Unit – V

POWER SUPPLY

Introduction to Power Supplies

• The electric power is not normally used in the form in which it is produced or
distributed. Practically all electronic systems require some form of Power conversion.
• A device that transfers electric energy from a source to a load using electronic circuits
is referred to as power supply
• A typical application of a power supply is to convert utility AC voltage into regulated
DC voltages required for electronic equipment.

Regulated Power Supply

An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the load
terminals irrespective of changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. Thus, the
primary function of a regulated power supply is to convert an AC power into a steady DC
power. The regulated power supply is sometimes also called as a linear power supply.

The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should remain
constant even if the input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an AC power as
input and generates a constant DC power as output. A regulated power supply is basically an
embedded circuit consisting of various blocks.

The block diagram of a typical regulated power supply is shown in Figure-1.

The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts

• Step-down transformer
• Rectifier circuit
• DC filter circuit
• Voltage regulator

Function of Step-Down Transformer

The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply changes
the input AC voltage to the desired lower voltage value. Also, this transformer provides an
electrical isolation between two circuits. The reduced output AC voltage of the step-down
transformer is used as the input to the rectifier circuit.

Function of Rectifier Circuit

The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It consists
of diodes that perform the rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC voltage into the DC
voltage. However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage. In practice, a full
wave rectifier is used for the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave
rectifier can be a center-tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier
converts both positive and negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.

Function of Filter Circuit

Since the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high ripple
content. Hence, the raw output of the rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a pure ripple free
direct voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of filter circuits such as
capacitor filter choke input filter, π-filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts
the pulsating direct voltage into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.

Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It
monitors and corrects the fluctuations in the output voltage of the power supply. The output
voltage may change or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC voltage or the change in the
load or change in any physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage
regulator takes care of this problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant
at the output terminals.

A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and variable
IC regulators are commonly used in different regulated power supplies as the voltage regulator.

Features of Regulated Power Supply

• The regulated power supplies have the efficiency ranging from 20% to 25%.
• Regulated power supplies are relatively more reliable.
• Regulated power supplies have less complex circuit and less weight.
• Regulated power supplies give faster response.
• The cost and noise level of the regulated power supplies is low.

Applications of Regulated Power Supplies

• Mobile charging circuits

• Testing circuits
• Bench power supplies
• Oscillators and amplifiers
• Electronic computers
• Automatic control systems, etc.
Dual power supply circuit

➢ Some circuits required dual power for a better operation like a power amplifier, audio
amplifier, or another power circuit. That circuits made for operating with dual supply
input voltage.

➢ Dual supply means- One terminal gives +ve. One terminal gives -ve and one is for
ground. Two terminals give +ve and -ve supply accordingly and the third is grounded.

➢ For example, if any circuit required 12v dual supply that means it needs three input – 1
is +12V, 2 is -12V and 3 is Ground.

➢ Center tapped transformer is best for dual power supply circuits. It means primary
(input)has 2 terminals and secondary (output) has 3 terminals.

➢ Select the diode for rectifier as per ampere required. Readymade bridge rectifier IC also
available in the market with the different current ratings.

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

Electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power
source, typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency
power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from
input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries, super-capacitors, or
flywheels. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short
(only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down
the protected equipment. A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers,
data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an
unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or
data loss. The world's largest UPS, the 46-megawatt Battery Electric Storage System
(BESS), in Fairbanks, Alaska, powers the entire city and nearby rural communities during
outages.

Basic Block Diagram of UPS

Basic Operation of UPS

TYPES OF UPS

1. Offline UPS

2. Online UPS

3. Line Interactive UPS

An Uninterrupted power supply is essentially a back-up battery to power electronic

gadgets like Computer in the event of a power failure. If it happens, the Gadget will draw
power from the UPS and will run the load for a prescribed time depending on the capacity of
the battery. The change over time from the mains to battery power is a fraction of a second,
so that the computer will not shut down. This is essential to protect the data in the computer.
Uninterrupted power supply may be AC/AC or AC/DC based on the output power supply. In
AC/AC UPS, the energy source is the AC lines and the output is exactly the same voltage
generated by the inverter. In AC/DC type, the UPS delivers DC voltage by converting AC
to DC.

ONLINE UPS

Online UPS on the other hand uses an Inverter which always on to give sine wave AC
in the output socket. The incoming AC is first converted into DC by a transformer to charge
the battery as well as to give power to the inverter transformer. The inverter transformer
converts the DC to AC continuously to power the load. If power fails, the battery backup
circuit switches on and takes the load. Online UPS is more efficient than the Offline UPS and
uses a “Constant duty Inverter”. It also has a “Static bypass” system that transfers the load to
the AC power if the inverter system fails.

