UNIT IV

Computer Memory System

Memory Hierarchy
A memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer since it is needed for storing
programs and data.

Typically, a memory unit can be classified into two categories:

1. The memory unit that establishes direct communication with the CPU is called Main
Memory. The main memory is often referred to as RAM (Random Access Memory).
2. The memory units that provide backup storage are called Auxiliary Memory. For instance,
magnetic disks and magnetic tapes are the most commonly used auxiliary memories.
Apart from the basic classifications of a memory unit, the memory hierarchy consists all of the
storage devices available in a computer system ranging from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary
memory to relatively faster main memory.
The following image illustrates the components in a typical memory hierarchy.

Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary memory is known as the lowest-cost, highest-capacity and slowest-access storage in a

computer system. Auxiliary memory provides storage for programs and data that are kept for
long-term storage or when not in immediate use. The most common examples of auxiliary
memories are magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.
A magnetic disk is a digital computer memory that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite
and access data. For example, hard drives, zip disks, and floppy disks.
Magnetic tape is a storage medium that allows for data archiving, collection, and backup for
different kinds of data.
Main Memory

The main memory in a computer system is often referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM).
This memory unit communicates directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices
through an I/O processor.
The programs that are not currently required in the main memory are transferred into auxiliary
memory to provide space for currently used programs and data.
I/O Processor

The primary function of an I/O Processor is to manage the data transfers between auxiliary
memories and the main memory.
Cache Memory

The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the cache
memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever the CPU
requires accessing memory, it first checks the required data into the cache memory. If the data is
found in the cache memory, it is read from the fast memory. Otherwise, the CPU moves onto the
main memory for the required data.

Main Memory
The main memory acts as the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a relatively large and
fast memory which is used to store programs and data during the run time operations.
The primary technology used for the main memory is based on semiconductor integrated circuits.
The integrated circuits for the main memory are classified into two major units.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) integrated circuit chips

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) integrated circuit chips

RAM integrated circuit chips
The RAM integrated circuit chips are further classified into two possible operating
modes, static and dynamic.
The primary compositions of a static RAM are flip-flops that store the binary information. The
nature of the stored information is volatile, i.e. it remains valid as long as power is applied to the
system. The static RAM is easy to use and takes less time performing read and write operations
as compared to dynamic RAM.
The dynamic RAM exhibits the binary information in the form of electric charges that are applied
to capacitors. The capacitors are integrated inside the chip by MOS transistors. The dynamic RAM
consumes less power and provides large storage capacity in a single memory chip.
RAM chips are available in a variety of sizes and are used as per the system requirement. The
following block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 128 * 8 RAM chip.

o A 128 * 8 RAM chip has a memory capacity of 128 words of eight bits (one byte) per word.
This requires a 7-bit address and an 8-bit bidirectional data bus.
o The 8-bit bidirectional data bus allows the transfer of data either from memory to CPU
during a read operation or from CPU to memory during a write operation.
o The read and write inputs specify the memory operation, and the two chip select (CS)
control inputs are for enabling the chip only when the microprocessor selects it.
o The bidirectional data bus is constructed using three-state buffers.
o The output generated by three-state buffers can be placed in one of the three possible
states which include a signal equivalent to logic 1, a signal equal to logic 0, or a high-
impedance state.
ROM integrated circuit

The primary component of the main memory is RAM integrated circuit chips, but a portion of
memory may be constructed with ROM chips.
A ROM memory is used for keeping programs and data that are permanently resident in the
computer.
Apart from the permanent storage of data, the ROM portion of main memory is needed for
storing an initial program called a bootstrap loader. The primary function of the bootstrap
loader program is to start the computer software operating when power is turned on.
ROM chips are also available in a variety of sizes and are also used as per the system requirement.
The following block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 512 * 8 ROM chip.
 o A ROM chip has a similar organization as a RAM chip. However, a ROM can only perform
read operation; the data bus can only operate in an output mode.

o The 9-bit address lines in the ROM chip specify any one of the 512 bytes stored in it.
o The value for chip select 1 and chip select 2 must be 1 and 0 for the unit to operate.
Otherwise, the data bus is said to be in a high-impedance state.
Auxiliary Memory
An auxiliary memory is known as the lowest-cost, highest-capacity and slowest-access storage in
a computer system. It is where programs and data are kept for long-term storage or when not in
immediate use. The most common examples of auxiliary memories are magnetic tapes and
magnetic disks.

Magnetic Disks
A magnetic disk is a type of memory constructed using a circular plate of metal or plastic coated
with magnetized materials. Usually, both sides of the disks are used to carry out read/write
operations. However, several disks may be stacked on one spindle with read/write head available
on each surface.

