Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl

Role of pre-existing structures in controlling the Cenozoic tectonic

evolution of the eastern Tibetan plateau: New insights from analogue
experiments
Ming Sun a , An Yin a,b,∗ , Danping Yan a,∗∗ , Hongyu Ren a , Hongxu Mu a , Lutao Zhu a,c ,
Liang Qiu a
a
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
b
Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1567, USA
c
7th Gold Exploration Team of the Chinese Armed Police Force, Yantai 264004, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pre-existing weakness due to repeated tectonic, metamorphic, and magmatic events is a fundamental
Received 21 September 2017 feature of the continental lithosphere on Earth. Because of this, continental deformation results from
Received in revised form 25 February 2018 a combined effect of boundary conditions imposed by plate tectonic processes and heterogeneous and
Accepted 4 March 2018
anisotropic mechanical strength inherited from protracted continental evolution. In this study, we assess
Available online 5 April 2018
Editor: B. Buffett
how this interaction may have controlled the Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Tibetan plateau during
the India–Asia collision. Specifically, we use analogue models to evaluate how the pre-Cenozoic structures
Keywords: may have controlled the location, orientation, and kinematics of the northwest-striking Xianshuihe and
Tibetan plateau northeast-striking Longmen Shan fault zones, the two most dominant Cenozoic structures in eastern
India–Asia collision Tibet. Our best model indicates that the correct location, trend, and kinematics of the two fault systems
analogue modeling can only be generated and maintained if the following conditions are met: (1) the northern part of the
Xianshuihe fault Songpan–Ganzi terrane in eastern Tibet has a strong basement whereas its southern part has a weak
Longmen Shan thrust belt
basement, (2) the northern strong basement consists of two pieces bounded by a crustal-scale weak
Songpan–Ganzi terrane
zone that is expressed by the Triassic development of a northwest-trending antiform exposing middle
and lower crustal rocks, and (3) the region was under persistent northeast–southwest compression since
∼35 Ma. Our model makes correct prediction on the sequence of deformation in eastern Tibet; the
Longmen Shan right-slip transpressional zone was initiated first as an instantaneous response to the
northeast–southwest compression, which is followed by the formation of the Xianshuihe fault about a
half way after the exertion of northeast–southwest shortening in the model. The success of our model
highlights the importance of pre-existing weakness, a key factor that has been largely neglected in the
current geodynamic models of continental deformation.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction continental lithosphere can be expressed either as crustal-scale

weak zones or storage of gravitational potential energy (e.g., Kluth
Formation of continental lithosphere results from multi-phase and Coney, 1981; England and Houseman, 1989). Hence, continen-
magmatic differentiation, terrane accretion/collision, metamor- tal deformation is ultimately a combined result of (1) boundary
phism, and tectonic activities (e.g., Hawkesworth et al., 2017). As conditions imposed by plate tectonic processes and (2) the inter-
a result of its protracted evolution, the rheological properties of action of its induced stress fields with pre-existing distribution of
continental lithosphere vary strongly in time and space, contrast- heterogeneity and anisotropy inherited from protracted early con-
ing sharply to those of oceanic lithosphere (e.g., McKenzie et al., tinental evolution.
2005). The spatiotemporally variable mechanical strength of the The eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau was created by the
Cenozoic development of the Longmen Shan thrust belt/right-slip
transpressional system during the India–Asia collision. The Long-
*
Corresponding author at: Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences,
men Shan thrust belt is located at the site where intense Triassic
University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1567, USA.
** Corresponding author. deformation took place during the closure of the Paleo-Tethys (e.g.,
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Yin), [email protected] (D. Yan). Burchfiel and Chen, 2012). Despite this well-established geologic

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.03.005
0012-821X/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
208 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215

Fig. 1. Cenozoic fault map of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen and location of major pre-Cenozoic terrane boundaries after Taylor and Yin (2009). IYS: Indus–Yarlung suture;
BNS: Bangong–Nujiang suture; JS: Jinsha suture; GLS: Garze–Litang suture; KS: Kunlun suture. Note that the boundary between the Yangtze terrane of South China and the
Songpan–Ganzi terrane is transitional and complex due to Triassic and Cenozoic deformation. Also shown is the approximate location of Fig. 2B.

