RESEARCH ARTICLE Role of Metasomatism in the Development of the East

10.1029/2023GC011191
African Rift at the Northern Tanzanian Divergence: Insights
Key Points: From 3D Magnetotelluric Modeling
• 3D magnetotelluric models of North
Tanzanian Divergence are converted to Sinan Özaydın1 , Kate Selway2,3, Stephen F. Foley4 , Isra S. Ezad4, William L. Griffin4,
water in mantle models to map
Pascal S. Tarits5, and Sophie Hautot6
metasomatism in the region
• Melting events in the Mozambique 1
School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2School of Natural Sciences, University of
Belt caused metasomes to be destroyed
and the lithospheric mantle to be Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 3Vox Geophysics, Perth, WA, Australia, 4School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie
dehydrated University, Sydney, NSW, Australia, 5Laboratoire Géosciences Océan, Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Plouzané,
• The rifting in the region might be France, 6IMAGIR sarl, Saint Renan, France
limited if there is no supply of
metasomatic material toward the rift
zone Abstract The Northern Tanzanian Divergence in the East Africa Rift is arguably the best place on Earth to
study the controls on rifting of thick lithosphere. Here, where the East Africa Rift intersects the Tanzanian
Supporting Information: Craton and the Mozambique Belt, the relationships between volcanism, faulting, pre‐existing structures and
Supporting Information may be found in lithospheric thickness and composition can be observed. In this work, we carry out the first lithospheric‐scale
the online version of this article.
3D magnetotelluric modeling of the Northern Tanzanian Divergence and combine the results with experimental
electrical conductivity and petrology models to calculate mantle composition, which is also inferred in the
Correspondence to: craton from reanalysis of garnet xenocryst data. Our results show that metasomatic materials exist in the cratonic
S. Özaydın,
[email protected]
lithospheric mantle and the relatively undeveloped southern part of the rift zone. However, the lithospheric
mantle of the Mozambique Belt and the more developed northern section of the rift is more resistive and does
not contain metasomatic phases. Combined with geochemical data from erupted lavas, these results suggest that,
Citation:
in zones that have experienced voluminous Cenozoic magmatism, melting events have destroyed the metasomes
Özaydın, S., Selway, K., Foley, S. F.,
Ezad, I. S., Griffin, W. L., Tarits, P. S., & and dehydrated the mantle. Since the presence of magma is a primary control of lithospheric strength, rifting
Hautot, S. (2024). Role of metasomatism may become limited as the lithospheric mantle becomes dehydrated and harder to melt.
in the development of the East African Rift
at the Northern Tanzanian Divergence:
Insights from 3D magnetotelluric
Plain Language Summary The motion of tectonic plates relies on a specific set of physical
modeling. Geochemistry, Geophysics, conditions. Continental breakup or rifting occurs when certain parts of the lithosphere are weak, and when stress
Geosystems, 25, e2023GC011191. https:// applied to these regions is sufficient. Weaknesses in the lithosphere rely on its composition and pre‐existing
doi.org/10.1029/2023GC011191
structures. We can image and analyze these features using the magnetotelluric method, a geophysical technique
Received 21 AUG 2023 that maps electrical conductivity variations within the Earth. Our results show that compositionally weakening
Accepted 4 JAN 2024 agents (metasomes) play an essential role in the development of the rift by making the mantle easier to melt. We
also image some portions of the rift that do not contain such agents, suggesting that melts may have dried out
these parts of the lithosphere, leaving a dry and resistive residue. This situation may indicate that melting in the
region might be limited in the long run due to the absence of these materials.

1. Introduction
The initiation and evolution of intracontinental rifts are fundamental to the theory of plate tectonics. Most simply
put, they begin to develop when the stresses applied can overcome the strength of the lithosphere. The intricate
interplay between the distribution of stress, magmatism, pre‐existing lithospheric architecture, mantle compo-
sition and rheology can result in a variety of rifting styles (Brune et al., 2023). The East African Rift System
(EARS) is the largest active continental rift system in the world and displays various stages of rift development
along its strike length (Boone et al., 2019). In this study, we focus on the region where the EARS meets the
© 2024 The Authors. Geochemistry, Tanzanian Craton at the North Tanzanian Divergence (NTD). Here, the rift structure widens and there is an
Geophysics, Geosystems published by
Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of increase in the geochemical variety and volume of volcanism. The geochemical characteristics of lavas and
American Geophysical Union. mantle xenoliths in the NTD reflect the evolving nature of the lithosphere through the Cenozoic in response to
This is an open access article under the plate reorganization and plume impingement (Baptiste et al., 2015; Foley et al., 2012; Mana et al., 2015;
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits use, Rooney, 2020).
distribution and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is Magnetotellurics (MT) is a powerful tool to reveal the composition and architecture of the lithosphere‐
properly cited. asthenosphere system (Naif et al., 2021; Selway, 2014; Selway & O’Donnell, 2019). It is especially sensitive

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to interconnected secondary conductive phases (e.g., melts, hydrous minerals) and water (OH bound to
nominally anhydrous minerals), which are often products of metasomatism. Since deformation by diffusion creep
in olivine is water‐dependent (Hirth & Kohlstedf, 2003), these metasomatized and hydrated regions are more
likely to be rheologically weaker. The same regions are also often more prone to melting since they contain
components such as H2O or CO2, which cause a substantial drop in the solidus temperature (Foley &
Pintér, 2018), and metasomatic phases that are easier to melt, such as hydrous pyroxenites (Foley et al., 2022).
Moreover, regions rich in metasomes are now envisaged as one of the reasons that such thick lithosphere can
initiate rifting (Foley & Fischer, 2017; Rooney, 2020), where the metasomes provide a weaker lithosphere either
through the existence of melt (Buck, 2006) or the combined effect of the hydrolytic weakening of olivine and/or
grain size reduction (Selway, 2015).

