
called pitch cylinders and the circle is known as pitch circle.
ii. Pitch Surface:
The cylindrical surface which the pitch circle represents is called the pitch surface.
iii. Pitch Point:
It is the point of contact between the pitch circles of two meshing gears, as indicated by W in
iv. Center Distance:
It is the distance between the centers of the pair of mating gears.
v. Tooth Face:
The upper portion of the tooth profile which is above the pitch circle is called face of the tooth.

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vi. Tooth Flank:
The lower portion of the tooth profile is called flank of the tooth.
vii. Addendum:
The radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of teeth is known as addendum.
viii. Addendum Circle:
The circle passing through the upper portion of the teeth (crest) is known as addendum circle.
ix. Dedendum:
The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of teeth is known as dedendum.
x. Dedendum Circle:
It is the circle which passes through the bottom of the teeth.
xi. Crest:
It is the outer portion at the top of tooth.
xii. Tooth Depth:
It is the height of tooth denoted by h.
xiii. Tooth Thickness:
It is the thickness of the tooth denoted by t.
Types of Gears:
1. Spur gear
2. Helical gear
3. Double helical gear
4. Bevel gear
5. Spiral bevel gear
6. Screw gear
7. Mitre gear
8. Worm gear

Types of Gear Trains:

A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame. As mentioned above,
when two or more gears mesh together to transmit power from one shaft to another such
arrangement is called a gear set or a gear train.
Sometimes two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from one
shaft to another such a combination is called the “gear train of the wheel”.
Also, each gear is generally attached to a shaft often gears that are meshed together will be of
different sizes; in this case, the smaller gear is referred to as the pinion, and the larger one is
simply referred to as the gear.
Following are the different types of gear trains:
1. Simple gear trains
2. Compound gear trains
3. Reverted gear trains
4. Epicyclic gear trains

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#1 Simple Gear Trains:
In these types of gear trains, the distance between the two wheels is great the motion from one
wheel to another is transmitted by providing one or more intermediate wheels.

When the number of intermediate wheels is odd, the motion of the driver and follower is as
shown in the figure. If the number of intermediate wheels is even the motion of the follower will
be in the opposite direction of the driver as shown in the figure.
#2 Compound Gear Train:

In a compound gear train, each intermediate shaft has two wheels fixed to it. These wheels have
the same speed. One-wheel gears with the drier and the other wheel gears with the follower
attached to the next shaft.
#3 Reverted Gear Trains:
When the axes of the first and last wheels are co-axial the train is known as a “reverted gear
train” as shown in Fig. Since the motion of the first and last wheel is alike, therefore a compound
wheel is provided. Since the distance between the centers of the shaft, 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4
is the same.
#4 Epicyclic Gear Train:
In an epicyclic gear train, the axes of the shaft, over which the gears are mounted, move relative to
a fixed axis. A simple epicyclic or planetary gear train is shown in the figure.

Here wheel A and arm C have a common axis at O1 about which they can rotate. Wheel B
meshes with wheel A and has its axis on the arm at O2, about which wheel B can rotate. If wheel
A is fixed and the arm is rotated, the train becomes an “epicyclic gear train”.

Advantages of Gears:
The following are the advantages of gears:
1. Gears are mechanically strong; they can carry higher loads easily.
2. They are used to transmit motion over shafts with small center distances.
3. These mechanical devices are capable of transmitting large high frequency (H.F.).

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4. Gears only need to be greased therefore maintenance is minimal.
5. Gear systems allow us to transfer motion across non-parallel intersecting shafts.
6. Because of its long lifespan, the gear system is extremely compact.
Disadvantages of Gears:
The following are the disadvantages of gears:
1. Gear systems are not suitable for high-speed operation.
2. They are poor at transmitting motion over long distances.
3. Some noise may come from the operating gear.
4. The engagement of toothed gear wheels under heavy loading might cause irreversible
damage to some machine elements.
Applications of Gears:
1. Automotive Industry: Gear drives are extensively used in automobiles for power
transmission and speed reduction or increase.
2. Industrial Machinery: Gear drives are crucial components in a wide range of industrial
machinery, including gearboxes, conveyors, machine tools, and packaging equipment.
Construction Equipment: Gear drives are employed in construction machinery such as
cranes, excavators, bulldozers, and concrete mixers.
3. Mining and Material Handling: Gear drives play a crucial role in mining and material
handling equipment, including conveyor systems, crushers, hoists, and draglines.
4. Aerospace and Defense: Gear drives are used in aerospace and defense applications for
functions such as power transmission in aircraft engines, landing gear mechanisms, weapon
systems, and satellite deployment mechanisms.
5. Marine Industry: Gear drives are integral to marine propulsion systems, including
propeller shafts, marine gears, and thrusters.
6. Wind Turbines: Gear drives are employed in wind turbines to increase the rotational
speed of the turbine blades and convert the low-speed rotation into high-speed rotation
for electricity generation.
7. Power Generation: Gear drives are used in power generation equipment such as
hydroelectric turbines, steam turbines, and generators.

