Indian Journal of Health and Well-being © 2018 Indian Association of Health, Research and Welfare

2018, 9(4), 623-629 ISSN-p-2229-5356,e-2321-3698

http://www.iahrw.com/index.php/home/journal_detail/19#list UGC Journal No 42787 and NAAS Ratings 4.13

Encoding, emotional control and personality trait of

university students: A comparative study
Shilpa Jasubhai Ritu Sharma C. R. Mukundan
Consultant Clinical Psychologist Department of Psychology, School of Liberal Axxonet Brain Research Laboratory,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat Studies, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University Axxonet System Technology,
Raisan, Gandhinagar, Gujarat Bangalore, Karnataka

Encoding strategies are significant in determining individual's emotional control and mapping personality traits.
The purpose of the present study is to investing association between encoding strategies, personality and emotional
factors. This study documents result of responses from 50 students from undergraduate and post graduate program
using psychological tests namely Neo Five Factor Inventory-3 (NEO-FFI-3), Emotional Intelligence Scale, Verbal
Encoding Test and Visual Memory Test. Extroversion and introversion, Self-control (SE) and managing emotions
(ME), simultaneous or sequential processing style, verbal encoding and verbal memory were measured. Inferences
are drawn on student's preferences to attend to external stimulations versus preference to introspect along with
preference to simultaneous visual processing or sequential visual processing. The presence of self-control of
emotional responses is an important factor that controls the occurrences of several responses, which possibly will
contribute to understanding of conflicts and personality problems. Absence or reduction in sequential processing of
signals in verbal and visual modes could weaken rational processing abilities and strengthen holistic processing of
relevant and irrelevant issues, which could again pose decision making difficulties. Development of emotional
control must occur during the developmental stages and social conditioning plays very important role in deciding
the development of such self-control. Present research work can facilitate ground across several domains for further
investigations and tries to highlight that there is an acute need to address these problems from neuroscience and
social psychology point of view, especially when developments of such controls are minimally present within the
social network.

Keywords: encoding, extroversion, introversion, self-control, visual and auditory memory

The main objective of the present study was to investigate the extraverts in processing analytical information, and extraverts
relation between encoding strategies (semantic encoding & processed visual information more efficiently in the right
cognitive processing style, i.e., sequential and simultaneous hemisphere (RH) than the left hemisphere (LH). His findings were
processing), personality and emotional intelligence. This study interpreted to give further support to Dimond (1972) who "proposed
intends to probe the individual differences in semantic encoding and the differences between extraverts and introverts for processing
preferred processing style related to personality and emotional information on the ground that LH is better for verbal analytic
intelligence. processing whilst RH is better adapted for holistic processing" (p.
Regardless of the type of investigation researchers' use, it is well 657).
known that people have different personality traits and emotional Hemispheric dominance is often referred to as a cognitive style
intelligence, and that people think and process information based on the differential ability to use the capabilities of the right or
differently. It is important to understand relationship of the left hemisphere of the brain (Coleman & Zenhausern, 1979).
hemisphericity and encoding to personality traits and emotional Coleman and Zenhausern (1979) conducted a research on
intelligence. Several studies show that both personality and learning Processing speed, laterality patterns, and memory encoding as a
approach are vital in understanding academic accomplishment. function of hemispheric dominance. Subjects classified as either
(Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck, & Avdic, 2011). right or left dominant, performed a discriminative reaction time task
Nestor and Safer (1990) investigated whether hemisphericity was that involved a memory component. The two groups were shown to
related to personality variables as measured by trait anxiety and the differ on processing speed and encoding strategies.
tendency to express versus inhibit emotions. Results indicated that Gadzella (1999) investigated Differences among cognitive-
the Right hemisphericity correlated modestly with the tendency to processing styles groups on personality traits. The left
express emotions and the Left hemisphericity with the tendency to hemispheric group had better leadership qualities and more self-
inhibit emotions. control than the right hemispheric group. The right hemispheric
Charman (1979) examined the relationship between personality group showed more extraversion and independence than the left
and hemispheric asymmetries and reported that extraverts were hemispheric group.
significantly better than introverts in processing information Some studies (Sperry, 1964; Springer & Deutach, 1985;
especially visual information, introverts were much slower than Zenhausern, 1978; Zenhausern & Gerbhart, 1979) have shown that
the left hemisphere of the brain tends to have more verbal and
Correspondence should be sent to Dr. Shilpa Jasubhai sequential abilities; whereas, the right hemisphere tends to excels in
Consultant Clinical Psychologist, Ahmedabad, Gujarat processing visual-spatial tasks. The left hemisphere tends to process
E-mail: [email protected] the more intellectual and reflective material and the right hemisphere
624 JASUBHAI ET AL./ ENCODING, EMOTIONAL CONTROL AND PERSONALITY TRAIT