It has been demonstrated that MT can be useful in understanding the relationship between mantle composition and
magmatic processes. For instance, (Özaydın & Selway, 2022) used MT models to show that kimberlites might
exploit the “lithospheric fuel” frozen in metasomatized mantle in order to ascend. However, the effects of large‐
volume magmatism (e.g., basalts) on the composition of the lithosphere need to be better understood (Özaydın
et al., 2022), since they could possibly exhaust these metasomes and dehydrate the mantle as well. Consequences
of such dynamics may be crucial for rift development (Foley & Fischer, 2017; Muirhead et al., 2020).
Previous research in the NTD has combined MT and seismic tomography studies to reveal the existence of melt
within the crust of the rift zone, mainly around the Manyara fault (Clutier et al., 2021; Plasman et al., 2019; Reiss
et al., 2022; Tiberi et al., 2019). 2D modeling of long‐period MT data has also imaged the large‐scale lithospheric
structure in the area, with results suggesting that water content is higher in the cratonic lithosphere than the rift and
is not therefore the primary control on deformation localization (Selway, 2015).
Here, we image the deep electrical structure in NTD with 3D MT modeling utilizing the combined MT data sets of
Selway (2015) and Plasman et al. (2019). Electrical conductivity variations in the mantle can be used to make
quantified interpretations of composition employing experimental electrical conductivity and petrology studies
(Özaydın & Selway, 2020; Selway, 2014). We made these calculations using the software MATE (Özaydın &
Selway, 2020) and a geophysically‐constrained thermal model (Afonso et al., 2022). In the cratonic domain, we
also constructed lithological sections from the garnet xenocryst database (Griffin et al., 1991; O’Reilly &
Griffin, 1996), using the methods described in Griffin et al. (2002). Using the MT model, we checked for the
presence of water, melt, and other conductive phases. We compared these results with the current knowledge from
geochronological studies, geochemical modeling, mantle xenoliths/xenocrysts and other geophysical studies to
form a better understanding of the geodynamics of the region.

2. Geological Background
The rocks of north‐eastern Tanzania record more than 2.5 billion years of continental evolution, including cra-
tonization, rifting, collision and multiple episodes of reactivation of lithospheric‐scale structures. The Tanzania
Craton amalgamated by c. 2.6 Ga (Chesley et al., 1999; Manya et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 2016) and geophysical
studies suggest that the lithosphere has seismic wavespeeds typical of cratonic domains to depths of at least
150 km (e.g., Afonso et al., 2022; Emry et al., 2019; Mulibo & Nyblade, 2013b; O’Donnell et al., 2013), with low
surface heat flows (Nyblade, 1997). The cratonic lithosphere has been sampled by Jurassic to Quaternary
kimberlite magmatism and Tertiary to Recent rift‐related volcanism (e.g., Foley et al., 2012; Rooney, 2020).
Petrographic and geochemical analyses of xenoliths show evidence that the cratonic lithosphere has been met-
asomatized during multiple events since the Archean (e.g., Aulbach et al., 2011; Baptiste et al., 2015; Chesley
et al., 1999; Koornneef et al., 2009; Stachel et al., 1998). This agrees with MT models that show the cratonic
lithosphere is likely to be hydrated and metasomatized (Selway, 2014, 2015).

After cratonization, the first major tectonic event to affect the north‐east Tanzania Craton was the Neoproterozoic
East African (or Pan‐African) Orogen, which was associated with the amalgamation of East and West Gondwana
and formed the Mozambique Belt as part of an extensive band of deformed lithosphere that extends from East
Africa into Antarctica (e.g., Grantham et al., 2003; Stern, 1994). Despite the Neoproterozoic timing of defor-
mation, isotopic and geochronological data from across the Mozambique Belt show that it consists largely of
reworked Archean lithosphere, including protoliths with ages similar to Tanzanian Craton rocks (e.g.,
Maboko, 2000; Thomas et al., 2016), implying that the Tanzania Craton may have originally extended further to

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the east than its present extent. Peak East African Orogen metamorphism occurred at c. 640 Ma (Muhongo
et al., 2001) and was followed by a period of relative quiescence.

North‐eastern Tanzania is currently being deformed as part of the East African Rift (Ebinger, 2012), the most
extensive and best exposed active continental rift on Earth, which extends from Ethiopia to Malawi. Seismic
tomography models show relatively slow wavespeeds at lower to upper mantle depths beneath central and eastern
Africa and a thinned mantle transition zone, which is interpreted to be caused by a hot mantle plume impinging on
the base of the African lithosphere (e.g., Emry et al., 2019; Hansen et al., 2012; Mulibo & Nyblade, 2013a;
O’Donnell et al., 2013; Ritsema et al., 1999). The geochemistry of Cenozoic magmas support the existence of a
plume underlying East Africa, with evidence for elevated mantle temperatures and plume magma sources
(Rooney, 2020; Rooney et al., 2012). The initial plume impact is interpreted to have occurred c. 30–40 Myr ago
(Ebinger & Sleep, 1998; Hofmann et al., 1997). Geodynamic models suggest that the present rifting is dominantly
caused by deviatoric stresses induced by plume‐related uplift (Koptev et al., 2016; Stamps et al., 2014) and much
of the deformation has reactivated pre‐existing structures, including those formed during the East African Orogen,
suggesting that they have continued to be zones of lithospheric weakness (e.g., Daly et al., 1989; Tommasi &
Vauchez, 2001).

The character of the East African Rift changes markedly along its extent, from incipient oceanic spreading in the
northern part of the rift to the first gasps of magmatism in the Rungwe Province, south of the Tanzanian Craton.
Where it meets the Tanzanian Craton, the rift bifurcates into Eastern and Western Branches, seemingly following
weaker lithosphere that surrounds the strong craton. The NTD is the section of the Eastern Branch in north‐eastern
Tanzania and is characterized by a relatively broad zone of volcanism and block faulting (Clutier et al., 2021; Le
Gall et al., 2008; Tiberi et al., 2019). The Eyasi and Manyara rifts extend into the eastern margin of the Tanzania
Craton, and the volcanic centers at Labait and Hanang have sampled cratonic lithosphere that is being actively
impacted by the plume (Le Gall et al., 2008), making this an ideal location to study the controls on continental
rifting. As is the case for the broader rift, faulting and volcanism tend to follow pre‐existing zones of weakness.
Volcanism in the NTD initiated at c. 6 Ma at locations in the west of the NTD close to the edge of the craton; with
time new volcanic centers have erupted further to the east, while volcanism has continued and spread in the west,
including to Oldoinyo Lengai, the only active carbonatitic volcano on Earth (Mana et al., 2015). While the timing
of faulting is harder to quantify, most faulting appears to have occurred in the last 4 Myr and movement on
individual faults appears to be temporally correlated with volcanism (Le Gall et al., 2008).

3. Methods
3.1. Magnetotelluric Data and Modeling
MT data used in this study are a compilation from stations published previously (Plasman et al., 2019; Sel-
way, 2015). These data include the 21 long‐period stations reported in Selway (2015), which were from a regional
study around the North Tanzanian Divergence (green triangles, Figure 1b), and 24 broad‐band stations from
Plasman et al. (2019), from a study focused more on the rift zone (white triangles, Figure 1b). The long‐period
data also included tipper data, which was included in the inversion. Some of the stations are excluded from the
broad‐band data set due to the limitations that arise from cell sizes constructed for the large‐scale model. For this
problem, we eliminated the most locally similar‐looking stations to avoid loss of information in the long periods
(Figure 2).