relationship, the dynamic role of Triassic structures in controlling (Fig. 1) (Yin and Nie, 1996; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Roger et al.,
Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the eastern Tibetan plateau has not 2010). The Songpan–Ganzi terrane is composed of a thick (locally
been investigated. Current research on the Cenozoic development >15 km) Triassic turbidite sequence that is strongly folded and in-
of the eastern Tibetan plateau focuses mainly on testing two end- truded by earliest Jurassic plutons (Nie et al., 1994; Burchfiel and
member models in cross-section view, with one emphasizing the Chen, 2012; de Sigoyer et al., 2014). The easternmost Songpan–
role of lower-crustal channel flow (e.g., Clark and Royden, 2000; Ganzi terrane and the Yangtze craton share the same continen-
Bendick and Flesch, 2007) and another the development of a thrust tal basement, which is characterized by the presence of 825–750
wedge (e.g., Hubbard and Shaw, 2009). Not only that the above Ma felsic rocks (Zhou et al., 2002) covered by Neoproterozoic
two end-member models do not involve pre-existing weakness, to Triassic strata (Fig. 2) (Roger et al., 2010). The Yidun ter-
their two-dimensionality makes them inadequate to evaluate the rane is bounded by the Garze–Litang and Jinsha suture zones
impact of the well-established Cenozoic transpressional and strike- between the Qiangtang and Songpan–Ganzi terranes (Fig. 1) and
slip faulting on the tectonic development of the eastern Tibetan consists of a Cambrian–Carboniferous continental-shelf sequence
plateau (Fig. 1). overlain by a Permo-Triassic arc sequence (e.g., Reid et al., 2005;
Although the role of pre-existing weakness in controlling Roger et al., 2010). Geochemistry and Hf model ages of Triassic
intra-plate deformation at a continental scale has been evalu- and Cretaceous plutonic rocks require the Yidun terrane to have
ated through numerical modeling (e.g., Neil and Houseman, 1997; a thinned continental basement, which may have resulted from
Kong et al., 1997) and the application of rock-mechanics principles rifting from the Yangtze terrane during the postulated Permian
(e.g., Cooke and Underwood, 2001; Tong and Yin, 2011), these ap- backarc extension (Reid et al., 2005) (Fig. 2A). Deformation of the
proaches are unable to simulate coeval nucleation of new faults Yidun terrane was induced by the Early Triassic closure of the Jin-
and reactivation of pre-existing weak zones in the continental sha Ocean in the west side and the Late Triassic closure of the
lithosphere. This problem can be overcome by analogue modeling Garze–Litang Ocean on the east side, respectively (Reid et al., 2005;
that is capable of simulating fault creation and reactivation under Burchfiel and Chen, 2012) (Fig. 2B).
proper model setups (e.g., Haq and Davis, 1997; Viola et al., 2004;
Yan et al., 2016). In this study we use analogue-model experiments
2.2. Cenozoic structures
to determine the mechanical origins of the left-slip Xianshuihe
fault zone and the right-slip transpressional Longmen Shan belt,
The first-order Cenozoic structures in eastern Tibet are the
the two most dominant Cenozoic fault systems in eastern Tibet.
Longmen Shan thrust belt and the Xianshuihe left-slip fault. The
Specifically, we would like to answer the following questions. (1)
northeast-striking Longmen Shan thrust belt defines the eastern
Was the Xianshuihe fault nucleated as a new structure or reacti-
margin of the Tibetan plateau (Fig. 1) (Burchfiel et al., 1995),
vated from an older weakness zone? (2) Does the Songpan–Ganzi
terrane have a coherent or fragmented basement in eastern Tibet? which has experienced slow exhumation during the early Ceno-
(3) What has been the dominant shortening direction in eastern zoic followed by two pulses of rapid exhumation at 30–25 and
Tibet during the development of the Cenozoic Xianshuihe and 10–15 Ma, respectively (Wang et al., 2014). The northern seg-
Longmen Shan fault zones? ment of the thrust belt accommodates both thrusting and right-
slip shear deformation (Fig. 1), whereas the southern segment
2. Geologic setting of eastern Tibet terminates at the left-slip Xianshuihe fault (Burchfiel et al., 1995;
Liu-Zeng et al., 2010; Yan et al., 2011; Burchfiel and Chen, 2012).
2.1. Triassic structures The Xianshuihe fault has accommodated ∼60 km left-slip offset
and has been active since ∼10 Ma (Roger et al., 1995; Burchfiel et
Eastern Tibet exposes the Songpan–Ganzi terrane, the Yidun al., 1995). This age is significantly younger than the initiation age
terrane, and the western margin of the Yangtze terrane/craton of the Longmen Shan thrust belt to the north at ∼35 Ma (Wang
 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215 209