The advantage of the Online UPS is that, it cleans up the AC waveform by converting
it into DC then reconverting this DC to fresh AC. In this type of UPS, the system always
remains on battery, whether mains ac is present or not. When mains ac is present, it provides
power to DC supply of inverter section as well as charges the battery simultaneously. When
mains ac is not present, it will run the connected load till the battery has a recommended
dischargeable level.
 Block diagram of online UPS

OFFLINE UPS

Offline UPS passes the input AC to the output sockets if the AC power is available. It
always monitors the voltage level in the mains, and if there is a voltage drop or mains
failure, it switches on the inverter to give AC power to the device until the mains supply
returns to normal. The switch over time from AC to inverter AC is less than five milli
seconds so that the functioning of the gadget is not affected. The mains to battery
changeover time or battery to mains changeover time in offline UPS is very low as
compared to inverter. Typically, changeover time in inverters is 500 milliseconds & Offline
UPS has changeover time of 3-8 milliseconds. In a time, when mains ac is present, Inverter
provides the output as is the input mains. While, Offline UPS has built in Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR) to regulate the output voltage close to 220V ac. Offline UPSs are normal
weight UPSs and are widely used for domestic computers.

Block diagram of offline UPS

LINE INTERACTIVE UPS

A line-interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC
current path from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is lost. In this
design, the battery-to-AC power inverter is always connected to the output of the UPS. When
the input AC power is normal, the inverter of the UPS is in reverse operation and provides
battery charging. Once the input power fails, the transfer switch will open and the power will
flow from the battery to the UPS output. This design offers additional filtering and yields
reduced switching transients since the inverter is always on and connected to the output. Line
interactive UPS systems are a cheaper option than online double conversion technology and
will protect a critical load from power failures, power sags, power surges, under-voltage and
over-voltage. Unlike the online double conversion topology, it will not protect against electrical
line noise, frequency variation, switching transient and harmonic distortion.

High-frequency UPS system

 In this configuration the mains supply is converted into DC via the main rectifier circuit.
The rectifier block contains a filter circuit which is mainly used to filter out the harmonics
generated by the rectifier circuit and is fed back to the supply. In another word the filter is used
to protect the supply from the harmonics generated from the rectifier. The HF inverter is then
used to invert the DC into high frequency AC. The HF Transformer is then used to feed the
cycloconverter as well as to feed the inverter/rectifier circuit (which will operate as a rectifier
during this mode of operation) in order to charge the battery. The cycloconverter is used to
convert the HF into 50Hz component which is then filtered and supplied to the load.
It is important to note that cycloconverters can step down an input frequency (fi) to
output frequency (fo) under the condition that fo < fi and fi is an integer multiple of fo. If a low
frequency is required to be converted to a higher frequency, then a DC link is used as the one
shown in Fig.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY DESIGN USING REGULATOR IC -7805

For every electronic device, the regulated power supply is essential because these
devices use semiconductor material with a fixed rate of voltage and current. If there is any
difference in the fixed rate of voltage and current, then the device will get damage. Batteries
are one of the main DC supply sources but we cannot use battery over time in sensitive
electronic circuits as they lose their potential & drain out ultimately. The batteries provide
different voltage ranges like 1.2 Volts, 3.7 Volts, 9 Volts, and 12 Volts. Most of the integrated
circuits work with 5V supply therefore we require a device to supply a reliable 5V Supply
called voltage regulator. Here, a 7805 voltage regulator comes from 78XX series of the linear
voltage regulators. This regulator generates 5V regulated output.

Pin Diagram

The pin diagram of the 7805-voltage regulator is discussed below. This voltage
regulator includes three pins namely input pin, ground pin, and output pin. Each pin and its
function can be discussed below.
• Pin1 (Input): This is an input pin, where a positive unregulated voltage can be given like an
input toward this pin.
• Pin2 (Ground): This is the GND pin where this pin is common to both input & output.
• Pin3 (Output): This is the output pin where the 5V of regulated voltage can be taken at this
pin.
7805 Voltage Regulator Circuit

The circuit diagram of the 7805-voltage regulator is shown below. This circuit
generates a 5V regulated supply from AC mains. This circuit can built with a step-down
transformer (230V-12V), bridge rectifier, Fuse 1A, Capacitor-1000μF, IC 7805-voltage
regulator, capacitors- 0.22μF & 0.1μF, diode 1N4007.