Three‐dimensional magnetotelluric inversions were carried out using the ModEM algorithm (Kelbert
et al., 2014). The 3D nature of the area is apparent both from the high phase tensor skew degrees observed at all
frequency ranges and highly variable strike directions (Figure 3), which require three‐dimensional MT modeling
techniques to obtain reliable results (Booker, 2014). The horizontal discretization in the core region was chosen to
be 5 km in both directions. Outside the core region, we inserted seven padding cells with widths that increase by a
factor of 1.5. In the vertical domain, we used a total of 53 cells with depths that increase by a factor of 1.15,
starting from the third cell with a thickness of 150 m. We choose to add three 50 m layer cells at the top of the
model to partially mitigate the problems that may arose from galvanic distortion (Kelbert et al., 2014). The total
depth in the vertical direction is ∼705 km. The ocean is dealt with by inserting fixed 0.3 Ωm valued cells ac-
cording to global topography/bathymetry data ETOPO1 (Amante & Eakins, 2009).

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Figure 1. Maps showing the study area: (a) Main tectonic units, active volcanoes and Cenozoic volcanic units of Eastern African Rift System overlain on LAB depths
derived from the study of Afonso et al. (2022). (b) Geological map of the main study area alongside MT stations, kimberlite locations (Giuliani & Pearson, 2019), and
Cenozoic volcanic rocks derived from the GeoRoc database (Lehnert et al., 2000). MKF: Mwadui Kimberlite Field, EKF: Eyasi Kimberlite Field.

We performed the inversion in two main stages. In the first stage, we inverted only the tippers from the long‐
period stations at 25 frequencies between 1 and 10,000 s. The errors on the tipper were fixed at a single value
of 0.05. The initial model was constructed as a homogeneous half‐space with 210 Ωm resistivity, which is the
median determinant apparent resistivity value calculated from impedance tensors from all stations between 100
and 10,000 s. An isotropic covariance matrix was constructed using the value of 0.5 in all directions. The initial
regularization parameter (λ) was selected as 10 and set to decrease by a factor of 5 when the RMS difference
between subsequent iterations became less than 0.002. The inversion ran for 55 iterations until it converged to a
final RMS value of 1.59, starting from 3.48.
In the second stage of inversion, we inverted both the full impedance tensor and tipper data, using the result from
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
the tipper inversion as the initial model. The error floors were chosen to be 5% of Z xy Z yx for all impedance tensor
elements. We chose to decrease the constraints on tipper data with an error of 0.15 to give more weight to im-
pedances in this stage of the inversion. Twenty‐five frequencies between 1 and 10,000 s were inverted. The
inversion was conducted with the same regularization parameter and reduction scheme as the first stage of the
inversion, and the isotropic covariance value was reduced to 0.3. We also ran the inversions with covariance
values and observed no crucial differences that would affect our interpretations (Figures S2 and S3 in Supporting
Information S1). Inversion started with an initial RMS value of 16.25 and finalized with a value of 2.52. The local
RMS values can be seen in the RMS map of impedance fittings (Figure S6 in Supporting Information S1) and
individual graphs (Figures S53–S115 in Supporting Information S1).
Sensitivity tests on the resistivity models were performed on the conductors C1 and CM to test their robustness. We
masked these conductive regions with blocks in electrical resistivities varying between 1 and 10,000 Ωm (Figures
S4 and S5 in Supporting Information S1). The results demonstrated that both conductors appear robust and
applicable for interpretation in the models.

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Figure 2. Apparent resistivity and phase curves of selected off‐diagonal stations used in the inversions. More information on data can be found in Figures S7–S52 of the
Supporting Information S1. LP: Long Period, BB: Broad‐band.

3.2. Water Content Calculations and Compositional Solutions to Electrical Conductivity

The electrical conductivity distribution of the mantle can be used to calculate mantle water content with the aid of
experimental electrical conductivity measurements, a water‐distribution model between phases and a temperature
model (Özaydın & Selway, 2020). By “water” here, we refer to the OH within melts, hydrous minerals and
nominally anhydrous minerals (NAMs) such as olivine and pyroxenes. There can be multiple compositional
causes for anomalously electrically conductive regions in the mantle (Özaydın et al., 2021), such as the existence
of hydrous phases (e.g., phlogopite, amphibole), melts, and other minor accessory minerals (e.g., magnetite,
graphites, and sulphides, Dai et al., 2019; Ten Grotenhuis et al., 2005). Since this “water” is a general product of
mantle processes that modify the composition of the mantle and almost exclusively exist along with other
metasomatic phases (e.g., Peslier et al., 2012), we use it as a general proxy for mantle metasomatism in the maps
and sections in the figures in this study. Along the A‐A′ transect, we also specifically calculated phlogopite
contents in a dry lherzolitic matrix 10 km below the LAB (Figure 6e). For all compositional calculations, the
MATE software was used (Özaydın & Selway, 2020).
Experimental electrical conductivity studies in mantle phases carried out during the last two decades have shown
that conductivity in most mantle minerals is controlled by semi‐conduction mechanisms with varying degrees of
temperature dependence (T ), which can be defined with an Arrhenian formalism (Equation 1; Dai et al., 2020;
Özaydın & Selway, 2020).

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Figure 3. Phase tensor ellipses filled with skew angles (β°) for (a) 10, (b) 100, (c) 1,000, and (d) 2,500 s. Absolute skew angles
above the value of 3° are considered to be out of the practical limits of reliable 2D MT modeling (Booker, 2014).

ΔH
σ = σ0 exp( ) (1)
RT

where σ0 is pre‐exponent (S/m), ΔH is the activation enthalpy, and R is the gas constant. For the NAMs, the
electrical conduction processes can be described as a summation of three conduction mechanisms that operate on
different temperature levels: ionic (σion), polaron (σion) and proton (σpro) conduction (Equation 2).

σ = σion + σpol + σpro (2)

For the depths in which we are interested in this study, polaron and proton conduction are the most relevant
conduction mechanisms, and relate to the electrical conductivity of dry and hydrated minerals, respectively.
While electrical conductivities of silicate minerals have high temperature dependencies (high activation
enthalpy), there are some other phases such as graphite and sulphides that have very low temperature de-
pendencies (low activation enthalpy; Özaydın & Selway, 2020).

The model for water distribution among NAMs is constructed using the water partitioning coefficients shown in
Table 1. We sought solutions of water contents between a dry lithosphere and bulk water solubility values
calculated using water partitioning coefficients, based upon the sub‐solidus olivine water solubility model of
Padrón‐Navarta and Hermann (2017). Since this model limits water solubility to low levels (several tens of ppm)
in the shallow lithospheric mantle, we cannot use water content as a proxy for metasomatism in most of the
uppermost lithosphere (<70–90 km). Therefore, one has to be mindful while interpreting our figures in terms of
how metasomatism translates to different signatures going from the lower lithosphere (>70–90 km) to above. One
can most easily do this by looking at resistivity and water content maps in tandem and checking whether a
conductor originates from water‐rich/metasomatized areas.