Fig. 2. Tectonic evolution of eastern Tibet from the late Permian to the latest Triassic. (A) Map and cross-section views of the tectonic setting of eastern Tibet in the Permian.
During this time the Yidun terrane as a continental strip was rifted away from the Yangtze terrane of South China block. The rifting event was followed by the opening
of the Garze–Litang ocean. The map is modified from Reid et al. (2005). (B) Map and cross section views of the tectonic setting in the Late Triassic in eastern Tibet. The
Garze–Litang oceanic lithosphere started subducting below the Yidun terrane in the Latest Permian and Early Triassic, leading to the ocean closure at the end of the Triassic
(Reid et al., 2005). The western margin of the Yangtze terrane experienced compressional tectonics, leading to the juxtaposition of deep-water continental-slope deposits
over the cratonal sequence of the Yangtze terrane (Burchfiel et al., 1995). In this study, we infer that the Danba antiform and its related thrust mark the boundary between
the Yangtze terrane with a continental basement and the Songpan–Ganzi terrane with an oceanic basement. This Triassic boundary was reactivated to form the Cenozoic
Xianshuihe fault. (C) Relationship between the Cenozoic Xianshuihe fault and the Danba gneiss dome after Roger et al. (2010). (For interpretation of the colors in the figure(s),
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

et al., 2014). The northwest-striking Xianshuhe fault is linked with zone against overlain by a sequence of Ordovician–Triassic low-
the north–northwest-striking Anninghe fault, which in turn links grade sedimentary strata (Zhou et al., 2008).
with the north-striking Xiaojiang fault, from north to south (Fig. 1). In the Longmen Shan region, the Triassic deformation is ex-
This systematic change in fault orientation without a change in pressed by broad left-slip shear deformation as indicated by the
fault kinematics may have resulted from clockwise rotation of systematic deflection of fold-trace trends and thrusting character-
several crustal fragments in eastern Tibet due to the Cenozoic ized by juxtaposition of deep-water Neoproterozoic to Triassic de-
northward indentation of India into Asia (Burchfiel et al., 1995; posits over the cratonal sequence of the Yangtze terrane (Burchfiel
Royden et al., 1997). and Chen, 2012). It is at this Triassic deformation domain along the
western margin of the Yangtze terrane where the active Longmen
2.3. Relationships between Triassic and Cenozoic structures Shan thrust belt was initiated. Its reactivation along the Triassic
structures is best expressed by its parallel and spatially overlap-
The active left-slip Xianshuihe fault bounds the southwestern ping relationship to the 1000-km long north-trending belt of Tri-
edge of the Danba gneiss dome (Fig. 2C), which has a com- assic gneiss domes (Zhou et al., 2008). The field relationship of
plex history of deformation, metamorphism, and magmatism from Paleozoic–Mesozoic strata over the Cenozoic fold-and thrust belt
the latest Permian to the earliest Jurassic (Huang et al., 2003; in the central part of the eastern Longmen Shan is interpreted to
Zhou et al., 2008). The dome consists of a metamorphic core of indicate reactivation of the Triassic thrust decollement by Cenozoic
Proterozoic gneiss juxtaposed on top by a warped ductile shear deformation (Burchfiel et al., 1995).
210 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215