In the above circuit, the AC power supply is converted into DC. This circuit is designed
with a transformer, a bridge rectifier, IC 7805linear voltage regulator otherwise capacitors.
This circuit is divided into two portions wherein the first portion of the circuit, the AC mains
can be changed into DC. In the second portion, this DC can be changed into regulated 5V DC.
At first, a step-down transformer is used to step down the voltage from 230V to 12V by
connecting its primary winding to the mains supply. The secondary winding of the transformer
can be connected to bridge rectifier
A 1A fuse is arranged in between the bridge rectifier and the transformer to stop the
flow of current that is drawn through the 1A circuit. The bridge rectifier generates a rectified
DC that is smoothened using 1000μF Capacitor. So, the output of the 1000μF capacitor is 12V
unregulated DC. This DC can be given used like an input to the IC 7805 voltage regulator.
After that, this regulator changes regulated 5V DC & the o/p is attained at its o/p terminals. In
the above circuit, the input voltage must be higher compare with the o/p voltage. The I/O
currents are nearly the same. Once the 7.5V 1A supply can be given at i/p, then the o/p will be
5V 1A. The residual power can be dissipated like heat using the 7805 IC.
In this kind of regulator, huge energy can be exhausted in heat form. The disparity in
the input & output voltage will generate heat. So, if the difference in the voltage is high, then
there will be a high generation of heat. So, a heat sink is used with IC 7805 otherwise surplus
heat will be the reason for malfunction.

Advantages

• This does not need any component to handle its output voltage.
• In includes built-in protection to protect from the overvoltage.

• A heat sink can be used through the GND terminal to protect the IC from high current or
short circuits.
 SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY - SMPS

The disadvantages of LPS such as lower efficiency, the need for large
value of capacitors to reduce ripples and heavy and costly transformers etc. are
overcome by the implementation of Switched Mode Power Supplies. The
working of SMPS is simply understood by knowing that the transistor used in
LPS is used to control.
Advantages of LPS
The power supply is continuous. The circuitry is simple. These are reliable
systems. This system dynamically responds to load changes. The circuit
resistances are changed to regulate the output voltage. As the components
operate in linear region, the noise is low. The ripple is very low in the output
voltage.
Disadvantages of LPS
The transformers used are heavier and large. The heat dissipation is
more. The efficiency of linear power supply is 40 to 50%Power is wasted in
the form of heat in LPS circuits. Single output voltage is obtained. In spite of
the above disadvantages, Linear Power Supplies are widely used in low-noise
amplifiers, test equipment, control circuits. In addition, they are also used in
data acquisition and signal processing.

All the power supply systems that needs simple regulation and where
efficiency is not a concern, the LPS circuits are used. As the electrical noise is
lower, the LPS is used in powering sensitive analog circuitry. But to overcome
the disadvantages of Linear Power Supply system, the Switched Mode
Power Supply SMPS is used.
Working of SMPS

Working of SMPS can be understood by the following figure.

Input Stage

The AC input supply signal 50 Hz is given directly to the rectifier and

filter circuit combination without using any transformer. This output will have
many variations and the capacitance value of the capacitor should be higher to
handle the input fluctuations. This unregulated dc is given to the central
switching section of SMPS.
Switching Section
A fast switching device such as a Power transistor or a MOSFET is
employed in this section, which switches ON and OFF according to the
variations and this output is given to the primary of the transformer present in
this section. The transformer used here are much smaller and lighter ones
unlike the ones used for 60 Hz supply. These are much efficient and hence the
power conversion ratio is higher.
Output Stage
The output signal from the switching section is again rectified and
filtered, to get the required DC voltage. This is a regulated output voltage
which is then given to the control circuit, which is a feedback circuit. The final
output is obtained after considering the feedback signal.
Control Unit
This unit is the feedback circuit which has many sections. Let us have a clear
understanding about this from the following figure.

The above figure explains the inner parts of a control unit. The output
sensor senses the signal and joins it to the control unit. The signal is isolated
from the other section so that any sudden spikes should not affect the circuitry.
A reference voltage is given as one input along with the signal to the error
amplifier which is a comparator that compares the signal with the required
signal level.
By controlling the chopping frequency the final voltage level is
maintained. This is controlled by comparing the inputs given to the error
amplifier, whose output helps to decide whether to increase or decrease the
chopping frequency. The PWM oscillator produces a standard PWM wave
fixed frequency. We can get a better idea on the complete functioning of SMPS
by having a look at the following figure.
 The SMPS is mostly used where switching of voltages is not at all a
problem and where efficiency of the system really matters. There are few
points which are to be noted regarding SMPS. They are SMPS circuit is
operated by switching and hence the voltages vary continuously. The switching
device is operated in saturation or cut off mode. The output voltage is
controlled by the switching time of the feedback. Switching time is adjusted
by adjusting the duty cycle. The efficiency of SMPS is high because, instead
of dissipating excess power as heat, it continuously switches its input to control
the output.
Types of SMPS

1: Non-isolated
Non-isolated converters are mostly used when the change in the voltage
is comparatively small. The non-isolated SMPS are the ones whose input and
output circuitry are not isolated from each other. The major disadvantage is that
it cannot provide protection from high electrical voltages and it poses more
noise. They are of 3 types.
I: Buck
In a typical non-isolated step-down (buck) converter the output voltage VOUT
depends on the input voltage VIN and the switching duty cycle of the power
switch.