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INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

Robotics is a fascinating field that sits at the intersection of science, engineering, and technology.
Let’s dive into the basics:
1. Definition:
o Robotics involves the design, construction, use, and control of robots—machines
that can replicate or substitute for human actions.
o These robots perform basic and repetitive tasks with greater efficiency and accuracy
than humans, making them ideal for industries like manufacturing.
2. Components of Robotics:
o Sensors: These gather information from the outside world and send it to the
robot’s “brain.”
o Actuators: These are responsible for moving the robot’s parts (e.g., motors,
pumps).
o On-board Control Unit (Brain): The robot’s control center that processes
information and sends commands.
o Program: Robots respond to instructions provided in the form of a program.
o Appearance: Robots have a physical body, which distinguishes them from mere
software programs.
o Behavior: A robot’s behavior is determined by its program.
3. Types of Robots:
o Articulated Robots: These have rotary joints (typically 2 to 10 or more) and are
versatile in movement.

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o Other types include mobile robots, industrial robots, service robots, and bio-
inspired robots (inspired by nature).
4. History:
o Asimov’s “Three Laws of Robotics”:
1. Robots will never harm human beings.
2. Robots will follow instructions given by humans without breaking the first
law.
3. Robots will protect themselves without breaking other rules 2.
5. Applications:
o Manufacturing: Robots automate assembly lines, welding, and other repetitive
tasks.
o Healthcare: Surgical robots assist in precision surgeries.
o Exploration: Robots explore space, deep oceans, and hazardous environments.
o Education: Robots teach programming and problem-solving skills.
o Entertainment: Robots in movies, theme parks, and interactive exhibits.
o Agriculture, Logistics, and more
6. Advantages:
 Increased Efficiency
 Improved Safety
 Cost Savings
 24/7 Operations
 Precision and Accuracy
 Flexibility and Adaptability
 Data Collection and Analysis
 Improved Quality
7. Disadvantages:
 High Initial Cost
 Job Displacement
 Complexity and Maintenance
 Limited Adaptability
 Ethical and Social Implications
 Dependence on Power and Infrastructure
 Cybersecurity Risks
 Environmental Impact

Robot Joints:
Robot joints refer to the movable components of the robot that result in relative motions
between adjacent links. In this context, links are used to refer to the rigid members connecting the

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joints for clear and adequate functioning. This goes to show that the industrial robotic
arm features the use of a combination of links and joints for optimal functionality. It is essential
to ensure that the joints on your manipulator are working accordingly to ensure that there is
precision and accuracy while in an application.

1. Linear Joints
In the linear joints, the relative motion featured by the adjacent links is meant to be parallel. This
means that the input and output links are sliding in a linear motion. This kind of movement
results in a translational motion. This kind of linear motion can be achieved in several ways
including the use of the telescoping mechanism and piston. This type of joint is also referred to
as the L- joint.

2. Orthogonal Joints
The orthogonal joints are also popularly referred to as the type O-joints. They feature a relative
movement taken by the input link and output link. This kind of motion involved in the
Orthogonal joints is a translational sliding motion. However, unlike the linear joint’s
arrangement, with the Orthogonal joint, the output link is perpendicular to the input link.

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3. Rotational Joints
When it comes to the rotational joints, you’ll find the use of rotational relative motions that
come in handy for robot manipulators working multiple workspaces. These movements are
carried out with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
These rotational joints are also referred to as Type R joints.

4. Twisting Joints
This type of joint features rotary motion that also results in some degree of rotation when in use.
The movement in these joints is relative to the axis of rotation that is perpendicular to the axes of
the input and output links. The twisting joints are also referred to as type T joints.

5. Revolving Joints
In the revolving joints, things are a bit different compared to the others. These joints also feature
a rotational movement that comes in handy in different applications. The movement of these
joints features motion between the two links. The axis of the input link is designed to be parallel
to the axis of rotation of the joint.

Link in a robot
Here is one definition of a robot link. “A link is defined as a single part which can be a resistant
body or a combination of resistant bodies having inflexible connections and having a relative
motion with respect to other parts of the machine. A link is also known as a kinematic link or
element.

A resistant body is one which does not go under deformation while transmitting the force.”
There are different divisions of link in robot.

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1. Rigid link: In this type of link, there will not be any deformation while transmitting the
motion. For example, the industrial robotic arm is having rigid links; there will not be any
deformation while moving the arm.
2. Flexible link: In this type of link, there will be a partial deformation while transmitting the
motion. One of the examples of flexible links is belt drives.
3. Fluid link: In this type of link, motion is transmitted with the help of fluid pressure.
Hydraulic actuators, brakes are an example of a fluid link.

Prepared by M. Rajesh (Ph. D), Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mech, JNTUACEP