Fig. 3. Pre-Cenozoic basement configurations adopted in this study. (A) Three models are considered. (1) Model 1 assumes no strong basement below the Songpang–Ganzi
terrane and the Cenozoic deformation is induced by northeast–southwest compression. (2) Model 2 assumes the northern part of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane has a strong
basement whereas the southern part does not. Cenozoic deformation in the region is induced by northeast–southwest compression. In addition, the strong basement of
the northern Songpan–Ganzi terrane has two fragments, with the boundary following the current trace of the Xianshuihe fault. (3) Model 3 assumes the northern part
of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane has a strong basement whereas the southern part does not. Cenozoic deformation in the region is induced by north–south rather than
northeast–southwest compression as assumed in models 1 and 2. The strong basement of the northern Songpan–Ganzi terrane consists of two fragments and their boundary
follows the current trace of the Xianshuihe fault. (B) Cross section along the left margin of model 2 to show the locations of preexisting weakness.

Table 1
Scaling relationships used in the analogue experiments.

Model Nature Model/Nature

Thickness 5 (cm) ∼30 (km) 1.67 × 10−6
Length 84 (cm) ∼500 (km) 1.67 × 10−6
Width 60 (cm) ∼360 (km) 1.67 × 10−6
Density 1.56 × 103 (kg/m3 ) 2.7 × 103 (kg/m3 ) 5.78 × 10−1
Convergence time 1600 (s) 30 (Ma) 1.71 × 10−12
Shortening magnitude 160 (mm) ∼100 (km) 2.67 × 10−7

3. Analogue models two singly exposed images using a multi-pass and multi-grid func-
tion method. The method follows the general schemes outlined in
3.1. Experimental materials and scaling relationships Adam et al. (2005) and Raffel et al. (2007) with additional ele-
ments from Pan et al. (2013) for more efficient computation. As
A sandbox experimental apparatus hosted in the Tectonic Mod- the recorded displacements are much greater than the sand grain
eling Laboratory of China University of Geosciences (Beijing) was sizes, the uncertainty of the determined velocity values measured
used to perform all the experiments. The sandbox has two fixed by standard deviation is rather small, typically in the range of ∼1%
sidewalls and a fixed end wall, and convergence is initiated by of the mean velocity values when compared against results derived
a moving back wall (Fig. 3A). Dry quartz sand with grain size from images generated by Monte Carlo simulations.
125–225 μm was used in the experiments to represent the brit- Relating the analogue experiments to crustal-scale deformation
tle crust in eastern Tibet. The sand has a coefficient of internal requires dynamic and geometric scaling that is governed by the
friction μ ≈ 0.60 (with an angle of internal friction ϕ ≈ 31◦ ) and following relationship (Hubbert, 1937):
a cohesive strength C ≈ 40–70 Pa, which are similar to those es-
timated by Zuza et al. (2017). Our sand has a density of ρ ≈ 1560 C model σ Vmodel ρ model × Lmodel × g model
g/m3 (Table 1). Deformation histories of the sandbox experiments
= = nature (1)
C nature Nature
σV ρ × Lnature × g nature
are recorded as digital images using a Canon 500D camera. A
commercially available two-dimensional particle image velocime- where C is cohesive strength, σ V is vertical normal stress, ρ is
try (PIV) system (http://www.piv.com.cn/) was employed to con- the density, L is the dimension, and g is gravitational accelera-
vert the image history to a sand-particle velocity-field history. The tion; the superscript denotes the analogue-model vs. real-world
algorithm of conversion is based on cross correlation of a pair of (nature) parameters. If we take rock cohesive strength C model to
 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215 211