tends to process material that is more holistic, relational, and Salovey and Mayer (1997) redefined as, “Emotional intelligence
impulsive. Past researches show those who deep information involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express
processors were meticulous, intellectually inquisitive, extrovert emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they
(Furnham, 1992; Zhang, 2003) and emotionally balanced (Geisler- facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional
Brenstein, Schmeck, & Hetherington, 1996). Also, preference for knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote
strategic learning situation and instinctive processing make students emotional and intellectual growth.”
susceptible to anxiety and worry (Zhang, 2003) whereas extroverts Coleman, Andrew in 2008 defined as, “The ability to monitor
prefer innovative and rational style. The learning style and one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between
personality characteristics may be interrelated, although their different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use
combine effect on academic achievement is unclear. emotional information to guide thinking and behavior.”
Encoding Emotional self-control, an aspect of inhibitory control, is the ability
to regulate one's emotions, thoughts, and behavior in the face of
Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the temptations and impulses. Self-control is a cognitive process that is
learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval necessary for regulating one's behavior in order to achieve specific
(Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of goals (Matt DeLisi, 2014; Diamond, 2013; & Timpano & Schmidt,
information and is a complex cognitive process in the brain. 2013).
Encoding is the first processing step carried out by information
Emotional self-control is a cognitive process that permits an
already stored in the memory on the sensory signals received in the
individual to inhibit their impulses and natural, habitual, or
brain (Mukundan, 2015). In simple words it can be referred to as
dominant behavioral responses to stimuli in order to select a more
the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a
appropriate behavior that is consistent with completing their goals
form or code or assigning meaning to sensory input, which can be
(Ilieva, Hook, & Farah, 2015; & Diamond, 2013).
stored.
Emotional self-regulation or managing emotion is the ability to
Encoding is the crucial first step to creating a new memory. It
respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of
allows the perceived item of interest to be converted into a construct
emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently
that can be stored within the brain, and then recalled later from short-
flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to
term or long-term memory. Encoding is a biological event beginning
delay spontaneous reactions as needed (Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994).
with perception through the senses. The Human Memory (2010) Any
It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible
information which we sense and subsequently attempt to process,
for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions
store, and later retrieve must be brought in through one of the senses
(Thompson, 1994).
and then transformed into some form that our bodies and minds
understand. The process of breaking the information down into a Emotional self-regulation belongs to the broader set of emotion-
form we understand is the process of encoding and the process of regulation processes, which includes the regulation of one's own
getting into the memory system for storage and later retrieval is feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings (Niven,
encoding (Encoding, n.d.). Totterdell, & Holman, 2009; Burman, Green, & Shanker, 2015).
Craik and Lockhart (1972) believed that the depth of mental Emotional regulation is a complex process that involves
processing affected memory function. Memories that were deeply initiating, inhibiting, or modulating one's state or behavior in a given
processed led to longer lasting memories while shallow processing situation, e.g., the subjective experience (feelings), cognitive
led to memories that decayed easily. Depth of processing falls on a responses (thoughts), emotion-related physiological responses (for
shallow to deep continuum. Craik defined depth as: “The example heart rate or hormonal activity), and emotion-related
meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of behavior (bodily actions or expressions). Emotional regulation is a
the number of analyses performed upon it.” The deeper the analysis, highly significant function in human life (Skills You Need, 2017).
the better the memory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Emotional self-regulation or managing emotion is concerned
Semantic encoding is a specific type of encoding in which the with how you control and manage yourself and your emotions, inner
meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is resources, and abilities. It also includes your ability to manage your
encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it (Semantic Encoding, impulses and an element of taking responsibility for your own
n.d.). actions (Skills You Need, 2017).
Semantic processing is the deepest level of processing and it The ability to realize, readily accept, as well as successfully
requires the listener to think about the meaning of the cue. It causes us control feelings in oneself is known as the emotion management
to relate the word we just heard to other words with similar meanings. skill. Very simply, emotion management skills refer to the ability to
Once a word is perceived, it is placed in a context mentally that master your own emotions (Cleverism, 2017).
allows for a deeper processing. Therefore, semantic processing One essential element of the human personality theories is
produces memory traces that last longer than those produced by extraversion introversion. The terms introversion and extraversion
shallow processing. popularized by Carl Jung (1921) explain different attitudes people
Emotional intelligence (EQ or EI) is a term created by two use to direct their energy.
researchers Peter Salavoy and John Mayer and later popularized by Jung (1921) observed, “Each person seems to be energized more
Dan Goleman in 1996. The Human Memory (2010) Salovey and by either the external world (extraversion) or the internal world
Mayer in 1990 defined emotional intelligence as, “The ability to (introversion).” In 1921, Jung introduced the idea that each person
monitor one's own and others' feelings, to discriminate among them, has a Psychological Type consisting of his or her preference in each
and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action.” category.
 Indian Journal of Health and Well-being 2018, 9(3), 623-629 625