Table 1
Mineral Water Partitioning Coefficients Used in This Study
Water partitioning coefficient Reference
Orthopyroxene/Olivine Dopx∕ol = 5.6 Demouchy et al. (2017)
Clinopyroxene/Olivine Dcpx∕ol = Dopx∕ol × 1.9 Demouchy et al. (2017)
Garnet/Olivine Dgt/ol = 0.8 Novella et al. (2014)

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We have used the electrical conductivity models of Gardés et al. (2014), Dai and Karato (2009a), Liu et al. (2019),
and Dai and Karato (2009b) for olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and garnet, respectively. For the con-
ductivity of phlogopite, the model of Li et al. (2017) was utilized with a fluorine content of 0.52 w.t. % (average
fluorine content value in mantle rocks, Özaydın et al., 2022). All electrical conductivity models are corrected for
the water measurement calibrations of Withers et al. (2012) for olivine, and Bell et al. (1995) for pyroxenes and
garnet if needed. A lherzolitic composition was used to calculate the water contents in the region (Table S1 in
Supporting Information S1). The use of different mantle peridotitic modal compositions has been shown to have a
negligible effect on understanding the variations of metasomatism (Özaydın & Selway, 2022). The Generalized
Archie's Law (Glover, 2010) was used for phase mixing to calculate bulk electrical conductivity. Interconnections
for the minerals are constructed with cementation components of m = 2 for orthopyroxene, m = 4 for clino-
pyroxene and garnet and m < 1 for olivine, which gives results close to Hashin‐Shtrikman lower‐bound
(Özaydın & Selway, 2020). The thermal model used in these calculations is taken from multi‐observable
probabilistic inversions of Afonso et al. (2022).
Water measurements made on xenoliths from Labait, Lashaine, Olmani, and Pello Hill were also compared with
the MT‐derived water models (Baptiste et al., 2015; Hui et al., 2015). To compare the bulk water contents, we
used only the water measurements made on orthopyroxenes since they represent a more reliable water recorder
than olivine (Yang et al., 2019). We converted orthopyroxene water contents to bulk water contents assuming the
same partition coefficients used in MT‐derived water models and composition. We have also used individual
sample‐based modal compositions in this conversion, which are indicated with different symbols (Figure 6). The
orthopyroxene water contents reported in Baptiste et al. (2015) were measured with calibration of Pater-
son (1982), which is known to underestimate the water contents (Demouchy & Bolfan‐Casanova, 2016). We
corrected these values by multiplying the water contents by 3 (Demouchy & Bolfan‐Casanova, 2016).

3.3. Garnet Xenocryst Analyses

The data used for this analysis includes the garnet xenocrysts previously used in studies with older methods
(Griffin et al., 1991; O’Reilly & Griffin, 1996). Garnet (pyrope) xenocrysts derived from kimberlites can be
analyzed to understand the compositional structure of the underlying lithosphere, with the aid of thermobarometry
(Ryan et al., 1996) and geochemical classification schemes (Griffin et al., 2002; Grütter et al., 2004). We analyzed
276 garnet xenocrysts derived from five kimberlite pipes on the Tanzanian Craton (Green stars, Figure 1). We
constructed a 36 mWm 2 generalized continental paleogeotherm to the PCr max
‐TNi equilibrium conditions (Figure 4
Hasterok & Chapman, 2011). This geotherm is kinked parallel to the diamond‐graphite transition at the tem-
perature (950°C) corresponding to the base of the depleted lithosphere (160 km), following the commonly
max
observed distribution of PCr T Ni parallel to this trend (Griffin et al., 2003). The temperature at the base of the
depleted lithosphere is determined by the sharp decrease in the population of garnets with Yttrium values less than
10 ppm (Figure S1 in Supporting Information S1). In order to determine the depth of origin of the garnet grains
and construct the compositional sections, calculated garnet equilibrium temperatures were projected onto the
defined paleogeotherm.

The constructed geotherm, alongside garnet major‐ and trace‐element compositions, can be used to make
compositional sections of the lithosphere. We use two garnet xenocryst classification schemes to understand the
nature of the lithosphere. The first one is the CARP method (Cluster Analysis by Regressive Partitioning; Griffin
et al., 2002), which shows the proportion of garnets derived from five different lithologies: (a) Depleted harz-
burgites, (b) Depleted lherzolites, (c) Depleted lherzolites with phlogopite metasomatism, (d) Fertile lherzolites,
and (e) Melt‐metasomatized lithologies. The other classification scheme (Figures 10c and 10d), taken from the
work of Grütter et al. (2004), determines whether the host lithology is harzburgite, lherzolite, wehrlite, mega-
crystic, Ti‐metasomatized, pyroxenite, or eclogite based on garnet CaO Cr2O3 contents. Thermobarometry and
classifications were made using the python library Thermobar (Wieser et al., 2022), specifically using the Cr‐
pyrope garnet thermobarometry method of Ryan et al. (1996).

4. Electrical Structure, Metasomatism and Volcanism in Northern Tanzania

MT resistivity (reciprocal conductivity) models produced in this work are presented alongside water content
calculations derived from the MT models and other relevant geological information (Figures 5–7). Horizontal
depth slices of electrical resistivity at different lithospheric depths and water content calculations in the mantle are

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Figure 4. Mantle composition sections derived from kimberlite‐derived garnet xenocrysts on the Tanzanian Craton (Green stars, Figure 1), alongside geophysical and
xenolith‐based geotherms. (a) CARP mantle composition section using the methodology of Griffin et al. (2002). (b) The number of samples analyzed in with CARP
methodology. (c) CaO Cr2O3 based mantle section based on the classification scheme of Grütter et al. (2004). (d) Geotherms constructed with garnet‐xenocrysts
alongside geotherms extracted from the geophysical thermal model of Afonso et al. (2022), for the Tanzanian Craton (gray) and Mozambique Belt (red). The pink
diamond markers indicate the pyroxene‐based thermobarometric calculations derived from xenoliths from Quaternary lavas in Labait (Lee & Rudnick, 1999). The black
dashed line indicates the base of the depleted lithosphere.

shown in Figure 5. The first two electrical resistivity slices, down to 25 km, include information from earthquake
epicenters in the region, while the deeper slices include information on the distribution of solidified magmatic
products. We also show vertical slices from the electrical resistivity model where MT stations are denser and form
a profile (Figures 6 and 7).