be 70 MPa (Jaeger et al., 2009), we arrive at a geometric scaling model is too restricted to the south to match the observations
model
factor between sand and crust as LLnature ≈ ∼1.73 × 10−6 . Accord- (Fig. 4A, cf. Fig. 1).
ingly, 1 cm sand thickness in our experiment represents ∼6 km The final deformation pattern generated by model 3 (Fig. 4C)
crustal thickness. Our experiments, which use a sand-layer thick- also does not match the observations from eastern Tibet. The
nesses of 5 cm and horizontal dimensions of 84 cm × 60 cm, model assumes a two-piece strong basement in the north and
represents about an upper crustal section that is 30 km thick weak basement in the south for the Songpan–Ganzi terrane in
with a 500 km × 360 km horizontal dimension (Table 1). In all eastern Tibet under persistence north–south shortening. Experi-
the experimental results presented below, we focus on the inter- ment from this model creates a northwest-striking right-slip shear
actions between the Xianshuihe fault system and Longmen Shan zone along the boundary of the two basement fragments be-
fault system. In this context, the development of the eastern Ti- neath the northern part of Songpan–Ganzi terrane and a northeast-
betan plateau was created by a total of ∼100 km shortening either striking left-slip shear zone along the boundary between the
in the north–south or northeast–southwest direction over the past Songpan–Ganzi and Yangtze terrane. Although the model is able to
30 Ma, which corresponds to a shortening of rate of ∼3.3 mm/yr produce fault zones at the locations of the Xianshuihe fault zone
(Table 1). The total shortening magnitude is consistent with the and the Longmen Shan thrust belt in eastern Tibet, its predicted
estimated Cenozoic shortening (Hubbard and Shaw, 2009) and the fault kinematics is inconsistent with the observed fault kinematics
averaged Late Cenozoic slip rates across the Longmen Shan region (Fig. 4C; cf. Fig. 1).
(Burchfiel et al., 1995). Among the experimental results from the three models, only
model 2 assuming a two-piece strong basement in the north and
a weak basement in the south for the Songpan–Ganzi terrane in
3.2. Model setup
eastern Tibet produces deformation that is compatible with the ob-
servations (Fig. 4B). In this model, persistent northeast–southwest
In order to evaluate the effects of preexisting weakness on the
shortening is applied, which creates a northwest-striking left-slip
Cenozoic evolution of eastern Tibet, we treat basement geometry
shear zone along the weakness within the two-piece basement
and shortening direction as variables. To this end we use pre-
and a northeast-striking right-slip transpressional shear zone along
cut paperboard to represent the strong basal section of the upper
the boundary between the Songpan–Ganzi and Yangtze terranes
crust, which is overlain by sand to represent the crustal rocks and
(Fig. 4B; cf. Fig. 1).
underlain by nearly frictionless plastic sheet to represent viscous
Because of the success of model 2 in predicting the current
lower crust whose strength does not interfere with the structural
fault pattern in eastern Tibet, we describe in detail below how the
development of the upper crust. The basement shape of the Yidun
structural pattern has evolved with time measured by fraction of
terrane (orange), the Sichuan basin of the Yangtze terrane (blue),
the total northward push (= 16 cm) (Fig. 5). To illustrate this, we
and the Qinling–Dabie orogen (dark green) is shown in Fig. 3A
divide the deformation history of the model 2 experiment into five
for three models examined in this study. In the first case, the
stages.
sand rests directly on top of the basal plastic sheet in the region
Stage 1. Panel 1 of Fig. 5A displays the deformation pattern
representing the Songpan–Ganzi terrane, which implies that the
whereas panel 1 of Fig. 5B shows the vorticity distribution (pos-
Songpan–Ganzi terrane lacks a strong basement and its crust has
