Network hardware:

Networks are created when two or more computers are connected. Files are sent over a
network as data packets. Networks can be made in different topologies.

Networking hardware

Computers need networking hardware in order to connect to each

other. Routers, hubs, switches and bridges are all pieces of networking equipment that
can perform slightly different tasks. A router can often incorporate hubs, switches and
wireless access within the same hardware.

Routers

A router can form a LAN by connecting devices within a building. It also makes it
possible to connect different networks together. Homes and businesses use a router to
connect to the internet. A router can often incorporate a modem within the hardware.

Modems

A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet over a telephone line. A

modem converts digital signals from a computer to analogue signals that are then sent
down the telephone line. A modem on the other end converts the analogue signal back
to a digital signal which another computer can understand.

Hubs, bridges and switches

Hubs, bridges and switches allow multiple devices to connect to the router and they
transfer data to all devices on a network. A router is a more complex device that usually
includes the capability of hubs, bridges and switches.
Hubs

A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. This can use a lot of bandwidth as it
results in unnecessary data being sent - not all computers might need to receive the
data. A hub would be useful to link up a few games consoles for a local multiplayer game
using a wired LAN.

Bridges

A bridge is used to connect two separate LAN networks. A computer can act as a bridge
through the operating system. A bridge looks for the receiving device before it sends the
message. This means that it will not send a message if the receiving computer is not
there. It will check to see if the receiver has already had the message. This can help
save unnecessary data transfers, which improves the performance of a network.

Switches

A switch performs a similar role to a hub and a bridge but is more powerful. It stores
the MAC addresses of devices on a network and filters data packets to see which devices
have asked for them. This makes a switch more efficient when demand is high. If, for
example, a game involved lots of data being passed between machines, then a switch
could reduce the amount of latency.

Wireless access points

Wireless access points (WAPs) are required to connect to a network wirelessly. WAPs
are usually built into the broadband router.

Device addresses

Data packets include the addresses of the devices they are going to and coming from.
Computers need a network interface card to connect to a network. All devices on a
network have a MAC address.

MAC address

Every piece of hardware on a network has a unique MAC address. This is embedded in
the hardware when the product is made in the factory, and the user cannot change it.
On a computer, the MAC address is a unique code built into a NIC. No two computers
have the same MAC address. A MAC address is made up of 48 bits of data, usually
written as 12 hexadecimal characters.

Network interface card (NIC)

NICs enable desktop and laptop computers to connect to a network. NICs are small
circuit boards that connect to the motherboard. Smartphones also use a GSM chip to
connect to the telephone network. Games consoles contain a NIC card so users can
access the internet, download games and play online.

Types of network

There are different networking models for how to connect computers over a network.
Computers that request information are called clients and computers that provide
information are servers. But the client and server relationship can be organised in
different ways.

The most widely-used models are client-server or peer-to-peer (P2P).

Client-server

The client-server model is the relationship between two computers in which one, the
client, makes a service request from another, the server. The key point about a client-
server model is that the client is dependent on the server to provide and manage
the information.

For example, websites are stored on web servers. A web browser is the client which
makes a request to the server, and the server sends the website to the browser.

Popular websites need powerful servers to serve thousands or millions of clients, all
making requests at the same time. The client side of a web application is often referred
to as the front end. The server side is referred to as the back end.

Peer-to-peer (P2P)

In a P2P network, no single provider is responsible for being the server. Each computer
stores files and acts as a server. Each computer has equal responsibility for providing
data.
In the client-server model, many users trying to access a large file, such as a film, would
put strain on one server. In the peer-to-peer model, many users on the network could
store the same file. Each computer can then send sections of the file, sharing the
workload. Each client can download and share files with other users.

P2P is ideal for sharing files. P2P would be unsuitable for a service such as booking
tickets, as one server needs to keep track of how many tickets are left. Also, on P2P
networks no single computer is responsible for storing a file - anyone can delete files as
they wish.

Differences between client-server and P2P networks

Client-server P2P

The server controls security of the No central control over

Security
network. security.

The server manages the network.

Manageme No central control over the
Needs a dedicated team of people
nt network. Anyone can set up.
to manage the server.

Dependen Clients are dependent on the Clients are not dependent on

cy server. a central server.

The server can be upgraded to be If machines on the network

Performan
made more powerful to cope with are slow they will slow down
ce
high demand. other machines.

Each computer has to be

Data is all backed up on the main
Backups backed up. Data can easily
server.
be deleted by users.
 BRIDGE GATEWAY

ROUTER CABLES

Network software:
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design,
implementation, and operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional
networks were hardware based with software embedded. With the advent of Software –
Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated from the hardware thus making it more
adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.
Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks

 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data
breaches, unauthorized access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations
SDN Framework
The Software Defined Networking framework has three layers as depicted in the
following diagram −
  APPLICATION LAYER − SDN applications reside in the Application Layer. The
applications convey their needs for resources and services to the control layer
through APIs.
 CONTROL LAYER − The Network Control Software, bundled into the Network
Operating System, lies in this layer. It provides an abstract view of the underlying
network infrastructure. It receives the requirements of the SDN applications and
relays them to the network components.
 INFRASTRUCTURE LAYER − Also called the Data Plane Layer, this layer contains
the actual network components. The network devices reside in this layer that
shows their network capabilities through the Control to data-Plane Interface.