4.1. Cratonic Domain

The first slice (A‐A′), which is shown in Figure 6, traverses through the Tanzanian Craton, Mwadui kimberlite
field (MKF, Figure 1), Cenozoic volcanics in the Rift Basin and the Mozambique Belt. A two‐dimensional model
of this same slice that uses only the long‐period data along this transect was previously analyzed in Selway (2015).
In the westernmost (cratonic) side of A‐A′, we observe a prominent shallow mantle (50–100 km) conductor C1.
While the horizontal limits are the same, the depth of this conductor is shifted vertically upwards (∼50 km)
compared to the 2D model of Selway (2015). This change in conductor location might be due to the different
regularization approaches of different inversion codes, the inclusion of more data points in the 3D inversion, and
the more accurate modeling of 3D features. The nature of this conductor can be best explained by the deposition of
temperature independent conductive materials such as graphite and sulphides via infiltrating metasomatic fluids.
Such prominent lithosphere‐spanning conductors within cratons have also been observed worldwide, such as the
Curnamona Province in South Australia (Robertson et al., 2016) and the Bushveld Complex in Southern Africa
(Özaydın et al., 2022). C1 is proximal to several large orogenic gold deposits, including Nyankanga (Sanislav
et al., 2015) and Bulyanhulu, which are associated with mafic rocks and sulphides. Orogenic gold deposits
elsewhere are underlain by prominent mid‐lower crustal conductors (Kirkby et al., 2022) that have been inter-
preted to be related to sulphide‐ and carbon‐rich fluids involved in the gold mineralization. There is no low‐

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velocity anomaly in the vicinity of C1 in the large‐scale study of O’Donnell

et al. (2013), indicating that either the conductor is caused by a feature with no
strong seismic response (i.e., it is not caused by hydrous minerals), or that the
resolution of the seismic model is too coarse to image any low velocities. We
suggest that C1 is likely caused by interconnected minor conductive phases
such as sulphides or graphite, and that with further investigation it may be
related to the orogenic gold mineralization. Due to the attenuation of the
electromagnetic signals caused by the prominent conductor C1, the conduc-
tivities below this feature are probably not resolved, and the water and
phlogopite contents calculated in the lower lithosphere should be considered
with caution.

Along the A‐A′ transect, we observe a good correlation with our calculated
water content variations, the LAB depths acquired from the study of Afonso
et al. (2022) and the base of the depleted lithosphere from garnet xenocrysts
(Figure 4). Water content calculations demonstrate that the cratonic litho-
spheric mantle beneath this region is variably metasomatized (e.g., near C1).
Since hydrous minerals can also enhance mantle conductivity, we also
considered combinations of phlogopite and water in NAMs that could
explain the conductivity structures along this transect. To do this, we first
added phlogopite with different degrees of interconnectivity to a dry lher-
zolite matrix and compared the resulting conductivities with those observed
at 10 km above the LAB of Afonso et al. (2022) (Figure 6e). If the
phlogopite grains are very well connected (Archie's Law m = 1.1) very low
volume percentages throughout the transect can match the observed con-
ductivities (<0.5%). On the other hand, non‐connected phlogopites (m = 5)
require unrealistically large volumetric abundances to explain the conduc-
tivities (>15%). We calculated the effect of 15% phlogopite in a lherzolite
matrix on seismic velocities with the toolbox of Abers and Hacker (2016):
this showed that such high phlogopite contents would result in a VS of
∼4.17 km/s beneath C1 at 140 km depth, which is much lower than what
was observed (∼4.5–4.6 km/s, O’Donnell et al., 2013). The results, overall,
suggest that amounts of phlogopite that fit the electrical conductivity values
and the seismic model can only be present if they are moderately inter-
connected (m = 2.5).

4.2. Kimberlites on the Craton

Kimberlites that are coincident with our MT transect on Tanzanian Craton are
Figure 5. Horizontal electrical resistivity slices alongside water content situated in the Mwadui kimberlite field (MKF on Figure 1, 42% diamondif-
calculations. The first map includes information on earthquake epicenters erous) and the completely barren Eyasi kimberlite field (previously unnamed,
taken from USGS EarthExplorer. Slices deeper than 50 km include the EKF on Figure 1; Giuliani & Pearson, 2019). The mantle composition section
location of kimberlites (Giuliani & Pearson, 2019) and Cenozoic volcanic
constructed from kimberlite‐derived garnet xenocrysts displays a semi‐
rocks found in the GeoRoc geochemical data repository (Lehnert
et al., 2000). More information on the geological map can be seen in depleted and metasomatized lithosphere above the base of the depleted lith-
Figure 1. osphere at 160 km (Figure 4). Below this depth, melt‐metasomatized low‐
Mg# garnets start to strongly dominate the population. Fe‐rich, heavily
metasomatized mantle has also reported from studies of diamond mineral inclusions from the Mwadui kimberlites
(Stachel et al., 1998). The small diamond window between the diamond‐graphite transition and heavily meta-
somatized area might explain the relatively low proportion of diamondiferous kimberlites in the area compared to
southern African counterparts (O’Reilly & Griffin, 1996).
Compared to C1, the uppermost mantle (Moho to 100 km depth) is more resistive but still damp (50–500
H2O wt ppm) in the region further east where the Mwadui and western Eyasi kimberlites erupted (Figure 6a).
The distribution of kimberlites along the profile matches well with the previously described relationship of
electrical conductivity/water content variations of the mantle and kimberlites worldwide (Özaydın & Sel-
way, 2022), in which kimberlites tend to be emplaced through metasomatized lithosphere but also avoid the

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Figure 6. MT slice along the A‐A′ profile and other estimated and cataloged properties. (a) Histogram showing the number of kimberlites within the 50 km proximity of
the profile. Since there are no kimberlites within the Eastern portion, the profile is cut after Fault Eyasi. (b) Elevation along the profile. (c) MT slice along the profile,
also showing LAB and MOHO acquired from Afonso et al. (2022). (d) Water content estimation along the profile, where the shaded regions with white indicate the
places below the water solubility limit. Melted lithosphere portions at different stages (Stage 1–4) envisioned by the study of Mana et al. (2015) are indicated on the slice.
Bulk water solubility limits calculated with Padrón‐Navarta and Hermann (2017) for end‐member Craton and Mozambique Belt geotherms are also shown on the right‐
hand side of the figure. (e) Estimated volumetric abundances of phlogopite (% 0.52 F) to fit the MT model 10 km below the LAB with different interconnection
(m) values.

most electrically conductive/heavily metasomatized regions such as the region around the lithosphere‐spanning
conductor C1.