itive for left-slip shear and negative for right-slip shear) across the
a uniform mechanical strength (see model 1 in Fig. 3A). In model
portion of the total modeled area representing the region covering
2, we use two pieces of paperboard to represent the strong base-
the Xianshuihe and Longmen Shan fault zones. The correspond-
ment of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane; the boundary between the
ing boundary condition is 2% of the total 16-cm northeastward
two “basement fragments” represents the Triassic thrust bounding push. At this stage, a subtle but recognizable northeast-striking
the Danba dome as shown in Fig. 2 (see model 2 in Fig. 3A). For right-slip shear zone is developed along the boundary between
both models 1 and 2, the compressional direction is northeast– the Songpan–Ganzi and Yangtze terranes, as indicated by the de-
southwest. In model 3, we use the trend of the Longmen Shan flection of the originally straight strain marker lines (panel 1 in
thrust belt as a reference and change the shortening direction to Fig. 5A). Although there are no observable surface breaks along
north–south while maintaining the same basement configuration this shear zone, the localization of right-slip shear deformation is
(see model 3 in Fig. 3A). The relationship among the basement clearly shown in the vorticity map and the northeastward velocity
fragments in model 3 is shown in Fig. 3B. modeled map in panel 1 of Fig. 5B and panel 1 of Fig. 5C, respec-
tively. A northwest-striking shear zone can also be recognized in
4. Experimental results the velocity map in panel 1 of Fig. 5C, which cannot be detected
from the image of surface deformation (panel 1 of Fig. 5A) and the
The experimental results are displayed as images of deforma- corresponding vorticity map (panel 1 of Fig. 5B). The upper-left
tion patterns, vorticity distribution, and spatial variation of north- corner of the image displays a northeast-striking left-slip trans-
eastward velocity magnitude as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The results pressional shear zone. The feature is an artificial edge effect of
allow us to compare the model results against the known geo- shear deformation between soft sand and rigid paperboard along
logic relationships in eastern Tibet, which we discuss below. The the left side wall of our model setup (see Fig. 5D). This artefact is
final fault pattern generated by model 1 was produced by north- also shown in the vorticity map in panel 1 of Fig. 5B as a narrow
eastward push with the Songpan–Ganzi terrane lacking a strong left-slip shear zone.
basement across eastern Tibet as shown in panel (1) of Fig. 3A. Stage 2. The deformation pattern corresponding to 30% of the
The deformation map shows the formation of an arc-shaped thrust total 16-cm northward push is illustrated in panel 2 of Fig. 5A.
belt across the western margin of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane but A right-slip transpressional duplex system (Woodcock and Fischer,
lacking northwest-striking left-slip faults, which is not consistent 1986) along the southern segment and a transpressional system
with the Cenozoic tectonics of eastern Tibet (Figs. 1 and 2C). Along consisting of two parallel faults along the northern segment of
the boundary between the Songpan–Ganzi and Yangtze terranes, the northeast-striking right-slip shear zone imaged in panel 1 of
the model 1 experiment does produce a northeast-striking thrust Fig. 5 are now fully developed. Note that one of the two parallel
zone that has a minor right-slip offset. Even though this is consis- faults (F2) in the north along the fault zone is dominantly right-
tent with the location and the kinematics of the Cenozoic Longmen slip, whereas the other fault (F3) is dominantly reverse-slip (panel
Shan thrust belt, the extent of the fault zone generated by the 2 of Fig. 5A). The vorticity map shows intensified right-slip shear
212 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215

