Theories of Utilitarianism

Introduction

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of
actions is determined by their consequences. The central aim of utilitarianism is to promote
happiness and reduce suffering. Actions are judged as moral if they result in the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. This ethical theory is most closely associated with *Jeremy Bentham*
and *John Stuart Mill*, two 19th-century philosophers who sought to create a universal approach to
morality that could guide individual and societal decisions.

The Core Principles of Utilitarianism

1. The Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle)

At the heart of utilitarianism is the principle of utility, which states that the morally right action is
the one that produces the most happiness or pleasure and the least pain or suffering. The "greatest
happiness principle" advocates for actions that bring the greatest benefit to the largest number of
people. For utilitarians, the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its outcome.

2. Consequentialism

Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral value of any action is
determined by its outcomes or consequences. The consequences must be evaluated based on how
much happiness or unhappiness they produce. This is in contrast to deontological ethics, which
judges the morality of an action based on rules or duties, irrespective of the consequences.

3. Hedonism

Utilitarianism is hedonistic in nature, meaning that it regards pleasure (happiness) as the ultimate
good and pain (unhappiness) as the ultimate evil. All other goods and values are instrumental in so
far as they contribute to pleasure or reduce pain. This concept was first articulated by Jeremy
Bentham, who defined happiness as the presence of pleasure and the absence of pain.

4. Impartiality

Utilitarianism maintains that everyone’s happiness counts equally. In other words, when
determining the consequences of an action, a utilitarian must consider the happiness of all
individuals involved, without privileging anyone's interests, including their own. Bentham famously
said, "Each to count for one, none for more than one," emphasizing the equal consideration of all
individuals’ happiness.

Jeremy Bentham’s Quantitative Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was the founder of modern utilitarianism. He developed a quantitative
version of utilitarianism, in which he aimed to calculate the utility of actions based on a “hedonic
calculus,” which involved weighing the potential pleasure and pain of any action. Bentham’s
utilitarianism is based on the following ideas:
1. Hedonic Calculus: Bentham proposed that we can measure pleasure and pain using a calculus that
considers factors such as intensity, duration, certainty, and proximity. The hedonic calculus is a way to
systematically evaluate the consequences of any action.

2. Quantitative Focus: Bentham’s version of utilitarianism focuses solely on the quantity of happiness
generated by an action. The more pleasure produced, the better the action.

3. Criticisms of Bentham: One criticism of Bentham's quantitative utilitarianism is that it treats all
pleasures as equal. Critics argue that this fails to distinguish between different qualities of pleasure,
such as intellectual or moral pleasures compared to base physical pleasures.

John Stuart Mill’s Qualitative Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), a student of Bentham’s philosophy, revised utilitarianism by adding a
**qualitative* dimension to the theory. Mill argued that not all pleasures are of equal value and
introduced the concept of *higher* and *lower pleasures*:

1. Higher vs. Lower Pleasures: According to Mill, intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures)
are superior to physical pleasures (lower pleasures). He famously stated, "It is better to be a human
being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." Mill
believed that the quality of pleasure is as important as the quantity.

2. Moral and Intellectual Considerations: Mill emphasized that utilitarianism should focus on long-
term happiness and moral development, rather than immediate gratification. Higher pleasures
involve intellectual fulfilment, moral integrity, and personal growth, which lead to greater well-being
over time.

3. Rule Utilitarianism: Mill also proposed a distinction between act utilitarianism and rule
utilitarianism.

- Act utilitarianism states that each action must be evaluated individually for its utility.

- Rule utilitarianism suggests that we should adopt rules that, in general, lead to the greatest
happiness. This form of utilitarianism aims to avoid the short-term pitfalls of calculating each
individual action’s consequences by adhering to rules that promote long-term well-being.

ypes of Utilitarianism

1. Act Utilitarianism:

- Act utilitarianism evaluates the morality of each action on a case-by-case basis. The rightness or
wrongness of an action depends on whether it maximizes happiness in that specific situation. This
version of utilitarianism can be seen as flexible, but it requires a detailed analysis of each action’s
potential consequences, which can be impractical in real-life situations.

2. Rule Utilitarianism:

- Rule utilitarianism advocates following rules that, if generally followed, would lead to the greatest
happiness. It addresses the shortcomings of act utilitarianism by providing a more stable and
predictable framework for ethical decision-making. For example, rules such as “do not lie” or “do not
harm others” are generally accepted because they promote long-term happiness and societal
stability.

Limitations of Utilitarianism
1. Justice and Rights:

One of the main criticisms of utilitarianism is that it does not adequately account for *justice* or
*individual rights*. Utilitarianism might justify morally questionable actions, such as punishing an
innocent person if it results in greater happiness for the majority. This neglects the importance of
fairness and the protection of individual rights.

2. Predicting Consequences:

Utilitarianism relies on predicting the consequences of actions, but it is often impossible to foresee
all the potential outcomes of a decision. Actions that seem to promote happiness in the short term
may lead to unintended negative consequences in the long term.

3. Emotional and Cultural Factors:

Utilitarianism often downplays the importance of.

Utilitarianism is about making decisions based on results. It says the right action is the one that
brings the most happiness and reduces suffering for the most people. This idea is linked to *Jeremy
Bentham* and *John Stuart Mill*.

Main Ideas

1. *Greatest Happiness Principle*

An action is good if it increases happiness and decreases pain for the most people.

2. *Consequences Matter*

What matters are the results of actions, not the intentions.

3. *Pleasure and Pain*

Happiness is good (pleasure), and pain is bad. All decisions aim to increase pleasure and reduce
pain.

4. *Equal Happiness*

Everyone's happiness counts equally in decision-making.

Bentham’s Utilitarianism

*Jeremy Bentham* focused on *how much* happiness an action produces, using a "hedonic
calculus" to measure pleasure and pain. Critics say he treated all pleasures the same.

Mill’s Utilitarianism

*John Stuart Mill* believed in *quality* as well as quantity. He said intellectual pleasures are better
than physical ones and focused on long-term happiness.

Problems

1. *Justice*: Utilitarianism might ignore fairness or individual rights.

2. *Hard to Predict*: It's difficult to predict all future outcomes.

3. *Ignoring Feelings*: It may overlook emotions and cultural factors.