4.3. Rift Basin and Cenozoic Volcanics

The types of Cenozoic volcanism in the ∼250 km wide band from Ngorongoro to Mt. Kilimanjaro are starkly
different from the kimberlite magmatism within the Tanzanian Craton and its margins (Foley et al., 2012; Mana
et al., 2015; Rooney, 2020). The products of volcanism also vary temporally and spatially within the rift zone,
indicating that the underlying mantle source region has continually evolved in structure and composition over
time (Baudouin & Parat, 2020; Baudouin et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2012; Mattsson et al., 2013; Rooney, 2020).
It has been suggested that melting of lithospheric or sub‐lithospheric peridotite might not be enough to explain
the chemical variety of alkaline volcanic rocks in the region and a mixture of sources might be needed (Foley
et al., 2012; Mana et al., 2015; Rooney, 2020). Non‐peridotitic sources include ultramafic rock assemblages
such as hydrous pyroxenites and, in cratonic lithosphere regions, MARID (Mica‐Amphibole‐Rutile‐Ilmenite‐
Diopside) or PIC (Phlogopite‐Ilmenite‐Clinopyroxene) (Grégoire et al., 2002). It is not certain whether such
rock assemblages would have an effect on the electrical conductivity of the mantle since they may not be
connected over large distances, but they may still be susceptible to melting if a thermal anomaly is present at
depths shallower than 150 km (Foley et al., 2012, 2022). At the same time, melting and magma migration
events may have induced the dehydration, hydration or destruction of conductive metasomes in their source
region, which could be picked up by the MT models. The parental magma sourced from these regions can also
deposit conductive minerals along their ascent pathway, forming electrically conductive features elongated
toward the crust (e.g., Heinson et al., 2018; Özaydın et al., 2022). A system of coated channels formed in this
way could help to preserve minerals not stable in peridotites (Foley, 1992). Previous profile‐based 3D MT
models of the region showed possible magma channels at crustal depths correlating well with the main rift

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segments (Plasman et al., 2019), providing support for the control of

magmatism via inherited structures in the region (Le Gall et al., 2008;
Muirhead & Kattenhorn, 2018).

Unveiling the nature of magma/fluid infiltration at the trans‐lithospheric scale

may help us elucidate the processes related to magma generation, how
magmas travel to the surface and what kind of compositional effects
magmatic events have on the lithosphere. In our models, the rift zone is
electrically heterogeneous (Figure 5), as has been observed in previous MT
models of the East African Rift (Dambly et al., 2023; Hübert et al., 2018;
Meju & Sakkas, 2007). This may reflect magmas and fluids exploiting pre‐
existing, lithosphere‐scale weakness zones (Acocella, 2014; Muirhead &
Kattenhorn, 2018). More precisely, we image lithospheric‐scale conductors
proximal to the Eyasi, Manyara and Natron rift fault systems. For instance,
CM 2 and CM 3 may represent magma ascent pathways associated with the
Manyara rift fault systems. Within the rift zone, all these ascent pathways are
sourced from a deeper, widespread, conductive/wet zone in the lithosphere,
which we call CM (Figures 5 and 6). This deep mantle conductor correlates
with low seismic velocities in many different tomography studies (Clutier
et al., 2021; Plasman et al., 2019; Tiberi et al., 2019). In larger scale seismic
tomography studies, however, the low velocity zone consistently extends
toward the northern Natron rift system and connects to Kenya rift (e.g.,
Clutier et al., 2021; Mulibo & Nyblade, 2013b; O’Donnell et al., 2013).

The conductor C2 sits under the Northern Crater Highlands where volcanoes
Oldoinyo Lengai, Embagai, Loolmasin, and Olmati are situated, while C3 sits
under the volcanoes Essimingor, Tarosero, and Monduli. These crustal con-
ductors may represent the presence of active magma or the effects of past
magmatism in the form of crystalline conductive material. The metasomat-
ized portion of the deeper lithospheric mantle (CM) would then represent a
plausible place for incipient melts to form in response to an oxidized
(CO2 + H2O) solidus (Pintér et al., 2021) since our calculations fitting
electrical conductivities with water‐induced melting do not reduce the solidus
enough to meet the local geotherm and induce melting (Figure 8). Another
Figure 7. MT and estimated bulk water content slices along (a) C‐C′, (b) B‐
B′, and (c) D‐D′ profiles. Melted regions envisioned by the study of possibility could be that magmas form by the melting of hydrous pyroxenites
Baudouin and Parat (2020) for Kwaraha and Labait Volcanoes are indicated in the region, which matches with the geotherm at CM at these depths
with red water content slice of (a). (d) Modeled water content profiles around (Figure 8; Foley et al., 2022). Following this, we can suggest that these melts
the Labait Volcano compared to xenolith water contents Hui et al. (2015). originated around CM in response to a sub‐lithospheric heat source and may
We used the orthopyroxene water measurements to convert them to bulk
have used oblique lithospheric weakness zones represented by CM 2 and
water contents with composition used in water models (blue circles) and
individual compositions for each sample indicated in the study. CM 3 to ascend, forming conductors by mineralizing conductive phases along
the way (Figure 9).
Alternatively, we can assume that the magmas do not necessarily travel along these oblique lithospheric zones of
weakness and are instead emplaced vertically upwards from their source regions. This would be likely to happen
if the lithosphere beneath the volcanoes is also metasomatized/hydrated to account for metasome‐induced
incipient melting. While we observe hydrated zones beneath most of the volcanoes in the region, the litho-
sphere beneath the Northern Crater Highlands, where Oldoinyo Lengai, Embagan, and Kerimasi are situated, as
well as the lithosphere underlying Mt Meru and Mt Kilimanjaro, appears less hydrous (Figures 5–7) One potential
pattern, which would require more extensive MT coverage for confirmation, is that dehydrated mantle appears to
coincide with the more recent volcanism, while more hydrated mantle coincides with dormant volcanism in the
southwest of the model region (Figures 6 and 7; Mana et al., 2015). In this model, recent melt generation would
have increased the resistivity of these regions by melting metasomatic phases and partitioning water into the melt
(e.g., Novella et al., 2014) and melts would have migrated without precipitating any conductive phases. If this
were to be true, we can envisage that the lithospheric pathways may be likely to be more conductive if they use a
pre‐existing weakness zone such as CM 2 and CM 3, occupying a plate boundary (Manyara Fault, Figure 9). In
either case, it is possible that narrow conductive zones caused by magma/fluid infiltration may exist but are too

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small to be resolved by the current coarse MT data coverage (Kirkby &