Fig. 4. Comparison of the final deformation pattern among models 1 (A), 2 (B), and 3 (C). The three panels in (A), (B) and (C) represent (1) an image without interpreted
fault lines, (2) the same image with interpreted fault lines, and (3) the location of the image in the model area. Note that the results of models 1 and 2 were produced by
northeastward push, whereas result of model 3 was generated by northward push.

in the north but weakened right-slip shear in the south along of F3 remains thrust-dominated (panel 3 of Figs. 5A, 5B, and 5C).
the through-going northeast-striking shear zone cutting the model Also note that the northwest-striking left-slip fault along the weak
area into two halves (panel 2 of Fig. 5B). The transition of the two contact of the two basement fragments in the northern Songpan–
fault segments along the northeast-striking shear zone is marked Ganzi terrane is fully developed and recognizable by surface offsets
by the intersection of this fault zone with a northwest-striking of strain markers (panel 3 of Fig. 5A). The vorticity and velocity
shear zone along the preexisting weakness of the two-piece base- distribution maps show further intensification in the north and
ment of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane. This shear zone is only de- weakening in the south of the right-slip shear along the northeast-
tectable in the velocity distribution map (panel 2 of Fig. 5C) and striking fault zone consisting of F1, F2, and F3 (panels 3 of Figs. 5B
subtly expressed as a northwest-trending shear zone in the vortic- and 5C).
ity map (panel 2 of Fig. 5B). Again, the upper left corner of the Stage 4. While all the faults maintain their earlier kinematics
image displays a left-slip transpressional shear zone (see panel 2 as shown in stage 3, F1 has changed its original right-slip trans-
of Fig. 5A and panel 2 of Fig. 5B), which is the artificial edge effect pressional kinematics to become a thrust system linking with the
of our model setup. southern segment of thrust fault F4 (panel 4 of Fig. 5A). This con-
Stage 3. While right-slip shear deformation continues along F1 version again is indicated by the weakening of the right-slip shear
and F2 segments of the northeast-striking fault zone at the mod- south of the intersection of the northwest-striking and northeast-
eled western edge of the Yangtze terrane, the northern part of F3 striking fault zones (panels 4 of Figs. 5B and 5C). Meanwhile,
is now dominated by right-slip motion whereas the southern part the northwest-striking left-slip shear zone is fully developed as a
 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215 213

Fig. 5. Results of model 2 experiments assuming a two-piece strong continental basement below the northern part of the Songpan–Ganzi terrane in eastern Tibet. (A) Defor-
mation history as a result of increasing shortening measured by the fraction of total northeastward push (16 cm). (B) Evolution of vorticity distribution across the modeled
area and its relationship to fraction of total northward push. Note that the left-slip shear in the upper-left corner is an artificial edge effect of the model as discussed above.
(C) Northeastward velocity magnitude as a function of the fraction of the total northward push. The sharp boundaries between high and low velocity magnitudes mark the
locations of major shear zones.

through-going feature with minor sub-parallel branches (panel 4 trolling the orientations of the complex fault zones in the area.
of Fig. 5A). In addition, the kinematics of the Cenozoic fault zones reactivated
Stage 5. When compared against fault patterns and vorticity from pre-existing weakness in the crust is critically dependent on
maps shown in stages 2, 3, and 4, it is noticeable that the ac- the boundary conditions (i.e., the direction of the principal short-
tive portion of the northern right-slip segment of fault 3 (F3) has ening strain axis) along the southern edge of eastern Tibet. As de-
progressively shortened, with its northernmost part becoming de- scribe above, our best model is the one that assumes a two-piece
activated with time. This is best shown in panel 5 of Fig. 5B where strong basement in the north and a weak basement in the south
the intensity of shear strain (vorticity) becomes undetectable along for the Songpan–Ganzi terrane in eastern Tibet under northeast–
the northern end of the fault trace. Meanwhile, the vorticity inten- southwest compression. Without these two conditions, one dealing
sifies along the northwest-striking left-slip fault zone. As a result with the pre-existing basement flaws and another with a spe-
of left-slip movement, Fault 1 (F1), the original right-slip trans- cific boundary condition, we were unable to produce the observed
pressional duplex at the southern end of the northeast-striking Cenozoic fault pattern and kinematics in eastern Tibet.
fault zone is now fully converted into a thrust zone accommodat- Our inferred northeast–southwest compression persistent in the
ing northwest–southeast shortening (panel 5 of Fig. 5). past 30 Ma across eastern Tibet is consistent with the results of
early studies such as that of Ratschbacher et al. (1996). These re-
5. Discussion and conclusions searchers shown that the northeastern corner of the Indian conti-
nent against the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and the southwestern
The results of our analogue modeling show that the geometry corner of the Sichuan basin have been approaching one another in
and spatial distribution of basement rocks below major tectonic the Late Cenozoic, causing northeast–southwest shortening as a re-
terranes in eastern Tibet may have played a decisive role in con- sult of the Cenozoic India–Asia collision. A similar conclusion was
214 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215

Fig. 6. Tectonic evolution of eastern Tibet based on the results of our analogue model experiments and the existing geological constraints. See text for details.