The following image shows the structural representation for a magnetic disk.
 o The memory bits are stored in the magnetized surface in spots along the concentric circles
called tracks.

o The concentric circles (tracks) are commonly divided into sections called sectors.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a storage medium that allows data archiving, collection, and backup for different
kinds of data. The magnetic tape is constructed using a plastic strip coated with a magnetic
recording medium.
The bits are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually, seven or nine
bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character together with a parity bit.
Magnetic tape units can be halted, started to move forward or in reverse, or can be rewound.
However, they cannot be started or stopped fast enough between individual characters. For this
reason, information is recorded in blocks referred to as records.

Associative Memory
An associative memory can be considered as a memory unit whose stored data can be identified
for access by the content of the data itself rather than by an address or memory location.
Associative memory is often referred to as Content Addressable Memory (CAM).
When a write operation is performed on associative memory, no address or memory location is
given to the word. The memory itself is capable of finding an empty unused location to store the
word.
On the other hand, when the word is to be read from an associative memory, the content of the
word, or part of the word, is specified. The words which match the specified content are located
by the memory and are marked for reading.

The following diagram shows the block representation of an Associative memory.

From the block diagram, we can say that an associative memory consists of a memory array and
logic for 'm' words with 'n' bits per word.
The functional registers like the argument register A and key register K each have n bits, one for
each bit of a word. The match register M consists of m bits, one for each memory word.
The words which are kept in the memory are compared in parallel with the content of the
argument register.
The key register (K) provides a mask for choosing a particular field or key in the argument word.
If the key register contains a binary value of all 1's, then the entire argument is compared with
each memory word. Otherwise, only those bits in the argument that have 1's in their
corresponding position of the key register are compared. Thus, the key provides a mask for
identifying a piece of information which specifies how the reference to memory is made.

The following diagram can represent the relation between the memory array and the external
registers in an associative memory.

The cells present inside the memory array are marked by the letter C with two subscripts. The
first subscript gives the word number and the second specifies the bit position in the word. For
instance, the cell C ij is the cell for bit j in word i.
A bit Aj in the argument register is compared with all the bits in column j of the array provided
that Kj = 1. This process is done for all columns j = 1, 2, 3......, n.
If a match occurs between all the unmasked bits of the argument and the bits in word i, the
corresponding bit M i in the match register is set to 1. If one or more unmasked bits of the
argument and the word do not match, M i is cleared to 0.

Cache Memory
The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the cache
memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever the CPU
needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If the data is not found in cache
memory, then the CPU moves into the main memory.
Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The block diagram for a cache
memory can be represented as:

The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed of CPU
components.
Cache memory is organised as distinct set of blocks where each set contains a small fixed number
of blocks.

MAPPING

The transformation of data from main memory to cache memory is referred to as a mapping
process.

Three types of mapping procedures

1.Associative mapping

2.Direct mapping

3.Set-associative mapping

1. Associative Mapping

1. The fastest and most flexible cache organization uses an associative memory.
2. The associative memory stores both the address and content of the memory word.
 3. This permits any location in cache to store any word from main memory.
4. A CPU address of 15 bits is placed in the argument register and the associative memory
is searched for a matching address.
5. If the address is found, the corresponding 12-bit data is read and sent to the CPU.
6. If no match occurs, the main memory is accessed for the word. The address-data pair is
then transferred to the associative cache memory.
7. If the cache is full, an address-data pair must be displaced to make room for a pair that
is needed and not presently in the cache.

Different replacement algorithms like FIFO are used for this.

2. Direct Mapping

1. Associative memories are expensive compared to random-access memories because of

the added logic associated with each cell.
2. Direct mapping uses a random-access memory for the cache.
3. The CPU address of 15 bits is divided into two fields.
4. The nine least significant bits constitute the index field and the remaining six bits form
the tag field.
5. The number of bits in the index field is equal to the number of address bits required to
access the cache memory.
6. In the general case, there are 2k words in cache memory and 2n words in main memory.
7. The n-bit memory address is divided into two fields: k bits for the index field and n-k bits
for the tag field.
 8. The direct mapping cache organization uses the n-bit address to access the main
memory and the k-bit index to access cache.

3. Set Associative Mapping

1. Set-associative mapping is an improvement over the direct mapping organization in

that each word of cache can store two or more words of memory under the same index
address.
2. Each data word is stored together with its tag and the number of tag-data items in one
word of cache is said to form a set.
3. An example of a set - associative cache organization for a set size of two is shown.
4. Each index address refers to two data words and their associated tags.
5. When the CPU generates memory request, the index value of the address is used to
access the cache.
6. The tag field of the CPU address is then compared with both tags in the cache to
determine if a match occurs.
7. The comparison logic is done by an associative search of the tags in the set similar to an
associative memory search: thus, the name "set-associative".
8. The hit ratio will improve as the set size increases because more words with the same
index but different tags can reside in cache.
9. When a miss occurs in a set associative cache and the set is full, it is necessary to replace
one of the tag-data items with a new value.
10. The most common replacement algorithms used are: random replacement, first-in, first
out (FIFO), and least recently used (LRU).
Virtual Memory