Doublier, 2022). This might be especially true for magmatism in Mt Kili-
manjaro and Mt Meru since they occur above relatively dry mantle without
any visible conductive pathway connecting them to a metasomatized litho-
spheric source. Since our data are only collected in profiles, it is particularly
hard to distinguish if melt migration pathways exist away from the MT sites
where they are absent.
Mana et al. (2015) performed geochemical melt modeling and radiometric
dating on the lavas from the region spanning the Crater Highlands in the west
to Mt Kilimanjaro in the east and proposed a melt generation model involving
four stages of magmatism. In this model, different parts of the lithosphere
with veined metasomes are melted within a somewhat depleted lithosphere
where they might have intermingled with sub‐lithospheric peridotitic melt.
We indeed observe that the roughly outlined areas related to the four stages
(Figure 6) coincide with the dryer mantle as calculated from the MT model.
From the geochemical and isotopic data, (Mana et al., 2015) propose that
during Stage 1 and Stage 4, melting occurred at c. 110–140 km depth and
involved melting of amphibole‐rich veins, while Stage 2 and Stage 3 melting
occurred at slightly shallower depths (c. 85–110 km), involved more
decompression melting and that the contribution from hydrous veins was
negligible. This pattern is consistent with an interpretation of the MT model
whereby melting of metasomatic phases increases lithospheric resistivity. The
lithospheric mantle beneath Stage 1 and Stage 4 volcanoes is resistive and
dehydrated at depths greater than 110 km, consistent with the melting and
destruction of any hydrous veins. In contrast, the lithospheric mantle beneath
Figure 8. Geotherm near conductor CM at the rift‐axis alongside different Stage 3 volcanoes and some Stage 2 volcanoes is still conductive and hy-
peridotite and pyroxenite solidus curves. These solidus curves include Dry drated in the depth range 85–110 km from which melts were sourced,
peridotite solidus (Hirschmann et al., 2009), H2O‐depressed peridotite consistent with the geochemical data that hydrous veins did not melt to
solidus fitting the conductivity at CM (Hirschmann et al., 2009) with
produce the erupted lavas.
scenarios varying with different melt contents and interconnection scenarios
(see legend a–d); 40 wt % CO2—depressed peridotite solidus (orange curve, Dehydration and destruction of metasomes since the eruption of the xenoliths
Dasgupta et al., 2013); hydrous pyroxenite solidus (yellow curve, Foley
also might explain the mismatch between the bulk xenolith water contents
et al., 2022), CO2 + H2O saturated peridotite (purple curve, Foley
et al., 2009). (Baptiste et al., 2015) and our MT‐derived water models (completely dry
instead of ∼122–186 H2O wt ppm from the Lashaine sample LS11, Figure 6).
A similar mismatch between xenolith water contents and MT‐derived water contents is also observed in samples
from Eledoi and Pello Hill (Figure 7; Baptiste et al., 2015). Carbonatite metasomatism in the mantle is indicated
by the chemistry of Lashaine and Olmani xenoliths, the famous carbonatite magmatism of Oldoinyo Lengai,
measured CO2 fluxes from Manyara Basin (Muirhead et al., 2020), and the occurrence of wehrlite xenoliths
(Aulbach et al., 2020). This suggests that the recent metasomatic events might not introduce hydration since the
increased CO2 fugacity will lower the H2O fugacity in the environment, lowering the hydration of NAMs in the
region (Baptiste et al., 2015).
In the NTD, another set of water content measurements made on mantle xenoliths is available from the Labait
volcano (Figure 7; Hui et al., 2015). Similar to the other regions for which xenolith water contents are known, the
mismatch between the MT‐derived and xenolith water contents is high in Labait. This mismatch is too high to be
caused by specific water partition coefficients between NAMs. Even though there are some good matches be-
tween xenolith water contents with MT models (Özaydın et al., 2021), the universality of this correlation is not
well studied. In several studies it has been suggested that NAMs from xenoliths emplaced at the surface might not
accurately record the hydration state of the mantle since water may diffuse into the host magma during xenolith
ascent (Demouchy & Alard, 2021; Denis et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021). Another possible reason might be that
other phases control the bulk electrical conductivity rather than water in NAMs. For instance, the observed
conductivity might be due to interconnected phlogopite‐rich regions reported in the Labait and Kwaraha xenoliths
(Baudouin & Parat, 2020) or melts as suggested by seismic tomography studies (Clutier et al., 2021; Plasman
et al., 2019; Tiberi et al., 2019). The volcanism here might represent the relatively undeveloped version of the rift
in the Northern Crater Highlands and volcanism outside the rift‐axis, where metasomes have not yet been

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Figure 9. 3D representation of the MT model in the eastern portion of the area (see shaded area in the inset map) structured with (a) 3D MT model slices, and (b) the
interpretive sketch dependent on the results of this study.

destroyed and may induce melting in the region as for the younger ages of the lavas of Labait, Hanang, and
Kwaraha (Mana et al., 2015).

4.4. Implications for the Stability of the Tanzanian Craton and Rift Propagation
Tectonically, one of the most striking features about northeast Tanzania is the vastly different responses to stress
between the Tanzanian Craton and the adjacent lithosphere in the Mozambique Belt and Rift Basin. The
Mozambique Belt underwent deformation of the whole lithosphere during the Pan‐African Orogeny and is
currently being deformed again during rifting. In contrast, the Tanzanian Craton, or at least the surviving portion
of the Tanzanian Craton (Ebinger et al., 1997), has remained relatively tectonically stable during these events,
seemingly able to withstand stresses that elsewhere are enough to produce continental‐scale deformation. The
apparent strength of the Tanzanian Craton is highlighted by the fact that the East Africa Rift, after extending
approximately linearly from the Main Ethiopian Rift to the northern margin of the Tanzanian Craton, then bi-
furcates around the Tanzanian Craton and splits into the Eastern Branch, which we image here, and the Western
Branch (Figure 1). This contrasting behavior indicates that there are significant rheological differences between
the Tanzanian Craton and the adjacent lithosphere.
The dominant conclusion from numerous studies investigating the rheological response to rifting in this region
is not that it is unusual that the Tanzanian Craton is stable, but rather that it is instead surprising that the
adjacent lithosphere of the Eastern and Western Branches is rifting (e.g., Behn et al., 2006; Buck, 2006; Koptev
et al., 2016; O’Donnell et al., 2016). The stresses in the region are tensional and primarily derived from
gradients in the gravitational potential associated with the uplift of the East African Plateau (Craig et al., 2011;
Rajaonarison et al., 2021; Stamps et al., 2014). These stresses provide only a fraction of the stress theoretically
needed to rift thick (>100 km thickness) and melt‐free lithosphere. Adding to this challenge, as pointed out by
Selway et al. (2014) and Selway (2015) and confirmed in the results shown here, is that much of the litho-
spheric mantle beneath the Eastern Branch is dehydrated. Since water content in olivine is one of the major