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is 7 layer
architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers
work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for
the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains
information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from
one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together.

The functions of the physical layer are :

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are:
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The
main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on
the frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination
host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent
before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest
path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender &
receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are
placed in the header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.

•At sender’s side:

Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper
data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses
port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications
have default port assigned.

• At receiver’s side:

Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it
has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer , breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment
produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process,
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or
port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back
to the source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission
is reliable and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In
this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
This approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-
oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help
 to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single

layer in the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

SCENARIO:
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data) and
converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the
data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window
for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.

Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services

TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

Prerequisite – Layers of OSI Model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of
a research project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP
model, it was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD is based on
standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems
Protocol. Interconnection.
OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP has 4 layers.

OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP is more reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict OSI has strict boundaries
boundaries.
TCP/IP follows a horizontal OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.
OSI uses different session and
TCP/IP uses both session and
presentation
presentation layer in the
layers.
application layer itself.

TCP/IP developed protocols then OSI developed model then protocol.

model.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not
In OSI model, transport layer provide
provide assurance delivery of
s assurance delivery of packets.
packets.
Connection less and connection
TCP/IP model network layer only
oriented both services are provided by
provides connection less services.
network layer in OSI model.
While in OSI model, Protocols are better
Protocols cannot be replaced easily
covered and is easy to replace with the
in TCP/IP model.
change in technology.

The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access
layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf
of the receiver.
1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the
OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer
allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) being a protocol of Internet
layer, but there is a conflict about declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or
Network access layer. It is described as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer
2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which
are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main
protocols residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet
headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6
is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared
to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagram’s and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-
to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer
applications from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer
are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-
free communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and
segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of
the data through flow control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot
of overhead due to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such
features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable
transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented
protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –
 This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication
and controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this
layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS,
X Window, LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information
about these protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure
Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms,
sign in, authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the
encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks
on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like
bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.
Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30
PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s
out of sync.

ARPANET :

ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency NET. ARPANET was first
network which consisted of distributed control. It was first to
implement TCP/IP protocols. It was basically beginning of Internet with use of these
technologies. It was designed with a basic idea in mind that was to communicate with
scientific users among an institute or university.

History of ARPANET:
ARPANET was introduced in the year 1969 by Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) of US Department of Defense. It was established using a bunch of PCs at
various colleges and sharing of information and messages was done. It was for playing
as long separation diversions and individuals were asked to share their perspectives. In
the year 1980, ARPANET was handed over to different military network, Defense Data
Network.
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Characteristics of ARPANET :
1. It is basically a type of WAN.
2. It used concept of Packet Switching Network.
3. It used Interface Message Processors(IMPs) for sub-netting.
4. ARPANETs software was split into two parts- a host and a subnet.

Advantages of ARPANET :

 ARPANET was designed to service even in a Nuclear Attack.

 It was used for collaborations through E-mails.
 It created an advancement in transfer of important files and data of defense.

Limitations of ARPANET :

 Increased number of LAN connections resulted in difficulty handling.

 It was unable to cope-up with advancement in technology.

INTERNET:

Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with
each other and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)
to connect billions of computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as
optical fibers and other wireless and networking technologies. At present, internet is the
fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data between computers across
the world.

Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the

web. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP
Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
  For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely
identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Evolution

The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several
technological & Infrastructural changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project
Agency Network (ARPANET).
 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various
bodies of government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different
countries and thus became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS,
WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish
and access information over the web.

Advantages

Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some
of the advantages of Internet:
  Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations.
There are various apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for
communication. One can find various social networking sites such as:
o Facebook
o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding
various topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical
Information, Information Technology, Products etc can be surfed with help of a
search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a
medium for entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment
over internet.
o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs
o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
o Internet Banking
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the business
deals to be conducted on electronic systems

Disadvantages:

However, Internet has prooved to be a powerful source of information in almost every

field, yet there exists many disadvanatges discussed below:
  There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address,
credit card number. Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such
information. One should use credit cards only through authenticated sites.
 Another disadvantage is the Spamming.Spamming corresponds to the unwanted
e-mails in bulk. These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire
system.
 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus
attacks may cause your system to crash or your important data may get deleted.
 Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many pornographic
sites that can be found, letting your children to use internet which indirectly
affects the children healthy mental life.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This
leads to misconception among many people.

Types of Transmission Media:

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between
the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one
place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used
in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is
split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables.
Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile

Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
Wireless transmission:
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by
appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it
converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to
digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission

Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can
penetrate through walls and structures alike.Radio waves can have wavelength from 1
mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to
300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel
in straight line and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply
as they cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles.
They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and
VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back
to the earth.
Microwave Transmission

Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over
them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because
Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be
strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging
from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture
above, multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher
frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency
it is using.

Infrared Transmission

Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength
of 700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television
and it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature.
Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.

Light Transmission

Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light
or optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the
sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is
unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to
be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align
two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.
Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser
beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the
path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.