Extroverted attitude is characterized by an outward flowing of dependence upon its position in the whole. Successive information
personal energy such as an interest in events, in people and things, a processing refers to processing of information in a serial order and in
relationship with them, and a dependence on them. The extrovert is successive processing the system is not totally surveyable at any
usually motivated by outside factors and greatly influenced by the point in time.
environment, sociable and confident in unfamiliar surroundings, less In the mid-1970s, JP Das and colleagues defined a specific
cautious, less fearful, and likes organizations, parties, and tends to be cognitive processes model based directly on Luria's two coding
optimistic and enthusiastic. While introverts are characterized by an units termed simultaneous and successive by studying diverse cross-
inward flowing of personal energy such as withdrawal concentrating cultural, ability, and socioeconomic strata. Das, Kirby, and Jarman
on subjective factors. They are happy alone with a rich imagination (1979) view simultaneous and successive processing as the second
and prefers reflection to activity (Philosophy, 2009) Introverts are of three units of the brain. The second unit is concerned with coding:
people who prefer their internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies a unit for obtaining, processing, and storing information. Coding is
and dreams, while extroverts prefer the external world of things, of two kinds: simultaneous and successive.
events, people and activities (Reinhard, 2010). According to Naglieri and Das (1997), Simultaneous processing
According to Big 5 theory of personality, extroversion is an is defined as the ability to survey several elements to form an
essential characteristic of human personality (Verywell, 2017) Lewis integrated whole and Successive processing is defined as the ability
Goldberg (2016) a well-known researcher in the field of personality to process information in a serial order.
identifies extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, Simultaneous processing is the process of combining discrete and
neuroticism and openness as major factors of personality. The Five unconnected stimuli into a single group or whole to assist in
factor personality model was validated by renowned personality comprehension and interpretation. It involves the comprehension of
researchers Paul Costa and Robert McCrae and was labelled as the the relationships of and between separate entities and its relation or
“Big Five”. position to the whole (Springer Link, 2011).
Extroversion has two ends of the continuum: extroversion and In simple words Simultaneous processing is the mental process
introversion. In general, extroverts draw energy by interacting with we use to integrate separate bits of information or stimuli, connected
others, while introverts replenish their energy from solitude. The or unconnected into a whole. Processing a person's face, maps and
qualities associated with extroversion are: sociable, assertive, graphs, having a good sense of direction, and being able to see how
cheerful, outgoing, energetic, talkative, expressive, fun-loving, puzzle pieces fit together are examples of simultaneous processing.
affectionate, friendly, optimistic and socially confident. People high Sequential processing refers to the mental process of integrating
in extroversion tend to seek out opportunities for social interaction and understanding stimuli in a particular, serial order. Both the
and they are comfortable with others, sociable, and prefer action perception of stimuli in sequence and the subsequent production of