II: Boost
It is used to boost voltage and it uses the same number of passive components
but arranged to step up the input voltage so that the output is higher than that of
the input.

III: Buck-Boost
This converter allows the input voltage to be either stepped-up or stepped-down,
depending on the duty cycle. The output voltage is given by the relation
VOUT = -VIN *D/ (1-D)

2: Isolated
Isolated SMPS are the ones where there is isolation maintained between the
input and output circuitry. The supplies make use of a transformer to separate the
switching from the output. The secondary winding of the transformer acts as the
energy storing element.

I: Fly-back Converter:
The working of this converter is similar to the buck-boost converter of the non-
isolating category. The only difference is that it uses a transformer to store
energy instead of an inductor in the circuit.

II: Forward Converter

The working of this converter makes use of the transformer to send the energy,
between the input and output in a single step.
Application of Switched Mode power supply (SMPS)
• It is used in servers, power stations, and personal computers.
• It is used in vehicles for charging batteries.
• It is used in factories and industries for power.
• It is used in the railway system, security system.
• It is also used in mobile and also as lighting.

Advantages & Disadvantages of SMPS

Advantages
• Smaller in size and light-weighted.
• Better power efficiency of around 60 to 70 percent.
• Strong anti-interference.
• Wide range of output.
• Produces less heat.

Disadvantages
• The SMPS design & working is more complex.
• Has higher output ripple and its regulation is not satisfactory.
• Mostly limited to the step-down regulator.
• Has high-frequency electrical noise.
• Leads to harmonic distortion.

DESIGN A SWITCHED-MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS) FOR A

COMPUTER SYSTEM
The switched-mode power supply (SMPS) used in computers is a critical
component that converts electrical power from the mains (AC) to the required
voltages for the computer's internal components (DC). Here is an overview of the
typical SMPS design used in computers:
1. Input Stage:
The SMPS begins with an input stage that rectifies the incoming AC power
from the electrical outlet. This is typically done using a bridge rectifier,
converting AC to high-voltage DC.
2. EMI/RFI Filtering:
Input filtering components such as inductors and capacitors are employed
to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference
(RFI).
3. Power Factor Correction (PFC):
Some SMPS designs incorporate Power Factor Correction to improve the
power factor and reduce harmonic distortion. This helps in complying with power
quality standards and regulations.
4. DC-DC Conversion:
The rectified and filtered DC voltage is then converted into the desired
output voltages using high-frequency switching techniques. This involves a series
of power transistors (MOSFETs or IGBTs) and energy storage components like
inductors and capacitors.
5. Topology:
The specific topology used in computer SMPS designs can vary, with
popular choices including flyback, forward, or a combination of these to achieve
the desired performance, efficiency, and cost.
6. Control Circuitry:
A feedback loop is implemented to regulate the output voltage and ensure
it remains stable under varying loads and input conditions. This involves a control
circuit that monitors the output and adjusts the switching elements accordingly.
7. Output Rectification and Filtering:
The high-frequency AC generated by the switching transistors is rectified
back to DC using diodes. Output filtering components, such as capacitors, help
smooth the DC voltage and reduce ripple.
8. Voltage Regulation:
The output voltage is regulated to meet the specifications required by the
computer components. Voltage regulation circuits ensure that the output voltages
remain within the specified tolerance.
9. Protection Mechanisms:
Computer SMPS designs incorporate various protection features such as
over-voltage protection (OVP), over-current protection (OCP), short-circuit
protection, and over-temperature protection (OTP) to safeguard the power supply
and connected components.
10. Efficiency Optimization:
Design considerations aim at maximizing efficiency, which is crucial for
minimizing energy consumption and heat generation. High efficiency is
particularly important in modern computing systems where power efficiency and
thermal management are critical.
11. Form Factor and Size:
The compact size of SMPS units allows for smaller and more lightweight
power supply units, contributing to the overall compact form factor of modern
computers, especially in laptops and small form-factor desktops.
12. Connectors and Output Rails:
The output of the SMPS is distributed through various connectors and
output rails to power different components of the computer, including the
motherboard, graphics card, storage drives, and peripherals.
13. Modularity:
Many computer SMPS units are designed as modular components,
allowing for easy replacement and upgrades. This modularity is common in
desktop computers where users may upgrade individual components.
14. Certifications:
SMPS units in computers often adhere to industry standards and
certifications for safety, energy efficiency, and electromagnetic compatibility,
such as 80 PLUS certifications for efficiency.
In summary, the SMPS design used in computers is a sophisticated system
that efficiently converts electrical power, regulates output voltages, and
incorporates various protection features to ensure reliable and safe operation of
the computer components. Advances in technology continue to improve the
efficiency and performance of SMPS units in modern computing systems.