also reached by Hallet and Molnar (2001) inferred from the abnor- From ∼35 Ma to 15 Ma, the initial Longmen Shan right-slip trans-
mal drainage pattern across southeast Tibet. Finally, our inferred pressional system was developed (Wang et al., 2014), which fol-
northeast–southwest compression for reactivating pre-existing Tri- lows the Triassic ancestral Longmen Shan transpressional zone
assic tectonic structures is consistent with the strain-rate tensors of Burchfiel et al. (1995) (Fig. 6B). As a result of continuous
determined from GPS surveys across eastern and southeast Tibet northeast–southwest shortening between 15 and 5 Ma, possibly
(Gan et al., 2007). coupled with clockwise rotation across eastern and southeast Ti-
Despite the successful prediction of the orientations and kine- bet, the weakness of the Songpan–Ganzi basement became reac-
matics of the Xianshuihe and Longmen Shan fault zones in eastern tivated, forming the northwest-striking left-slip Xianshuihe fault
Tibet, our preferred model (model 2) failed to produce left-slip zone that links with the southern segment of the original Long-
faulting along the north-trending southern margin of the Yangtze men Shan right-slip transpressional belt (Fig. 6C). As a result of
terrane, where the active left-slip Anninghe and Xiaojiang faults initial left-slip faulting along the Xianshuihe fault it is possible
are located. We believe that this problem is due to our model that the Anninghe and Xianjiang faults were originally thrusts of
setup, which did not rotate the Yidun terrane while it moves the southern Longmen Shan fault zone as predicted by our model.
northeastward, a history implied by the regional geologic synthesis The assumption of northeast–southwest compression in our model
of Burchfiel et al. (1995) and Burchfiel and Chen (2012). However, is an oversimplification, as the coupled clockwise rotation of major
our model does correctly predicts the sequence of deformation be- crustal blocks could have been an additional driver for the initi-
tween the Longmen Shan fault zone and the Xianshuihe fault zone, ation of the curved Xianshuihe–Anninghe–Xiaojiang fault zone as
with the latter as the youngest structure dominated by left-slip shown in Fig. 6C. The final stage of deformation from 5 Ma to the
transpressional deformation as suggested by Burchfiel et al. (1995). present may have been dominated by clockwise of southeast Ti-
Our model also shows that motion of the Xianshuihe fault modifies bet as indicated by the GPS studies (Gan et al., 2007) (Fig. 6D).
the geometry and kinematics of the southernmost Longmen Shan Our kinematic model emphasizes the role of pre-existing structural
thrust belt, another prediction that is consistent with the geologic anisotropy in controlling the tectonic development of the Tibetan
observation documented in Burchfiel et al. (1995). plateau, a conclusion that was also reached by numerical model-
Based on the regional geologic synthesis of Burchfiel et al. ing considering the pre-existing weakness as possible reactivation
(1995) and Burchfiel and Chen (2012) and the results of our ana-
sites of Cenozoic structures (Kong et al., 1997).
logue experiments, we propose the following kinematic model for
the evolution of the eastern Tibetan plateau. Immediately prior to
Cenozoic deformation, the region is dominated by the following Acknowledgements
tectonic terranes that are bounded by major tectonic boundaries
as pre-existing weakness: the Yidun terrane, the Songpan–Ganzi This study was supported by research grants from the NSFC
terrane with a strong two-piece basement in the north and a (41672216 and 41372212) and the National Basic Research Pro-
weak basement in the south, and the Yangtze terrane (Fig. 6A). gram of China (2014CB440903). We are very grateful for the de-
 M. Sun et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 491 (2018) 207–215 215

tailed review by Saad Haq that greatly improved the rigor and Pan, B., Li, K., Tong, W., 2013. Fast, robust and accurate digital image correlation
presentation of this paper. calculation without redundant computations. Exp. Mech. 53 (7), 1277–1289.
Raffel, M., Willert, C.E., Kompenhans, J., 2007. Particle Image Velocimetry: A Practical
Guide. Springer Science & Business Media, p. 445.
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