rather than observation (Lebowitz, 2016). People who are quiet, information in a specific arrangement fall under successive
reserved and thoughtful and who communicate less with others tend processing. Analysis of information proceeds in successive steps in
to be low on extroversion (Positive Psychology Program, 2017, June which each step provides cues for the processing of the later step.
23). Thus, information can only be comprehended in a temporal,
Past research shows that extroverts are less likely to experience sequential manner, with each piece being dependent on the
anxiety when given negative feedback. Individuals with high preceding element. For example, in early reading, sight word
extroversion often have a very positive outlook on life, are more vocabulary uses simultaneous processing and phonics uses
friendly, energetic and adjustable (Verywell, 2017). successive processing (Springer Link, 2011).
Processing style People lean toward one of two styles for processing information:
sequential processing (Those individuals who see the individual
Beaumont, Young, and McManus (1984) Hemisphericity refers to
elements most clearly, left brain dominant) and simultaneous
the idea that people may rely on a preferred mode of cognitive
processing (those individuals who focus on the big picture, right
processing, which is linked to activity on the part of the left or right
brain dominant).
cerebral hemispheres (Beaumont, Young, & McManus, 1984).
Luria's (1966) clinical investigations of brain damaged patients led According to Pask's (Pask, 1972; Pask & Scott, 1972), model of
him to propose that the brain processes information in two learning style, serialists operate a step-by-step approach to learning,
fundamentally different modes, which he describes as simultaneous choosing to deal only with small amounts of information or material
integration and successive integration. Simultaneous integration is at any one time before going on to link these steps and achieve
concerned with the perception and processing of stimuli which are understanding. While Holists utilizes significant amounts of
instantaneously surveyable. The ability to visualize and to mentally information from the start, and to gather understanding by
manipulate images is closely associated with this processing mode. identifying and focusing on major pattern of the information. The
Successive integration, by comparison, is concerned with the linking serialists perceive the learning task in terms of a series of
together in a chain like way a series of stimuli which arrive one after independent discrete topics and issues and focus on developing links
the other. The recall of a series of digits, such as a telephone number between them, but for holists the focus is on the task as a whole. Pask
or the smooth flow of words in speech are dependent upon this observed the relative characteristics of serialists and holists as:
chaining or successive integration. serialists step-by-step, logical linear progression, narrow focus,
cautious and critical leading to a tendency to fail to see the task from
According to Luria (1971), Simultaneous integration refers to the
a global perspective; Wholists- broad perspective, global approach
synthesis of separate elements into groups, these groups often taking
and a tendency to make hasty decision due to insufficient
on spatial overtones. The essential nature of this sort of processing is
information.
that any portion of the result is at once surveyable without
626 JASUBHAI ET AL./ ENCODING, EMOTIONAL CONTROL AND PERSONALITY TRAIT