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controls on mantle rheology (e.g., Hirth & Kohlstedf, 2003), higher water contents in the cratonic mantle
should, all else being equal, make it weaker than the Eastern Branch lithospheric mantle. Selway (2015)
suggested that small grain sizes in the Eastern Branch lithosphere, which may still remain as a scar from Pan‐
African deformation, could contribute to weakening the Eastern Branch lithosphere and could outweigh the
impact of water content (e.g., Ramirez et al., 2022). Mantle xenoliths from the volcanoes along the rift zone
(Pello Hill and Elodoi) do indeed dominantly have porphyroclastic textures with smaller olivine grain sizes
(0.4–2 mm Baptiste et al., 2015). In the less developed parts of the rift zone toward the south (Labait Volcano),
porphyroclastic textures only exist in the samples with the highest equilibrium temperatures (1450C°), whereas
larger grain sizes (5–15 mm) were observed in lithospheric samples (Vauchez et al., 2005). Xenolith samples
from Lashaine, east of the rift valley, show similar textures to lithospheric samples from Labait (Baptiste
et al., 2015). Even though they occur in close proximity in space and time to Lashaine, Olmani xenoliths consist
of porphyroclastic to coarse textures with small grain sizes, suggesting that the area east of the rift valley
experienced heterogeneous distribution of stress and, therefore, that localized deformation might have occurred
(Baptiste et al., 2015).
Although fine grain sizes in the rift zone will reduce mantle viscosity, most calculations suggest that the East
African lithosphere should still be too strong to rift in the presence of the available stresses (e.g., O’Donnell
et al., 2016). Instead, the presence of melt is the most effective mechanism to reduce the strength of the Tanzanian
lithosphere enough that it deforms (e.g., Buck, 2006; O’Donnell et al., 2016; Reiss et al., 2022). Correlations
between the timing of volcanism and faulting in the NTD (e.g., Le Gall et al., 2008) lend support to the idea that
the East African Rift lithosphere is weakened by active magmatism. The MT results presented here can improve
our understanding of the distribution of melt within the lithospheric mantle of the NTD and of the likely
development of large‐scale deformation. Within the cratonic mantle lithosphere, although resistivities are low, the
lack of high‐volume Cenozoic surface volcanism and the high seismic velocities suggest that there is no melt
present and that the low resistivities are attributable to solid‐state causes. Within the Eastern Branch, despite the
generally higher resistivities, the recent and active volcanism (Mana et al., 2015), low seismic velocities (Clutier
et al., 2021; Tiberi et al., 2019), and high seismic attenuation (Reiss et al., 2022) suggest that melt is present in the
lithosphere. The seismic and MT observations can be reconciled if melt is present in a sufficiently small volume
that it resides in triple junctions but does not coat grain boundaries (e.g., Selway & O’Donnell, 2019) and the
mantle conductor CM (Figure 6) may indicate regions with slightly higher and more interconnected melt
concentrations.

Geochemical investigations of magmatism in the East Africa Rift suggest that thermal input has occurred in
pulses (e.g., Rooney, 2020). During later thermal pulses, portions of the lithospheric mantle that were meta-
somatized in earlier pulses are progressively melted until, eventually, the lithospheric mantle is depleted and
magmas are sourced from the sub‐lithospheric mantle (e.g., Mana et al., 2015; Rooney, 2020). The relatively
dehydrated nature of the lithospheric mantle in the Mozambique Belt suggests that this process is already well‐
developed and might support the numerical models of Koptev et al. (2016), where plume impingement causes a
large pond of magma initiating the rifting process but also dehydrating and destroying the metasomes in the Belt.
Magma currently within the lithospheric mantle may contain significant sub‐lithospheric material (Muirhead
et al., 2020) and may be scavenging any remaining metasomatized material from the lithosphere (Mana
et al., 2015). This dehydration of the lithosphere suggests that, unless there are large future thermal pulses to inject
significant volumes of sub‐lithospheric melt into the Eastern Branch lithospheric mantle, future volcanism in this
part of the Eastern Branch may be limited. Given that magma is a primary control on lithospheric strength, this
may mean that the extent of rifting in the Eastern Branch will also be limited. The outlook for rifting and
deformation would differ if the plume were to migrate toward parts of the lithospheric mantle that still contain
metasomatic phases, including the adjacent cratonic lithosphere, inducing redox melting (Foley & Fischer, 2017;
Muirhead et al., 2020). The effect of grain sizes, hydrolytic weakening of olivine, structural inheritance and
existence of melt should be tested with geodynamic modeling using the results of this study to further constrain
the mechanisms accommodating rifting in this region.

5. Conclusions
Newly developed 3D MT models of the Northern Tanzanian Divergence are subjected to quantified in-
terpretations. The most important conclusions of this study are:

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Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 10.1029/2023GC011191

• The cratonic region displays signs of a metasomatized lithosphere throughout, especially around the promi-
nent conductor C1. The large conductor C1 lies above the water solubility limit of NAMs, suggesting other
minor conductive phases, particularly graphite and sulphides, might be responsible for its formation.
• Kimberlites on the craton appear on the metasomatized/hydrated portions of the lithosphere and avoid the
prominent conductor C1, which aligns with the previously observed relationship between electrical conduc-
tivity and kimberlite distribution around the world (Özaydın & Selway, 2022).
• The garnet xenocryst section demonstrates a layered lithosphere where the mantle below ∼160 km is abun-
dantly melt‐metasomatized, which matches mantle xenolith observations from the region (e.g., Lee & Rud-
nick, 1999). This boundary also coincides with geophysical interpretations of the current LAB and displays a
transition from a hydrated/metasomatized to a dry lithosphere.
• The rift zone is electrically heterogeneous, where primary conductors follow the fault zones. In the deeper rift
zone, the conductor CM appears, which correlates well with the suggested melt‐bearing regions from seismic
tomography studies (Clutier et al., 2021; Reiss et al., 2022). As well as melt, the conductive nature of the
region may indicate the presence of metasomes that are likely to reduce the solidus and induce melting in the
presence of a thermal anomaly.
• The mantle beneath the northern rift zone (proximal to Oldoinyo Lengai) and the region spanning Mt Essi-
mingor to Mt Kilimanjaro appears to be dehydrated. This might indicate that melting in these areas caused
metasomes to be destroyed, and consequently the mantle to be dehydrated. The fact that mantle xenolith water
contents also do not match the MT‐derived water contents in these regions might indicate that the area has
evolved significantly in composition since eruption of the xenoliths.
• The dehydrated nature of the Mozambique Belt suggests that rifting might be accommodated through melting
of metasomes across the rift zone. In the absence of an enhanced thermal anomaly, the rifting in the Eastern
Branch might be limited in future geological times.

Data Availability Statement

We used the ModEM inversion code for 3D MT modeling, which can be accessed by contacting the developers
http://www.modem‐geophysics.com/. The quantified interpretations of the MT model were made by using the
software MATE (Özaydın & Selway, 2020), which can be found at https://github.com/sinanozaydin/MATE. The
python library Thermobar is used to make thermobarometric calculations and garnet xenocryst analyses (Wieser
et al., 2022), which can be found at https://github.com/PennyWieser/Thermobar. Phase tensor ellipses are
generated using the python library mtpy (Kirkby et al., 2019), which can be found at https://github.com/
MTgeophysics/mtpy. Original MT model and data files, water model files can be found at Özaydın (2023).

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