A tendency of an individual to process information either through left a student preferred simultaneous visual processing or sequential
hemisphere or through right hemisphere or in combination is called visual processing.
brain hemishericity (Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981; McCarthy, 1996; The Original NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI) was created by
Springer & Deutsch, 1993). Past research shows that left hemisphere personality researchers Paul Costa and Robert McCrae in 1978. The
works in linear, sequential manner with logical, analytical and NEO-FFI-3 consists of 60 items designed to assess the Big Five
propositional mode of thinking. Right hemisphere on the other hand personality traits. It is the most widely used and robust measure of
functions in nonlinear, simultaneous and intuitive manner and deals personality traits with sound psychometric properties established by
with non-verbal information, holistic reasoning functions of previous researchers (McCrae & Costa, 2004). Students were given
language such as intonation, dreams and fantasy (Iaccino, 1993; a questionnaire and asked to answer honestly. From five factors only
McCarthy, 1996; Oxford, 1996; Oxford, Ehrman, & Lavine, 1991; extroversion/introversion was taken into consideration.
Springer & Deutsch, 1993; Torrance, 1988).
Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) developed by Mukundan (2000)
Hypotheses of the study was used for the present study. EQ consist of 50 items designed to
● Students with high extroversion are better at semantic encoding assess 6 factors of emotional intelligence. Students were given a
information. questionnaire and asked to answer honestly. From six factors only
● Students with high self-control are better at semantic encoding two Self Control (SC) and Managing Emotions (ME) were taken
information. into consideration.
● Students with high emotional management are better at semantic Statistical analysis
encoding information.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the results
● Students with high extroversion process information
simultaneously. Results and discussion
● Students with high self-control process information
The scoring of NEO Five Factor Inventory 3 was done based the test
simultaneously.
norms and 't' score for each student was obtained from the
● Students with high emotional management process information conversion table. Based on the scoring form of emotional
simultaneously. intelligence the SC and ME were calculated. The total no. of correct
● Students with high extroversion have higher self-control. response on both sequential and simultaneously visual memory tests
● Students with high extroversion are better at managing emotions. and the difference between the 1st and the 3rd trial for each passage
presented for semantic memory were calculated. In the present
Method study, mean values and SD for each factor - SE, ME, sequential
50 students from graduate and post graduate colleges ranging memory, simultaneous memory, passage 1, passage 2 and passage 3
between 19 and 25 years of age were randomly selected. NEO Five were obtained. Extroversion, SC and ME were divided into two
Factor Inventory 3 test, emotional intelligence test, verbal encoding categories by selecting only those subjects who obtained greater or
test and visual memory test were used. In personality one factor lesser score than one SD from the mean. Analysis of the scores was
extroversion was taken into consideration, in EQ Self-control (SE) done using 't' test. 't' analysis indicated few significance of
and managing emotions (ME), in visual memory test simultaneous or differences, specially consistent with our predictions. Students with
sequential processing style and in verbal encoding their verbal high and low self-control differed significantly in the 3rd paragraph
encoding and verbal memory were measured. of semantic encoding, which can be interpreted as the increasing
length of the paragraph created difficulty in low self-control group
Instruments and they were not able to process information at a deeper level.
A verbal form of verbal and visual learning, and memory test Students with high extroversion and high emotional management
developed by Mukundan in (1979) NIMHANS, Bangalore, was used differed significantly in the 1st paragraph only. The results suggest
for semantic encoding. The verbal form uses three passages, which extroverts and students with high emotional management are better
were read out one at time and a student was asked to recall the at deep processing initially. Practice and learning may have affected
contents of the passage immediately. Passage 1 and passage 2 are the processing level to start with, and thus introverts and students
considered equivalent passages in terms of the number of words, and with low emotional management improved with practice.
passage 3 is lengthier. There were three consecutive trials, and each There was no significant difference found in the processing style
time the passage is read out, the subject has to immediately recall the in either of the groups. Though the mean value of high extroversion
passage and the recall was recorded and quantified. Interpretation of was high in semantic encoding and high self-control, there was no
the score was done by comparing the performance on 1st and 3rd significant difference found. Though the mean value of the low
trial. The performance on 1st through 3rd trials indicate the learning extroversion group was higher in managing emotions and vice
curve of the student. versa, no significant difference was found. This observation showed
Visual Memory Test was designed by the author. In 1st trail a card some relevance with the past finding- Left hemisphericity correlated
containing 25 images was present for 30 seconds and after an interval with the tendency to inhibit emotions (Nestor & Safer, 1990).
of 30 seconds a student was asked to right down whatever he/she Present study did not support the past finding with regard to
could remember. In the 2nd trial 25 images were present one after the verbal encoding, processing style, extroversion and managing
other at an interval of 5 seconds and each image was presented for 4 emotions. In an experiment by Lecerf and de Ribaupierre (2005) two
seconds. After an interval of 30 seconds a student was asked to write groups were administered a visuospatial task in which a number of
down whatever he/she could remember. The result indicated whether positions were shown either simultaneously or sequentially (in a
 Indian Journal of Health and Well-being 2018, 9(3), 623-629 627

random order); memory was tested using a recognition procedure of The present results to some extent support the previous studies.
visuospatial patterns, either identical or different. The results showed Those who process information deeply were meticulous,
that performance was higher in the simultaneous than in the intellectually inquisitive, extrovert (Furnham, 1992; Zhang, 2003);
sequential presentation, and decision time increased with complexity emotionally balanced (Geisler-Brenstein, Schmeck, &
in the sequential presentation but not in the simultaneous Hetherington, 1996); and extroverts were suggestively better than
presentation. introverts in processing information (Charman, 1979).

Table 1: Mean and SD for SE, ME, sequential memory, simultaneous memory, passage 1, passage 2, passage 3
SC P1 P2 P3 Sim Seq ME EXT
>11.14 Mean 7.00 11.11 15.86 15.89 15.78 4.28 47.44
n=9 SD 3.32 3.52 3.63 3.02 9.23 1.42 10.26
<6.88 Mean 9.14 9.29 10.89 14.71 14.71 3.71 40.71
n=7 SD 3.39 2.29 2.67 2.69 3.90 0.86 9.50
df-14 T 1.27 1.22 3.19 0.82 0.29 0.92 1.35
NS NS 0.05 NS NS NS NS
Ext. P1 P2 P3 Sim Seq SE ME
>56.77 Mean 10.82 9.64 13.56 14.91 14.91 9.91 3.95
n=11 SD 2.36 3.17 7.21 3.88 3.56 1.34 1.04
<37.31 Mean 7.11 9.56 13.18 15.33 15.78 8.56 4.00
n=9 SD 2.98 4.25 5.46 2.06 3.87 2.57 1.30
df-18 T 3.11 0.05 0.13 0.29 0.52 1.52 0.10
0.05 NS NS NS NS NS NS
ME P1 P2 P3 Sim Seq SC EXTR.
>5.17 Mean 9.25 10.38 8.88 14.63 16.50 10.50 47.88
n=8 SD 3.11 3.78 3.76 2.56 4.21 1.81 9.43
<3.07 Mean 6.38 11.58 12.75 14.67 15.83 9.79 49.08
n= 12 SD 3.41 2.27 5.75 3.06 3.43 1.94 11.45
df=18 T 1.89 0.88 1.66 0.03 0.39 0.82 0.39
0.05 NS NS NS NS NS NS

Conclusion larger population. Emotional Intelligence like self-control and

managing of emotions also need reappraisal. Similarly sequential
The aim of the study was to determine if personality factors such as and simultaneous processing abilities, and what they cognitively
extraversion and introversion has any effect on the rate of learning as achieve are equally important, though it may have cerebral
measured by verbal encoding tests and the processing style as lateralization effects. The tendency for some cognitive processes to
measured by the visual memory test. be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other is referred to as
The results have shown that high extraversion scores may be lateralization of the brain. The lateralization theory developed by
associated with deeper encoding ability, though this does not Roger Sperry and Robert Ornstein helps us to understand our
continue if the same material is repeatedly presented. There was no behaviour, personality, creativity, and our ability to use the proper
relation found between extroversion, managing emotions and mode of thinking when performing particular tasks (Brain, 2017).
encoding strategies. Other factors of personality like agreeableness, openness,
Similarly the study was aimed to determine if personality factor as conscientiousness, and neuroticism; emotional intelligence
extraversion and introversion has any effect on the processing style elements like self-awareness, motivation, empathy and social skills;
as measured by visual memory test. The groups did not differ gender, race, socio-cultural background, academic achievement and
significantly on their sequential and simultaneous processing EEG frequencies could be included in further research study.
capabilities.
The past researches focused more on extrovert and introvert, Limitations of the study
creativity and leadership traits of personality (Charman, 1979; There are several limitations of the present study that need to be held
Nestor & Safer, 1990). The present research was an exploratory in mind. The sample size was very small. Extroversion, self-control
study and similar study with a larger sample is necessary. and managing emotions were each divided into two categories,
Traditional concepts and definitions of personality may not be which further reduced the no. of students in each category. Similar
directly related to processing style and encoding ability in studies with a larger sample size can be more appropriate for
individuals. This needs to be studied with greater depth and on a generalization of the findings.
628 JASUBHAI ET AL./ ENCODING, EMOTIONAL CONTROL AND PERSONALITY TRAIT

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